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The Value of Emotional Intelligence: Self-Awareness, Self-
Regulation, Motivation, and Empathy as Key Components
Hera Antonopoulou
University of Patras
*Corresponding Author: E-mail: hera@upatras.gr
Abstract
This paper aims to review the concept of Emotional Intelligence systematically. In essence, Emotional
Intelligence pertains to our capacity to identify, comprehend, and regulate our own emotions, as well
as the emotions of others, thereby fostering the cultivation of positive interpersonal connections. This
study will examine the dimensions of Emotional Intelligence outlined by researchers, exploring its
definitions, associations with age and gender, assessment methods, and overall advantages.
Consequently, a comprehensive and methodical review of the existing literature was conducted using
prominent academic databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and APA
PsycNet. In summary, Emotional Intelligence is not a singular, homogeneous concept but a combination
of various interconnected components. Integrating self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and
empathy enables individuals to navigate their social environment effectively, rendering emotional
intelligence (EI) a precious asset in both personal and professional domains.
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Self-Awareness, Motivation, Self-Regulation, Empathy, Social
Skills
1. Introduction
In recent years, Emotional Intelligence (EI) has garnered significant attention and interest from the
scientific and philosophical communities. Extensive research has provided evidence supporting the
notion that Emotional Intelligence (EI) plays a crucial role in both personal and professional
achievements. One of the initial and highly influential models developed in the field is the model
proposed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990), wherein they conceptualized Emotional Intelligence
(EI) as a collection of abilities encompassing the processing of emotional information. The researchers
specifically identified four dimensions of emotional intelligence (EI): perception, utilization,
comprehension, and emotion regulation (Gkintoni et al., 2016). After that, various scholars have further
elaborated upon emotional intelligence (EI) and formulated diverse theoretical frameworks. Goleman's
(2000) model is widely recognized as a prominent framework, encompassing five fundamental
components of Emotional Intelligence (EI): self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and
social skills. Many studies have provided empirical evidence regarding the advantages of emotional
intelligence (EI) across diverse domains, including but not limited to leadership, education, and health
care (Gkintoni & Dimakos, 2022; Gkintoni et al., 2023c; Gkintoni et al., 2022b, Sortwell et al., 2023).
Leaders with elevated levels of emotional intelligence (EI) exhibit greater effectiveness in motivating
and overseeing their teams (Antonopoulou et al., 2021a; Antonopoulou et al., 2021b; Gkintoni et al.,
2023d).
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Similarly, healthcare professionals with high EI are better equipped to manage stress and deliver
compassionate patient care (Gkintoni & Ortiz, 2023). Various tools can be utilized to assess emotional
intelligence (EI), including the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) and the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Hence, the objective of this study is to provide an analytical
exposition of the diverse models of the notion of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the extensive research
conducted on its advantages in the everyday experiences of individuals.
2. Literature Review
Cherniss and Goleman (2000) assert that the initial investigations into emotional intelligence (EI) can
be traced back to Edward Thorndike (1920), who pioneered the study of social intelligence.
Subsequently, Gardner (1983) introduced the concept of multiple intelligences, which served as a
fundamental pillar in developing emotional intelligence (EI). Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined
emotional intelligence (EI) in their research, wherein EI is characterized as the cognitive capacity to
perceive, comprehend, and effectively regulate emotions to enhance cognitive processes. The derived
theoretical model enhanced Gardner's (1983) theoretical framework by incorporating intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence and other properties associated with the cognitive and emotional systems of
human thought organization. Goleman's (1995) publication significantly boosted the recognition of
Emotional Intelligence (EI) by shedding light on its various dimensions, the prevailing lack of
consensus among experts regarding its utilization and implementation, and the factors that influence its
development. Bar-On (1997) is another prominent theorist who contributed significantly to developing
the theoretical framework of emotional intelligence (EI). In his work, Bar-On defines EI as a collection
of abilities and skills that have the potential to impact an individual's capacity to navigate personal and
interpersonal situations in their daily existence effectively.
Salovey and Mayer (1990) provided a comprehensive definition of emotional intelligence (EI), which
encompasses the capacity to recognize, utilize, and generate emotions to enable individuals to
comprehend emotional experiences and knowledge. Furthermore, this definition emphasizes the
importance of effectively regulating emotions to foster personal growth and cognitive development
(Gkintoni et al., 2021c). The theory posits that Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a distinct form of
intelligence that can be differentiated from other cognitive capacities, such as Intelligence Quotient
(IQ). Emotional intelligence encompasses the capacity to comprehend and effectively regulate one's
emotions, in addition to perceiving and navigating the emotions of others (Gkintoni et al., 2017).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) introduced a theoretical framework for Emotional Intelligence (EI), which
encompasses four fundamental components: emotion perception, emotion utilization, emotion
comprehension, and emotion regulation. Perception pertains to an individual's capacity to identify and
comprehend their emotional states as well as the emotional states of others utilizing facial expressions,
vocal intonation, and bodily gestures (Halkiopoulos et al., 2021a). The concept of "use" pertains to the
utilization of emotions in order to enhance cognitive functions, specifically those involved in problem-
solving and decision-making (Halkiopoulos et al., 2022; Halkiopoulos et al., 2021b). Comprehension
pertains to the cognitive capacity to grasp the underlying factors and consequences of emotions and the
interconnections among various emotional states. Ultimately, the management field emphasizes the
capacity to effectively regulate personal and interpersonal emotions, employing emotional expression,
empathy, and emotional detachment strategies (Antonopoulou et al., 2023; Gkintoni et al., 2023a).
Salovey and Mayer's (1990) theoretical framework on Emotional Intelligence underscores the
significance of emotions in human cognition and behavior. It posits that Emotional Intelligence (EI) is
a malleable construct that can be cultivated and enhanced through targeted training and deliberate
practice.
Concerning Goleman's (1995) theory of Emotional Intelligence, it is noteworthy that he drew upon the
model proposed by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Goleman expanded upon this model by introducing five
fundamental components of Emotional Intelligence. These components encompass self-awareness, self-
regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills (Antonopoulou et al., 2022b; Antonopoulou et al.,
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2021). In a more precise manner, self-awareness refers to an individual's capacity to acknowledge and
comprehend their emotions, capabilities, limitations, principles, and objectives. Self-regulation
encompasses the cognitive and behavioral processes that effectively manage one's emotions, impulses,
and behaviors while demonstrating adaptability to dynamic environmental conditions. Motivation can
be defined as the internal force that propels individuals to strive to attain objectives and engage in
personal and professional development, even in the face of obstacles or setbacks. Empathy can be
defined as the cognitive and affective capacity to comprehend and establish a connection with
individuals' emotions, requirements, and viewpoints and subsequently react suitably to their emotional
states. Social skills encompass communicating effectively, establishing, and sustaining interpersonal
connections, and engaging in collaborative efforts with others (Antonopoulou et al., 2022a; Giannoulis
et al., 2022b). Goleman (1995) and Salovey and Mayer (1990) assert that emotional intelligence (EI) is
not a static or inherent trait but rather a malleable skill that can be cultivated and enhanced through
deliberate practice and constructive feedback. Additionally, it posits that emotional intelligence (EI)
plays a pivotal role in both achievement and leadership, as it empowers individuals to adeptly navigate
social and emotional contexts, cultivate robust interpersonal connections, and inspire personal and
collective motivation toward attaining shared objectives (Antonopoulou et al., 2019; Antonopoulou et
al., 2020). In general, Goleman's (1995) emotional intelligence (EI) theory offers a more all-
encompassing and pragmatic framework for comprehending and cultivating emotional intelligence in
individuals and organizations.
It is important to acknowledge an additional theoretical framework pertaining to the Emotional
Intelligence concept, namely that Bar-On proposed (1997). Bar-On conceptualized Emotional
Intelligence as a collection of non-cognitive abilities, capacities, and skills that impact an individual's
capacity to achieve success in various aspects of life. Bar-On's model of emotional intelligence
encompasses five primary domains. The first domain is intrapersonal, which encompasses self-
awareness, self-regulation, and motivation. The second domain is interpersonal, which includes social
awareness, empathy, and relationship management. The third domain is adaptability, flexibility,
problem-solving, and reality-checking. The fourth domain is stress management, which encompasses
coping strategies and impulse control. The fifth domain is general mood, which includes optimism and
happiness. The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) is an emotional intelligence assessment
tool created by Reuven Bar-On. Its purpose is to evaluate the emotional and social capabilities of
individuals. This instrument was developed based on the model above. The EQ-i is comprised of 133
items that have been specifically developed to assess 15 distinct dimensions of emotional intelligence,
as outlined by Bar-On in 1990. Dawda and Hart (2000) conducted a study to assess the validity of the
EQ-i instrument in a population of undergraduate students. The researchers discovered that the EQ-i
exhibited favorable construct validity, effectively assessing the intended construct.
Additionally, it was determined that the EQ-i exhibited a high level of reliability as a measure of
emotional intelligence, as evidenced by its strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The
EQ-i measures 15 dimensions of emotional intelligence: self-esteem, self-awareness, assertiveness,
independence, self-actualization, empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relationships, stress
tolerance, impulse control, reality testing, flexibility, problem-solving, optimism, and happiness. The
EQ-i is a commonly employed tool in both research and clinical contexts to evaluate emotional
intelligence and formulate strategies to enhance emotional well-being. According to Dawda and Hart
(2000), the text has been translated into numerous languages and applied in diverse contexts such as
education, business, and health care.
EI: Age and Gender
Without a doubt, the family plays a primary role in the emotional development of children. Recent
advancements in neuroscience have provided evidence supporting the notion that the period from birth
to five years of age is a crucial developmental stage for acquiring knowledge and skills, particularly
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regarding emotional competence and self-regulation. This developmental phase is fundamental for
achieving long-term academic, personal, and social accomplishments while fostering mental health and
overall well-being (Housman, 2017). Children who have undergone emotional therapy are often
portrayed as possessing superior emotional well-being, increased resilience, and enhanced adaptability.
Mayer et al. (1999) observed an elevated incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) during the initial
stages of adolescence. Concerning age, it is widely supported by various theoretical models that
perceived emotional intelligence undergoes development until the age of 50 (Bar-On, 2000).
Furthermore, it is acknowledged that education and experience positively impact the development of
emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). The malleability and potential for improvement and change of
Emotional Intelligence abilities have been widely acknowledged in scholarly literature (Fineman,
1997).
Furthermore, it is noteworthy to mention that no significant disparities exist between females and males
in terms of gender. However, certain studies based on self-reported data indicate that women
demonstrate superior interpersonal skills (Bar-On, 1997), empathy, and overall emotional intelligence
(Schutte et al., 1998), whereas men exhibit more vital interpersonal skills. Additionally, it has been
observed that men exhibit superior emotional regulation and adaptability to novel situations while
displaying lower levels of optimism compared to women (Bar-On, 2000).
EI Tools
Selecting suitable measures for assessing Emotional Intelligence presents a significant challenge in light
of the complex nature of its conceptual model. As a result, various tools have been developed to evaluate
the various facets associated with this particular concept. Most of these constructions are based on the
central conceptual models outlined in the preceding paragraphs. Competency-based instruments serve
as indicators of individuals' capacity to comprehend their emotions and their functioning. These
assessments necessitate individuals to solve emotion-related problems consisting of answers evaluated
as either correct or incorrect. For instance, participants are presented with multiple faces and must
indicate the extent to which a specific emotion is present in each face. These tools are not specifically
designed to forecast conventional patterns of behavior. Emotional intelligence (EI) instruments are
frequently employed when a comprehensive theoretical comprehension of emotions is necessary
(O'Connor et al., 2019).
Trait-based instruments typically comprise self-report measures and are frequently constructed as scales
devoid of definitive correct or incorrect responses. Nevertheless, the individual's response entails
choosing the most or least pertinent item concerning their behavior. For instance, they might assert that
comprehending the needs and desires of others poses no difficulty for them. Typically, personality
assessments are employed to gauge common patterns of behavior and offer reliable forecasts of
individuals' conduct across diverse contexts (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). Emotional intelligence (EI)
has been found to possess predictive solid validity concerning influential coping strategies individuals
employ in response to daily stressors. Consequently, these tools are frequently employed within
contexts marked by stressors, such as educational and occupational settings (O'Connor et al., 2019).
Questionnaires that employ a combination of Emotional Intelligence (EI) conceptualizations frequently
assess various aspects such as traits, social skills, abilities, and personality traits through self-report
measures. For instance, respondents may be asked to agree with statements such as "I can express my
anger towards others in a constructive manner." In addition, specific measures commonly utilize 360-
degree assessment forms, which consist of self-reports and reports from supervisors, peers, and
subordinates. These assessments are commonly employed within professional environments, as they
are frequently devised to forecast and enhance workplace performance. Moreover, they tend to
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concentrate on emotional competencies associated with success in one's career. Although there are
variations in the conceptualization of Emotional Intelligence (EI), there are several shared
characteristics among most measurement tools. These instruments typically adopt a hierarchical
structure, generating an aggregate EI score alongside scores for individual dimensions. Furthermore,
there is a substantial conceptual overlap across these instruments, encompassing aspects such as
emotional perception, emotional regulation, and the adaptive utilization of emotions (O'Connor et al.,
2019).
EI Benefits
Concerning the advantages, Humphrey (2013) posited that there exists a positive correlation between
Emotional Intelligence and various outcomes such as job performance, leadership effectiveness, as well
as physical and mental well-being. Empathy, a constituent of Emotional Intelligence (EI), correlates
with the manifestation and efficacy of leadership, resulting in reduced levels of stress and physical
symptoms among leaders. According to his research, nine distinct aspects establish a connection
between emotional intelligence (EI), empathy, and the field of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs with
high emotional intelligence (EI) demonstrate enhanced resilience in the face of challenges, effectively
navigate intense emotions when collaborating with family members, and exhibit improved efficacy in
working with employees. Entrepreneurs with high emotional intelligence (EI) possess a distinct
advantage when developing novel products and services, as well as navigating negotiations with
stakeholders such as financial backers, vendors, suppliers, distributors, retailers, and employees.
Furthermore, entrepreneurs with a high level of empathy can effectively inspire and guide their
employees, thereby assisting them in managing and adapting to the various stressors encountered within
the work environment. Ultimately, they demonstrate a capacity to accommodate the preferences of their
clientele, resulting in heightened levels of contentment and fostering a climate conducive to innovation.
According to Jin et al. (2010), in their comprehensive nationwide investigation of public relations
leaders in the United States, they contended that emotional leadership constitutes a pivotal aspect of
effective public relations leadership. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a critical competency in public
relations, particularly for leaders. It plays a significant role in fostering employee trust and confidence,
enabling leaders to address and manage employee frustrations effectively. By offering an optimistic
perspective and cultivating a positive work environment, leaders with high EI contribute to developing
a conducive workplace atmosphere. According to Newman, Guy, and Mastracci (2009), leadership is
primarily characterized by emotional rather than cognitive aspects. They further assert that effective
leadership plays a crucial role in cultivating an organizational culture that facilitates the optimal
performance of employees.
Concerning the advantages of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in education, Yang and Duan (2023) asserted
that improving EI among English language learners can facilitate the development of their academic
literacy skills within the domain of English language learning and across other academic disciplines.
The advantages associated with emotional intelligence (EI) within an educational environment are
evident across various domains, including interpersonal connections, psychological welfare, scholastic
achievement, and the prevention of maladaptive behaviors (Gkintoni et al., 2022a). Martínez-Martínez
et al. (2020) analyzed a sample of 3451 adolescents from a secondary school to test whether EI is
protective against cyber-victimization and its effects and whether EI influences children's academic
performance. The study employed a questionnaire, specifically the Trait Meta Mood Scale 24 (Spanish
version), to assess risk factors associated with cyber victimization. Additionally, students' general
grades or academic performance were considered as part of the study's data collection process. The
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research findings unveiled a positive correlation between emotional intelligence (EI) and students'
academic achievement while indicating a negative correlation regarding cyber-victimization. Put,
individuals with lower emotional intelligence (EI) demonstrated a higher likelihood of experiencing
cyber-victimization and may encounter negative consequences in terms of their academic performance.
The creation of suitable guidelines can promote emotional regulation among students to address
disruptive behaviors, with a specific focus on school climate, classroom management, and discipline
(Martínez-Martínez et al., 2020; Tzachrista et al., 2023). Rey et al. (2019) have provided empirical
evidence supporting the notion that emotional intelligence plays a protective role in mitigating suicidal
risk, specifically concerning depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation, within a cohort of adolescent
individuals who engage in bullying behavior. The survey included individuals who have experienced
bullying, with most respondents (61.3%) identifying as women. The primary findings indicate an
inverse correlation between HF and the likelihood of suicide. Adolescents who have been victimized
and exhibit lower levels of emotional intelligence (EI) tend to display elevated levels of suicidal risk
compared to their counterparts with higher levels of EI.
The advantages of emotional intelligence (EI) are also evident concerning the overall welfare of
individuals. According to Salavera et al. (2020), there exists a correlation between eudaimonic well-
being and engagement in activities that facilitate self-actualization, personal growth, and the pursuit of
goals. Emotional intelligence (EI) and personality traits have been found to significantly influence the
perception of emotions, self-esteem, and motivation, thereby impacting overall well-being (Gkintoni et
al., 2021a). The significance of personality and emotional intelligence in examining emotional well-
being is underscored. Hence, the study conducted by Salavera et al. (2020) aimed to examine the impact
of personality traits and emotional intelligence on the emotional well-being of a sample of 1031 Spanish
secondary school students aged 12 to 17 years. The findings indicate that personality traits and
emotional intelligence are crucial in promoting eudaimonic well-being.
Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that activity and stress factors, which are associated with
personality, as well as emotionality and well-being factors, which are linked to emotional intelligence,
possess prognostic significance in examining emotional well-being among adolescents (Gkintoni et al.,
2021b). The findings of Lopez-Zafra et al. (2019) exhibited a similar pattern. The researchers conducted
a targeted investigation on the student population in various regions of Morocco, which substantiated
the notion that social support and Emotional Intelligence play a crucial role in safeguarding the well-
being of adolescents. This is achieved through the enhancement of life satisfaction and the mitigation
of depressive symptoms. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a significant factor in the process of adolescent
adjustment, particularly during the transitional phase of adolescence (Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022). The
sample consisted of 493 Spanish students between the ages of 14 and 18 who were administered self-
report questionnaires. The study's findings revealed that the model, along with the three affective
dimensions (emotional attention, clarity, and regulation), demonstrated the most optimal level of
adjustment during adolescence. Tejada-Gallardo et al. (2022) found that the outcomes of their study
indicate a noteworthy relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional regulation with
happiness and optimism. Specifically, EI and emotional regulation were positively associated with
happiness and optimism. Conversely, emotional attention was positively associated with pessimism and
negatively associated with happiness.
The advantages of emotional intelligence (EI) are equally apparent in predicting health behaviors
among individuals who have experienced myocardial infarction (Baliami, 2013). This study examines
the health behaviors about physical activity, smoking, and alcohol consumption among individuals who
have experienced a myocardial infarction. The findings of this study indicate that the factors related to
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emotional intelligence (EI) did not exhibit a statistically significant relationship with intention. This
suggests that these factors alone are insufficient in predicting intention and that additional factors, such
as perceived behavioral control and past smoking behavior, are necessary for accurate prediction.
Baliami (2013) asserts that the findings presented in the study partially deviate from the conclusions
drawn by other researchers, including Hill and Maggi (2011). Empirical evidence supports a positive
correlation between using emotions, empathy, interest, and emotional intelligence (EI). This finding
underscores the significance of individuals within a particular demographic who can effectively regulate
their emotions. Moreover, it highlights the potential adverse outcomes that may arise from inadequate
emotional management, thereby discouraging the adoption of tobacco as a coping mechanism for
emotional stress (Halkiopoulos et al., 2023b). In addition, engaging in communication and social
interaction with individuals within their community further enhances the effective management of their
health behaviors.
Furthermore, cultivating emotional intelligence is paramount for nursing personnel and their
supervisors, as it has been associated with many advantageous outcomes. Existing literature has
established a connection between emotional intelligence and various aspects of clinical practice,
including clinical decision-making, collaborative and interprofessional relationships, and the
appropriate application of knowledge within the clinical setting. Moreover, it is imperative for nurses
who aspire to establish sincere, genuine, and empathetic connections with their patients. According to
Beydler (2017), nursing leaders who possess vital emotional intelligence can impact the performance
of their staff and the quality of patient care. This is achieved by establishing positive relationships with
team members and utilizing their passion and enthusiasm to inspire nurses to deliver exceptional patient
care. Specifically, individuals with elevated levels of emotional intelligence exhibit a diminished
inclination to disengage from their professional setting, adopt an optimistic outlook by influencing their
interpretation of the work milieu, and demonstrate an enhanced capacity to manage their emotions.
Consequently, individuals are more inclined to remain in the profession. Multiple studies have also
documented a direct and positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support, widely
recognized as a crucial element in fostering work engagement. Furthermore, the impact of emotional
intelligence and social support on employees' creativity is noteworthy. Research indicates that
individuals with elevated emotional intelligence exhibit a greater propensity for generating innovative
ideas, thereby enhancing their overall performance (Toyama & Mauno, 2017). Research has indicated
a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and the quality of health services. The logical
nature of this relationship can be attributed to the correlation between the capacity to understand and
empathize with others' emotions and the establishment of a service climate, ultimately leading to the
delivery of high-quality services (Levitats & Vigoda-Gadot, 2017).
Research conducted by Brackett et al. (2013) has revealed that the cultivation of emotional intelligence
(EI) can play a crucial role in mitigating aggression by facilitating the growth of empathic capabilities.
Hence, it can be inferred that adolescents with elevated levels of emotional intelligence (EI) are more
likely to engage in deeper and more significant interpersonal connections, thereby establishing a
negative correlation between EI and aggression. During adolescence, the manifestation of aggression is
influenced by empathy, which can be categorized into cognitive and emotional dimensions (Davis,
1983). The potential link between emotional intelligence (EI) and variables about social functioning
has been investigated to determine if difficulties in emotion regulation are connected to conflict
behaviors in relationships and more severe behavioral issues like aggression. Previous research has
demonstrated that empathy serves as a protective factor against the display of aggressive behaviors in
both children and adolescents (Lomas et al., 2012). Prior research has indicated that adolescents who
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display aggressive tendencies often exhibit a diminished ability to anticipate the adverse outcomes
resulting from their actions toward others, thereby demonstrating reduced levels of empathy. It is
anticipated that individuals with diminished emotional empathy will be more inclined to adopt cognitive
patterns associated with engaging in acts of bullying. According to Peled and Moretti (2007),
adolescents who exhibit various forms of aggression often demonstrate a deficiency in their capacity to
recognize and manage their negative emotions, a crucial component of aggression. This particular skill
is categorized within the broader Emotional Intelligence (EI) concept, as defined by Mayer and Salovery
(1997). EI encompasses four distinct abilities: a) the capacity to perceive, assess, and effectively
communicate emotions, and b) the capacity to access and/or generate emotions that enhance cognitive
processes. The capacity to comprehend emotions and associated cognitive content. d) The capacity to
regulate emotions to facilitate emotional and cognitive growth. As previously stated, a negative
correlation exists between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and aggression, as well as aggressive behaviors,
whereas a positive correlation is observed between EI and empathy. Consequently, individuals with
enhanced abilities in perceiving, comprehending, and regulating their emotions exhibit reduced
tendencies towards aggressive conduct and display heightened emotional consciousness. This, in turn,
facilitates a more comprehensive comprehension of their emotional states and the ramifications of their
empathetic actions (Brackett et al., 2013). Based on the abovementioned findings, emotional
intelligence (EI) significantly mitigates aggressive behavior and fosters emotional competence. The
capacity to identify, comprehend, and manage both personal and interpersonal emotions contribute to
the enhancement of conflict resolution aptitude. They exhibit a correlation with social relationships that
are characterized by positivity and good health.
Furthermore, the García-Sancho et al. (2014) study investigated the association between self-reported
emotional intelligence (EI) and a range of behavioral issues, such as aggressive behavior, within a
sample of Chinese adolescents. The study's findings indicated a significant correlation between
inadequate regulation of emotions and the manifestation of aggressive conduct. A study by Liau et al.
(2003) on a group of Malaysian adolescents yielded comparable findings, even after accounting for
additional factors commonly linked to aggressive behavior, such as parental control over children.
Moreover, the empirical evidence supports the existence of a negative correlation between proficient
emotion regulation and the display of aggressive conduct. Adolescents with a high emotional
intelligence (EI) index exhibit a reduced tendency toward aggressive behavior.
Similarly, Downey et al. (2010) conducted a study involving a cohort of Australian adolescents, wherein
they found that individuals with limited emotional comprehension and inadequate emotional regulation
and restraint are more prone to exhibiting aggressive behaviors. The presence of an adverse correlation
can be attributed to the utilization of ineffective coping mechanisms, such as strategies that lack a
problem-solving approach. According to Garcia-Sancho et al. (2014), adolescents with solid emotional
management and regulation skills are less inclined to employ ineffective coping mechanisms, reducing
the likelihood of engaging in aggressive behaviors. Garcia-Sancho et al. (2014) found that research on
individuals across different age groups, including children, adolescents, and adults, consistently
demonstrates a significant inverse relationship between emotional competence and aggression.
Individuals exhibiting elevated levels of emotional intelligence (EI) demonstrated a decreased
propensity to engage in aggressive behaviors, encompassing offensive humor, physical altercations
such as pushing and punching, vocal outbursts, issuing threats, perpetrating partner abuse, and engaging
in acts of sexual violence.
3. Methodology
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The researchers conducted a systematic literature review utilizing various databases, including Science
Direct, Google Scholar, Research Gate, and APA PsycNet. This research paper encompasses 19
empirical studies investigating the advantages and impacts of Emotional Intelligence (EI) on
individuals. It also includes an extensive review of the pertinent literature on the theoretical models that
constitute EI. The study incorporated several key terms, including "emotional intelligence," "self-
awareness," "self-regulation," "motivation," "empathy," and "social skills." The investigation aimed to
explore the advantages of emotional intelligence and its impact on performance. Additionally, the study
examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and gender and the potential influence of age
on emotional intelligence. The investigation was conducted by consulting scholarly journals and
academic books. The articles utilized distinct sets of data, encompassing various aspects such as the
study design employed, the geographical location where the study was conducted, the demographic
characteristics of the participants, including their age and percentage representation, the instruments
employed for data collection, and the outcomes derived from each study. The articles' title, abstract,
and conclusions were analyzed to extract the fundamental components necessary for a comprehensive
study of the concept of Emotional Intelligence.
4. Results
Based on the records mentioned above, the initial investigation into emotional intelligence (EI) was
conducted by Edward Thorndike in 1920, focusing on the concept of social intelligence. Additionally,
Gardner's work in 1983 explored the notion of multiple intelligences concerning EI. Additionally, they
established the fundamental principles upon which the subsequent conceptual development of the
EI was predicated.
According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), Emotional Intelligence (EI) can be defined as the capacity to
recognize, comprehend, and regulate emotions in order to enhance cognitive processes, thereby
supporting the principles put forth by Gardner. According to their theoretical framework, emotional
intelligence is posited as a distinct form of intelligence distinct from other cognitive capacities, such as
IQ. This construct encompasses four fundamental components: the ability to perceive, utilize,
comprehend, and regulate emotions. The theory places significant emphasis on the role of emotions in
human cognitive processes and behavior and the potential for enhancing emotional intelligence.
Subsequently, Goleman (1995) significantly elevated the prominence of Emotional Intelligence (EI)
through the dissemination of his book, which unveiled its multifaceted nature and shed light on the
prevailing perplexity among scholars concerning its utilization and implementation and the
determinants that influence it. The presenter outlined five essential constituents: self-awareness/self-
knowledge, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. The speaker emphasized the notion
that emotional intelligence (EI) is not a static or inherent trait but can be cultivated and enhanced
through deliberate practice and constructive feedback. His proposed theory established a holistic and
pragmatic framework for comprehending emotional intelligence.
According to Bar-On (1997), Emotional Intelligence (EI) can be described as a collection of aptitudes
and competencies that impact an individual's ability to navigate personal and interpersonal
circumstances in their everyday existence effectively. The individual in question devised a tool known
as the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), designed to assess individuals' emotional and
social capabilities. The assessment comprises a total of 133 items that have been specifically developed
to evaluate 15 distinct dimensions of emotional intelligence. These dimensions are categorized into five
principal domains: intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management, and general mood.
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The EQ-i measures 15 dimensions of emotional intelligence: self-esteem, self-awareness, assertiveness,
independence, self-actualization, empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relationships, stress
tolerance, impulse control, reality testing, flexibility, problem-solving, optimism, and happiness.
According to the research conducted by Yang and Duan (2023), it has been argued that the improvement
of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students' Emotional Intelligence (EI) can have a positive
impact on their development of academic literacy, as well as in other academic domains.
The study conducted by Martínez-Martínez et al. (2020) involved the examination of a cohort of 3451
adolescents enrolled in a secondary school. The study's primary objective was to investigate emotional
intelligence (EI) 's potential protective role in cyber victimization and its associated consequences.
Additionally, the researchers sought to explore the influence of EI on the academic performance of the
participating children. The present study revealed that individuals with lower emotional intelligence
(EI) exhibited a higher susceptibility to cyber-victimization, which in turn had a detrimental impact on
their academic performance.
In a study conducted by Rey et al. (2019), it was established that emotional intelligence plays a
significant role in mitigating the risk of suicide, specifically concerning depressive symptoms and
suicidal ideation, among a group of adolescent individuals who engage in bullying behavior. The
primary findings indicate a correlation between HF and a decreased likelihood of suicide.
According to Salavera et al. (2020), there exists a relationship between eudaimonic well-being and
engagement in activities that facilitate self-actualization, personal growth, and the pursuit of goals. The
study conducted on a sample of 1031 secondary school students in Spain provided evidence supporting
the significance of personality traits and emotional intelligence concerning emotional well-being.
Lopez-Zafra et al. (2019) studied public school students across various regions of Morocco. Their
findings confirm the beneficial effects of social support and emotional intelligence on adolescent well-
being. Specifically, these factors enhanced life satisfaction and mitigated depressive symptoms.
Tejada-Gallardo et al. (2022) conducted a study involving 493 Spanish students aged 14 to 18. This
research indicated that the model, along with its three emotional dimensions (emotional attention,
clarity, and regulation), played a significant role in enhancing adolescent adjustment. Moreover, the
study revealed that emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional regulation are positively associated with
happiness and optimism. In contrast, emotional attention exhibited a positive correlation with
pessimism and a negative relationship with happiness.
5. Discussion
The primary objective of this study is to offer a contemporary systematic review of the concept of
emotional intelligence (EI) to equip researchers and practitioners with the requisite knowledge to
enhance their comprehension of this construct. In order to achieve this objective, a comprehensive
examination of the scholarly literature about coronary heart disease (CHD) has been conducted. This
systematic review was conducted using the Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Research Gate
databases, focusing on articles published between 1990 and the present. The emotional intelligence
theory posits the ability to forecast and enhance diverse skills in individuals' lives. Advocates of the
theory contend that the cultivation of Emotional Intelligence is a crucial factor in enhancing one's
overall well-being, as it entails the comprehension, evaluation, and regulation of emotions within
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oneself and others. The primary challenge for theorists is to develop or enhance instruments that can
effectively evaluate an individual's emotional skills, as the validity of the proponents' assertion relies
heavily on the practicality of the theory. This inquiry raises an additional fundamental question:
determining whether emotional intelligence constitutes a separate and distinct intelligence category.
One additional obstacle confronting the theory pertains to the abundance of definitions and approaches,
a factor that, while crucial, frequently engenders perplexity among researchers.
Recent studies on emotional intelligence (EI) have indicated that the cultivation of emotional
intelligence can yield numerous advantages on both individual and interpersonal levels. To be more
precise, individuals possessing elevated levels of emotional intelligence demonstrate enhanced abilities
in stress management through more effective coping strategies in challenging circumstances
(Giannoulis et al., 2022a). Consequently, they exhibit a reduced susceptibility to developing mental
health disorders, including anxiety and depression, thereby improving their mental well-being.
Furthermore, it plays a significant role in fostering healthy interpersonal relationships as it facilitates
effective communication, promotes empathy towards others, and cultivates stronger interpersonal
bonds. This phenomenon can potentially result in more gratifying interpersonal connections,
encompassing personal and professional spheres. Empirical evidence indicates that individuals with
elevated levels of emotional intelligence (EI) tend to exhibit enhanced job performance. Notably,
scholarly research has consistently demonstrated that employees possessing a high degree of EI
demonstrate superior problem-solving abilities, decision-making skills, and interpersonal collaboration
aptitude. This phenomenon can result in enhanced job performance, heightened professional
achievements, and improved efficacy in leadership roles. Leaders with emotional intelligence (EI)
demonstrate enhanced abilities to inspire and motivate their teams, effectively manage conflict, and
foster positive work environments.
Moreover, empirical research has demonstrated a positive correlation between elevated levels of
emotional intelligence among students and their academic performance. Additionally, individuals with
heightened emotional intelligence exhibit a greater propensity to remain actively involved in their
studies, yielding improved physical health outcomes, such as a decreased susceptibility to chronic
ailments and enhanced overall well-being. In general, the existing body of research indicates that the
cultivation of emotional intelligence yields various advantages across various domains of individuals'
existence.
6. Conclusion
Emotional Intelligence has garnered significant attention and interest among theorists, researchers, and
mental health professionals. This phenomenon inevitably has a significant and pervasive impact on
individuals' lives across various domains, including education, employment, and psychological well-
being, as substantiated by empirical evidence. The acquisition of emotional Intelligence (EI) is
associated with effectively navigating interpersonal challenges, resolving conflicts, regulating
aggressive tendencies, and addressing work-related obstacles. The establishment of more beneficial
social relationships and the formation of each individual's personality are facilitated by this
phenomenon. The intervention has been shown to enhance overall psychological well-being, promote
a sense of tranquility, and aid in managing depressive episodes and suicidal ideation. Hence, given the
existing body of research on emotional Intelligence (EI) and its acknowledged significance in
individuals' lives from an early age, it is imperative to expand further and enhance the current
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knowledge base on this subject matter. It is recommended that future research and training programs
prioritize the examination of these components both independently and in conjunction, thereby
facilitating comprehensive development.
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