Non-Apis bee pollinators: A way out to the future pollinators’ challenge

Full text

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ISSN Print: 2617-4693
ISSN Online: 2617-4707
IJABR 2024; 8(4): 116-124
www.biochemjournal.com
Received: 05-02-2024
Accepted: 11-03-2024
Sunanda Ghosh
School of Agriculture, Swami
Vivekananda University,
Barrackpore, West Bengal,
India
Biresh Koley
School of Agriculture, Swami
Vivekananda University,
Barrackpore, West Bengal,
India
Rakesh Das
School of Agriculture, Swami
Vivekananda University,
Barrackpore, West Bengal,
India
Corresponding Author:
Rakesh Das
School of Agriculture, Swami
Vivekananda University,
Barrackpore, West Bengal,
India
Non-Apis bee pollinators: A way out to the future
pollinators’ challenge
Sunanda Ghosh, Biresh Koley and Rakesh Das
DOI: https://doi.org/10.33545/26174693.2024.v8.i4b.935
Abstract
Insects contribute majority of pollination activities in the world and among them bees representing as
the most economically valuable pollinators. Due of its eusocial behaviour, honey bees are believed to
be the most promising insect group for pollinating crop plants. However, a variety of anthropogenic
activities that have resulted in habitat loss or alteration, misuse of pesticides, development of parasites
and diseases, and introduction of alien species have caused a rapid fall in honey bee numbers, raising
concerns about the pollination services provided throughout the world. In addition, a lot of plants have
developed sophisticated pollinator-favouring mechanisms, such as poricidal anthers, restricted nectar
production and primary specialised pollen release systems, which make honey bees unfavourable in
these plants' pollination processes. Therefore, diversifying crop pollinators might assist in achieving
pollination services when the usual pollinator (honeybees for the majority of crops today) is not present
in adequate numbers. In this situation, native non-Apis bees will provide a solution to the impending
pollinators’ dilemma in the scenario of global pollination. Non-Apis bees have several advantages over
honey bees, and they can flourish with basic management techniques unlike honey bees. But little is
known about these wild bee pollinators, limiting their use in pollination activities. Thus, the present
article lightens up about this major group of non-Apis bee pollinators focusing their diversity, nesting
biology, pollination role as well as management practices.
Keywords: Pollination, honey bees, Non-Apis bees, anthropogenic activities, nesting biology, poricidal
anthers
Introduction
The need for food security is growing as a result of issues including climate change,
changing land uses, habitat destruction, and an expanding human population. The number
and quality of nuts, fruits, oils, and other crops produced can be enhanced by proper
pollination (Giannini et al. 2015) [24]. More than 75% of the world's 115 major crop species
rely on animal pollination, while only roughly 28% rely on wind and self-pollination (Klein
et al., 2007) [33]. Market pricing indicate that animal pollination increases annual crop
production by USD 235-577 billion, with the Mediterranean region, Southern Europe and
Eastern Asia and benefiting the most economically (Potts et al. 1016) [52]. Pollination also
benefits ecosystems in various ways, such as increasing biodiversity and boosting food
production without endangering the environment (Montoya et al. 2020) [45].
The vast majority of animals that visit plants and spread pollen are insects, such as flies
(Diptera), beetles (Coleoptera), butterflies (Lepidoptera), and, most importantly, bees
(Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Bees are thought to be the most efficient pollinators due to their
morphological modifications for pollen gathering (Abrol 2012) [2]. Bee species specialised in
pollen and nectar gathering and have a direct relationship to floral morphology. Bees
mistakenly lose pollens on the stigma that fertilises ovules while collecting nectar, pollen,
and oils. They are classified into two major groups: Apis bees (Also known as honeybees)
and non-Apis bees (Bumblebees, stingless bees, and other solitary bees). Due to their highly
social behaviour (Eusociality) and colony manageable traits, honey bees (Apis mellifera)
have assumed a dominating position in commercial pollination throughout the world. So far,
honey bees have been widely credited with pollination services, but new research has
demonstrated that non-Apis bees also play critical roles in supporting different plant species
and are becoming increasingly vital in agriculture (Vaughan et al. 2014) [73]. Because of our
limited understanding of how wild bees build their nests and our reliance on the controllable
Interna tio nal Jo urnal of Ad vanced Biochemis try Rese arc h 2024; 8(4): 116-124

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honey bees, which also produce by-products, we have
historically undervalued the contribution of wild bees. This
review is focused to enlightening the importance of non-
Apis bee in response to their diversity, nesting biology and
management for better understanding and utilization of them
in pollination services.
Importance of non-Apis bees
Honeybees may not always be the best pollinators because
of a variety of issues, including differences in body size and
flower size, a lack of enough nectar, and specific pollen
release mechanisms in some plants, such as those with
poricidal anthers (Kearns and Inouye, 1997) [32]. Therefore,
increasing the variety of crop pollinators would be helpful in
guaranteeing pollination services when the main pollinator
(especially honeybees for the majority of crops today) is not
present in sufficient numbers. There are many difficulties in
modern beekeeping, including problems with parasitic
mites, illnesses that affect honey bees, the inability of honey
bees to function in cold temperatures, and unfavourable
weather. The honey bees' general utility as a pollinator for
agriculture is threatened by these issues (Torchio, 1990).
This adds to the recent, widespread losses in honey bee
numbers (Colony Collapse Disorder), which are of worry to
beekeepers, growers of insect-pollinated crops, and
policymakers. (Abrol, 2012) [2].
Numerous crops are successfully pollinated by wild and
domesticated non-Apis bees in addition to honey bees. The
use of bumble bees, primarily for the pollination of
greenhouse tomatoes, the solitary bees Nomia and Osmia
for the pollination of orchard crops, Megachile for the
pollination of alfalfa, and social stingless bees for the
pollination of coffee and other crops are examples of
managing non-Apis species for agricultural pollination (Slaa
et al. 2006) [66]. Fruit set was doubled by non-Apis bee visits
compared to visits from honey bees. Both non-Apis and
Apis bee group interactions with flowers independently
induced fruit set. Therefore, the pollination services offered
by non-Apis bees were supplemented rather than supplanted
by the presence of controlled honey bees in pollination
activities (Garibaldi et al. 2013) [22].
Diversity of bees in India
Bees are the aculeate hymenopterans representing 7
families, namely Andrenidae, Apidae, Colletidae,
Halictidae, Megachilidae, Melittidae and Stenotritidae under
superfamily Apoidea, represent a great diversity worldwide
(Michener, 2007) [44]. In India six families were found, as
family Stenotritidae exclusively found in Australia and, so
far no species has been recorded from anywhere else in the
world. All the families contained non-Apis bees and had
well distribution. India is home to 766 species that are
organized into 71 genera, 26 tribes, and 14 subfamilies
under the umbrella of six families of the superfamily
Apoidea (Saini and Chandra, 2019) [63].
Andrenidae: The presence of two sub antennal sutures
beneath each antenna is the Andrenidae's most
distinguishing feature. It is only represented in India by the
sole genus Andrena Fabricius 1775, which has 23 species.
Apidae: Long-tongued bees are members of this important
global family. A total of 235 species, belonging to 24 genera
in 13 tribes and three subfamilies-Xylocopinae, Nomadinae,
and Apinae-have been identified in India.
Colletidae: The female members of the family Colletidae
have short, frequently broader than long, truncate, bilobed,
or bifid glossae. Two genera and two subfamilies, Colletinae
and Hylaeinae, with close to 35 species each, are known
from India.
Halictidae: This significant global family is also referred to
as sweat bees. The most distinguishing feature of the
Halictidae is the lacinia, which extends up to the anterior
side of the labiomaxillary tube and ends in a setose,
frequently finger-shaped projection far above the rest of the
maxilla. A total of 226 species, which are members of 15
genera and three subfamilies, namely Halictinae, Nomiinae,
and Rhophitinae, have been identified thus far.
Megachilidae: Also known as leaf-cutter and mason bees,
this large family is found all over the world. Long-tongued
bees of the Megachilidae family have a rectangular labrum
that is longer than it is wide and is extensively articulated to
the clypeus. With 243 species across 27 genera in 5 tribes
and 3 subfamilies-Lithurginae, Megachilinae, and
Pararhophitinae-it is the largest family in India.
Melittidae: This family is distinguished by a big, dull
propodeal triangle and a broad disc and small apicolateral
process on the male S7. With only four species and two
genera, it is the smallest family of bees in India.
Fig 1: Major groups of non-Apis bees

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Carpenter bee
The tribe Xylocopini (Apidae: Xylocopinae) of large
carpenter bees is a group of bees that lives in tropical and
subtropical regions and is found in the genus Xylocopa
(Leys et al. 2000) [38]. Carpenter bees have many benefits
over other non-Apis bees in agricultural pollination because
they eat a variety of plant types throughout their lengthy
activity seasons. They can buzz-pollinate flowers, which
gives them even greater versatility as crop pollinators
(Somanathan et al. 2019) [68]. Sometimes they will even
continue to work into the moonlight hours.
Diversity
Carpenter bees are widespread over the world, with
numerous species occupying varied types of habitats. North
America, Europe, Asia, and some regions of Africa are
where you can find them most frequently. There are over
500 species in 31 subgenera of the genus Xylocopa. There
are 16 species that are spread throughout the desert regions
of areas of Europe, from western China to the east. In the
Indian area, the genus Xylocopa Latreille 1802 of Carpenter
bees contains 45 species and subspecies, according to Gupta
(2003) [27]. Xylocopa auripennis, Xylocopa hemichlora,
Xylocopa phenachroa, and Xylocopa semipurpurea are the
most prevalent species in India. (Abrol et al., 2013) [1].
Nesting biology
Carpenter bees are well-known for being able to construct
their nests in tunnels in dense wood, logs, stumps, or dead
tree branches (Richards, 2020) [59]. Carpenter bees, as their
name suggests, build their nests underground in dead or
decaying wood, with the exception of the subgenus
ProXylocopa, which builds its nests in the ground (Gottlieb
et al. 2005) [25]. The females spend about a week building
their nests by using their powerful and well-developed
mandibles to dig tunnels or holes in the chosen wood
(Carpenter nesting). There are two primary types of nests
that wood-nesting carpenter bees build: (a) unbranched (also
known as linear), which have tunnels running in either one
or both directions from the nest entrance. Reeds or other
hollow or soft-centered plant materials are typically used to
build linear nests. (b) Branching nests (tunnels with more
than two) are typically built out of wood or tree trunks
(Gerling 1989) [23]. Some species only have one brood per
year, whereas others have multiple broods (Steen and
Schwarz, 2000) [70]. Carpenter bees have an 8 to 12 months
active season, depending on the species (Gerling et al. 1989)
[23]. In temperate climates, carpenter bees hibernate during
the cold months (Steen and Schwarz, 2000) [70] but come out
to graze on warm winter days.
Management
The requirement to mass-raise native pollinators rather than
gather them from nature is a significant barrier to their
commercial usage in agriculture. A crucial step in this
strategy is to develop effective mass-rearing procedures for
Xylocopa The creation of nest boxes that are put in natural
settings to improve nesting success has been the main focus
of efforts to mass-rear carpenter bees. Skaife (1952) [65] built
observation nests out of bamboo tubes and moved X. caffra
that was hibernating into them. After emerging from
hibernation, the majority of the females stayed in their nests.
The overall layout of Langstroth honey bee hives served as
the basis for Oliviera and Freitas' (2003) [49] design and
testing of nest boxes for X. frontalis. Nine wooden frames
were modified to act as individual Xylocopa nests in these
boxes. These boxes were colonized at rates ranging from
19% to 52%, and the percentage of males in the developing
brood was 0.38. It is anticipated that knowledge of the
potential reproductive problems and their physiological
mechanisms will make it easier to establish successful
captive breeding techniques for Xylocopa.
Bumble bee
The pollination of cultivated and wild plants by bumble bees
(Hymenoptera, Apidae; Bombini) contributes to global food
security. Because they have longer tongues than honeybees,
they are far more effective at pollinating deep-throated
flowers. According to Corbet et al. (1993) [10], bumblebees
often feed in cold, temperate environment at higher
elevations that is unsuitable for honeybees and solitary bees.
In light of this, they play a crucial pollination role,
particularly in alpine habitats (Yu et al. 2012) [79]. In
greenhouses, bumble bees (Bombus spp.) can be employed
for pollination because of their behavior, particularly "buzz
pollination" (Sowmya 2015) [69].
Diversity and distribution
Bumble bees are found in more than 300 different species
throughout the northern temperate regions of Asia, Europe,
and North America. Numerous nations across the world,
including Japan, Korea, France, Italy, United Kingdom,
New Zealand, Germany, Canada, Sweden, New Zealand,
China, and Finland, United States, have conducted
substantial research on the bumble bee fauna. From the
United Kingdom, more than 25 species have been identified
(Prys-Jones and Corbet 1987) [53]. 48 species of the genus
Bombus have been identified in India, 30 of which are
native to the Kashmir Himalaya (Williams et al., 2008) [78].
Bombus waltoni Cockerell, Bombus keriensis Morawitz,
Bombus asiaticus Morawitz, Bombus personatus Smith,
Bombus rufofasciaticus Smith, Bombus haemorrhoidalis
Smith, and Bombus tunicatus Smith are some of the native
bumble bee species found in Himachal Pradesh.
Nesting biology
Eight different types of landscapes were found to have
bumble bee nests: agricultural, forest, alpine, dune,
grassland, forest edge, grassland, urban, and tropical forest.
(Liczner and Colla, 2019) [39]. According to the research,
bumble bees choose darker and corner sides of the ground
and build involucrum to shield their nest from the outside
environment (Abrol, 2012) [1]. The composition of
bumblebee nests' materials differed based on the nests'
location on the ground. In many cases, relinquish mammal
burrows or nests were used as underground nests (Hofmann
et al. 2004) [30], as well as other ground cavities or holes.
According to several research, entrances to underground
burrows would occasionally be covered with vegetation
(Either dry or living), and this is thought to assist keep the
nest from being discovered (De Oliveira et al. 2015) [15].
Surface nests were surrounded by specific flora or made of
plant material. Tropical forest surface nests were made of
chopped leaves, dried grass, and twigs (Hines et al. 2007)
[29]. The bumblebees built their nests in a dome-like form,
serving as protective shelter for the entire colony.
Furthermore, the nests were frequently connected to other
types of vegetation, such as bushes or trees, in order to serve
as structural supports (Hofmann et al. 2004) [30].

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Management
Queens captured from the spring flowers were housed
separately in two chambered boxes and hoarding cages kept
at a temperature of 25-30 °C and 6-70% relative humidity.
50 percent sucrose solution and corbicular pollen were fed
to the queens (Abrol, 2012) [2]. Macfarlane et al. (1990) [41]
have also raised spring collected queens housed in two
screen cages and fed with a 50% sugar solution and
pulverized corbicular pollen while maintaining a
temperature of 18-25 °C. The majority of the researchers
reported that springtime queens captured had been
successfully domesticated.
Long-tongued Bombus species are trap nested (Trap nest
boxes or domiciles are placed in the environment to trap
founding colonies) and sold to provide pollination services
to red clover (Donovan 2001) [19]. Domiciles (Man-made
nesting boxes) have been created and used to increase the
number of bumble bees in agroecosystems. Occupancy was
discovered to increase over successive years (Barron et al.
2000) [8].
Alkali bees
It is a highly social solitary bee that makes its nests in great
numbers in silty or fine-textured saline soils. (Abrol et al.
2013) [1]. The alkali bee, Nomia spp. (Hymenoptera:
Halictidae), is a very productive pollinator used to pollinate
leguminous crops on a big scale (Cane, 2002) [9]. Alkali bees
resemble honey bees in size and they have stripes across
their abdomen that is iridescent copper-green.
Diversity and Distribution
There are 600 species in the subfamily Nomiinae of the
Halictid family of Hymenoptera, with the exception of
South America (Astafurova and Pesenko, 2005) [7]. Nomia
melanderi is an important and well-researched species of
alkali bee. In India, this subfamily is recognized by 15
genera and 72 species, 48 of which are under 13 genera and
are found in south India (Pannure and Belavadi, 2017) [50].
There are at least five species of the genus Hoplonomia
Ashmead in India, which has a range that is primarily
Oriental (Ascher & Pickering, 2021) [5]. According to
Udayakumar and Shivalingaswamy (2018) [72], Hoplonomia
westwoodi (Gribodo, 1994) [26] is a widespread species in
southern India and is a significant pollinator of a variety of
cultivated crops.
Nesting biology
The quality of alkali bee nesting sites, whether natural or
managed, is determined by three critical criteria such as soil
moisture, soil composition and texture, and vegetation. A
suitable bed must meet a few fundamental characteristics. It
needs a moisture source that can rise to the surface. This
often calls for a hardpan layer to be placed at least a foot
beneath porous soil, which tends to retain moisture and
allow it to travel from the supply source to the surface.
Situations should allow for quick surface water drainage.
There shouldn't be more than 7% clay-sized particles in the
underlayer, which should have a texture ranging from silt
loam to sandy loam. The surface should be smooth but
without a crust. It creates individual nests in the ground, up
to 100 nests per square foot of soil. Alkali bees are sociable
and can build up to 100,000 nests in a 40X50 feet space.
There are normally 15 to 20 cells in a single comb-shaped
cluster. Each cell is an oval cavity about one-half inch long,
somewhat larger than the main tunnel, lined first with earth
and then with a waterproof clear liquid sprayed with the
bee's glossa. Bees built nests by using their mandibles to dig
the ground and their legs to push the mud outside.
(Vijayakumar et al. 2022) [75].
Management
Alkali bees need a certain kind of soil to build their nests,
which is a mixture of clay and salty sand with a moisture
level of 25%. One to 20 acres of artificial nesting places can
be created by creating a hole that is 1 m deep. The bottom is
covered with a layer of plastic, and then a 15 cm layer of
fine gravel or sand is added on top of it. Another layer of
fine sand and clay measuring about 85 cm thick is placed on
top of that. To draw moisture from the bottom layer, 2 to 5
kg of salt are mixed into the top layer per square meter.
Water is delivered to the bottom layer up to a specified
height. Plastic drain tubes have been designed as a more
straightforward method of providing water to the nesting
area. Just the top layer of the earth is sprayed with salt. Bees
can be moved from one nest location to another by
relocating blocks with pupae that have overwintered (Abrol,
2012) [2].
Leaf cutter bees
Based on their shape and the material they utilize to line
their brood cells, megachilid bees can be roughly divided
into three groups: Mason bees are the most common, and
they primarily employ mud and masticated plant materials.
Resin bees, which primarily use plant resin; and true
leafcutter bees, which primarily cut and use live leaf pieces.
(Michener, 1964 and 2007) [43-44]. Numerous kinds of
leafcutter bees visit blossoming alfalfa. As its name
suggests, this very gregarious solitary bee fills its nests with
circular sections cut from alfalfa leaves, however it will also
cut sections off the petals of large decorative flowers. Above
earth, the nests are located in tiny holes or hollow tubes. The
adult bee, which is charcoal-gray in color, is only
marginally bigger than a housefly. (Abrol, 2012) [2].
Diversity and distribution
The third-largest bee family, Megachilidae, is a global one
with 4,097 known species worldwide (Ascher & Pickering,
2015) [5]. It contains Megachile rotundata, the most widely
utilised managed solitary bees in the entire globe (Pitts-
Singer & Cane, 2011) [51]. A native of Africa named
Megachile (Eutricharaea) concinna Smith is currently
common in the Caribbean and North America and was just
discovered in Argentina (Alvarez et al. 2012) [4]. 75 species
from the tribe Megachilini have been identified in India
(Gupta, 1993) [28], 16 of which are from the genus
Megachile Latreille. There have been reports of Megachile
elfrona in Gujrat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh (Kumari,
2020) [36]. From Punjab, India, Kumari and Kumar (2016)
[10] reported three species of the Megachile genus, including
M. anthracina, M. carbonaria, and M. elizabathae
Bingham. Eight species of the Megachilidae family were
discovered in Uttarakhand, India, of which six belonged to
the genus Megachile and two to the genus Coelioxys. Seven
species of the Megachile genus were recently discovered in
five different Indian states, according to Sardar et al. (2021)
[64], and M. lanata was discovered for the first time in
Assam. Veereshkumar and Kumarnag (2018) [74] reported
the family Megachilidae from Bengaluru, Karnataka, India,

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containing six species: M. lanata, M. anthracina, M. lerma,
M. disjuncta, L. atratus, and M. bicolor.
Nesting biology
Leafcutter bees build their nests aboveground in rock
crevices, pithy stems of trees and canes, and man-made
constructions such as hollow metal tubes (Litman et al.,
2011) [40]. Depending on the area, the female bee emerges
between May and July, mates, and then goes in search of a
nesting hole. She prefers a tube or tunnel that she can just
barely squeeze through. When she searches for one and
starts building a cell there. She constructs the first cell with
recently cut, rectangular pieces of leaves at the
base of the tube (Abrol, 2012) [2]. A brood cell has leaf discs
that are different sizes and shapes. The brood cells are
divided using the leaf discs as well (Sabino and Antonini,
2017) [62]. The core layer of the roll is constructed by
individuals of most leafcutter bee species using leaves from
a single plant species. A much larger disc cut from the same
or a different plant species may be used by the bees to seal
the nest (Sabino & Antonini, 2017) [62]. Then a combination
of nectar and pollen is poured into this cell until it is about
halfway full. The cell is covered with circular pieces of
leaves, and an egg is placed on the food. The process is
continued until the tube is almost completely filled with
cells, The process is continued until the tube is almost
completely filled with cells, immediately above the initial
cell. (Abrol, 2012) [2].
Management
One of the few bee species in New Zealand that is
economically maintained and utilized for agricultural
pollination is M. rotundata (Donovan & Macfarlane 1984)
[18]. Due to its combine character and willingness to breed in
artificial hives, it is one of the simpler species to handle. In
New Zealand, 875, 000 cells were imported between 1971
and 1984, and in the same year, the number of bees was
estimated to reach five million. The scientific and industrial
research department launched a program to teach
beekeepers how to use the species as efficiently as possible.
Bee populations subsequently fell after the Department was
disestablished in 1992, which put an end to the initiative.
Only a few hectares of lucerne were pollinated each year by
controlled (Overwintered).
Stingless bee
Stingless bees, classified within the Hymenoptera order,
Apidae family, and Meliponini tribe, play a significant role
as beneficial insects in pollination and honey production
(Cortopassi-Laurino et al., 2006) [11]. Stingless bees are a
huge and varied species of eusocial bees, which makes them
potential pollinators. They come in a wide range of body
sizes, are categorized as small- to medium-sized, and still
contain stingers (Quezada-Euán 2018) [54]. Some species
have long hairs and a broad, smooth appearance that aids in
bringing pollen and other products to the colony (Ramírez et
al., 2018) [57]. Certain stingless bee species, particularly
those in the genus Melipona, display vibrational activity,
necessary to collect the pollen from plants with poricidal
anthers like tomatoes and peppers (De Luca and Vallejo-
Marín, 2013) [14].
Diversity and Distribution
It is thought that stingless bees, which are 80 million years
older than Apis bees, first appeared on the African continent
before dispersing to other regions of the globe (Crane, 1992;
Wilie, 1983) [12, 76]. Their limited capacity to control nest
temperature, particularly in cooler climates, limits their
habitat to tropical and subtropical areas. According to
Muthuraman et al. (2013) [46], these bees are mostly found in
Australia, Asia, Central, and South America. Over 500
species are included in the eight genera and 15 subgenera
that make up the family Meliponinae (Wille, 1983) [76]. The
Indian subcontinent is found to be home to eight named
species of stingless bees belonging to three genera:
Tetragonula, Lepidotrigona, and Lisotrigona (Rasmussen,
2013) [58]. Of the various species, Trigona (Tetragonula)
iridipennis is the one that is most frequently observed there
(Raakhee and Devanesan, 2000) [56].
Nesting biology
Nesting biology is a highly visible part of stingless bee
behavior because nests are conspicuous centers of bee
activity and frequently stunning examples of animal
construction (Michener, 1974) [42]. There are a lot of
elliptical or spherical pots in the nest construction that are
used to store honey and pollen. "Cerumen," a mixture of
wax released by wax glands and resin obtained from plants,
is used to create these pots (Quezada-Euán, 2018) [54].
Stingless bees also known as “dammar bees” in India, use to
build their nest with “dammar”, resin of dipterocarp trees
along with wax produce from their body (Rasmussen, 2013)
[58]. They like to build their nests in dark areas such as
hollow logs, tree cavities, cracks and fissures in old
buildings, etc., here the entrance usually protrudes as an
external tube (Wille, 1983) [76]. T. iridipennis was
discovered nesting in tree cavities and wall cavities at
Dharwad in India (Danaraddi, 2007) [13]. Similar nesting
behaviour of T. iridipennis was discovered by Roopa (2002)
[60], Gajanan et al. (2005) [21], and Muthuraman (2006) [47] in
Bangalore and Tamil Nadu. T. bengalensis was found to
have constructed nests in a variety of places, including tree
holes, concrete walls, mud walls, iron pipes, and even wash
basins in West Bengal, India, according to a recent study
done by Kunal et al. in 2020 [37].
Management
Meliponiculture refers to the raising or maintenance of
stingless bees. They have perennial colonies with hundreds
of thousands of workers and are eusocial like real honey
bees (Wille, 1983) [76]. Stingless bees' easier-to-handle
physiology makes them better adapted to flower pollination
than other honey bees because they have mechanisms for
gathering pollen and nectar as well as no tendency to sting
(Eickwort and Ginsberg, 1980) [20].
In the hollow bamboo tree trunks, Trigona iridipennis was
raised. We chose bamboo stems that were between 30 and
35 cm in diameter and 80 to 85 cm in length. The bamboo
stem is cut in half, and the two parts of bamboo are then
tightly connected with ropes. A little opening in the centre
of the bamboo stem that has been connected allows bees to
enter. The bamboo stem has capped ends on both sides. The
knotted log is split into two half, after which the brood
chamber is transferred to the bamboo log. The colony
finished settling inside the bamboo pole well after two
hours. The ends of the bamboo log are shut, the edges are
secured with ropes, and both ends are knotted together. The
bamboo stick with the bees is brought home and secured
beneath the hut's roof. Through the tiny opening left in the
centre, the bees inside the bamboo poles begin to exit. Bees

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smooth the entrance by adding wax from the trees and resin
(Propolis) they have collected from them. They reside in
intricate colonies. It would be wise for government and
other non-governmental organisations to adopt this
indigenous approach of domesticating wild bees.
Additionally, this will aid in saving the critically
endangered stingless bees (Kumar et al. 2012) [34].
Crops pollinated by non-Apis bees
Crops that are reported to be pollinated by different non-
Apis bee pollinators are presented in the table 1.
Table 1: Crops with their associated non-Apis bee pollinators
Sl. No.
Bee species
Crop/Plant
Family
1.
Megachile bicolor, M. disjunta, M. flaviceps, M. femorata, M. lanata, Nomia
oxybeloides, N. divisus, N. pusilla, Pithitis smaragdula and Xylocopa fenestrata
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
Leguminosae
2.
M. flaviceps and M. nana
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium)
Leguminosae
3.
Bombus asiaticus and B. albopleuralis
White clover (T. repens)
Leguminosae
4.
Bombus asiaticus and B. albopleuralis
Red clover (T. repens)
Leguminosae
5.
Megachile lanata, M. bicolor, M. flavipes, M. cephalotes and M. femorata
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
Leguminosae
6.
X. pubescens and X. fenestrata
Sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea)
Leguminosae
7.
X. fenestrata, X. pubescens and Megachile lanata
Pea (Pisum sativum)
Leguminosae
8.
X. fenestrata, B. albopleurali and Bombus asiaticus
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
Convolvulaceae
9.
B. asiaticus
Eggplant (Solanum melongena)
Solanaceae
10.
Nomioides spp.
Onion (Allium cepa)
Liliaceae
11.
Nomioides, Megachilids, Andrenids and Halictids
Field mustard (Brassica campestris)
Cruciferae
12.
Andrena ilerda
Rape (Brassica napus)
Cruciferae
13.
Andrena ilerda
Raya (Brassica juncea)
Cruciferae
14.
A. leaena, A. ilerda, Colletes and Halictus spp.
Taramira (Eruca sativa)
Cruciferae
15.
A. ilerda, Lassiogtossum spp. and Pithitis smaragdula
Cabbage and cauliflower (B.
oteracea)
Cruciferae
16.
Anthophora spp, Nomia spp., Lassiogtossum spp. and Colletes spp.
Raddish (Raphanus sativus)
Cruciferae
17.
X. fenestrata, X. pubescens Hatictus and spp. Nomioides spp.
Pumpkin and squashes (Cucurbita
spp)
Cucurbitaceae
18.
X. fenestrata, X. pubescens and P. smaragduta
Smooth loofah (Luffa aegyptica)
Cucurbitaceae
19.
Nomia spp, P. smaragduta, Nomioides variegata and Halictids
Cucumbers (Cucumis melo)
Cucurbitaceae
20.
Lithurgens attratus
Cotton (Gossypium spp.)
Malvaceae
21.
Nomioides spp, Halictidae and X. fenestrate
Corriander (Corraindrum sativum)
Umbelliferae
22.
Halictis spp and X. fenestrata
Saunf (Foeniculum vulagre)
Umbelliferae
23.
Lasiogtossum spp, Sphecoides Hyleaus, Nomioides, Braunsapis and Pfthftis
smaragdula
Carrot (Dacus carota)
Umbelliferae
24.
Andrena spp, Nomioides. Halictus spp and Lasioglossum spp
Jowain (Traechyspermum ammi)
Umbelliferae
25.
Lasioglossum spp and X. fenestrata
Orange and lemon Citrus spp
Rutaceae
26.
X. pubescens, X. fenestrata and Megachile lanata
Guava (Psidium guajava)
Myrtaceae
27.
Xylocopa spp, Megachite spp, Nomia spp and Lasioglossum spp
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Anacardiaceae
28.
Nomioides, Lasioglossum and Halictus spp
Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Punicaceae
29.
Colletes nursei, Lasioglossum spp, CaHulum and Osmia cornifrons
Apples (Pyrus malus)
Rosaceae
30.
Lasioglossum spp and Xylocopa valga
Almond (Pamygdalus)
Rosaceae
31.
Xylocopa valga and Nomia spp.
Cherry (Pavium)
Rosaceae
32.
Xylocopa valga and Nomia spp.
Pear (Pcumminis)
Rosaceae
Crop pollination under protected cultivation
To enhance the yield of fruit with less mechanical damage,
greenhouse tomatoes are now pollinated by the neotropical
stingless bee Melipona quadrifasciata Lepeletier (Del Sarto
et al., 2005) [16]. Additionally, stingless bees are important
pollinators of greenhouse cucumber crops, increasing fruit
weight and productivity (Solange et al., 2008) [67]. In
comparison to a control group, strawberries pollinated by
stingless bees in greenhouses had higher quality and
commercial value (Roselino et al., 2009) [61]. Additionally,
compared to self-pollination, Melipona fasciculata Smith's
pollination of eggplant (Solanum melongena Linn) in
greenhouses boosted fruit set by 29.5% and fruit quality
(Fruit weight) (Ilva, 2013) [31].
Xylocopa pubescens, a carpenter bee despite having shorter
visit durations per flower than honey bees, Spinola is also
used to pollinate honeydew melons grown in greenhouses
(Cucumis melo Inodorus Group). This is because pollination
by both bee species produced fruit with similar masses and
numbers of seeds, and X. pubescens pollination increased
fruit set three times more than honey bee pollination did
(Adi et al., 2007) [3].
Bumble bees have the potential to be sufficient pollinators
in open fields and greenhouses since they are significant
pollinators of a wide variety of crops, including buzz
pollinated crops like blueberries and tomatoes as well as
both large-flower and small-flower crops (Desjardins and
De Oliveira, 2006; Yankit et al., 2018) [17, 78] Additionally,
buzz pollination by Bombus haemorrhoidalis Smith in India
produces fruits that are bigger, longer, heavier, and
healthier, particularly in kiwi fruit (Nayak et al., 2019) [48].
Conclusion and future prospect
Since they constantly protect Mother Nature, pollinators are
a precious resource for us. But the community of pollinators
was seriously threatened by the development of civilization.
Pollination services could be lost as a result of the recent
decline in pollinators, especially bees, which could have an
effect on the environment and the economy. Therefore, all
public lands and natural places should make efforts to

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maintain a varied range of pollinators a top priority. To
ensure the sustainability of our environment, strategies for
reducing the various risks associated with pollinator
decrease should be explored. By building an environment
that is safe for pollinators, priorities should be imposed at
the root level. To provide pollination services that help to
maintain a sustainable level and reduce the risk of crop loss,
both of which serve to prevent ecological harm and loss, it is
vital to understand each nation's economic and pollination
requirements. Decisions must be made from all sources of
bodies, including governmental organisations, non-
governmental organisations, and various industrial sectors,
for all these activities to save the pollinators' community.
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