Content uploaded by Krisztina Keller
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Krisztina Keller on Apr 21, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
OPEN ACCESS
ECOCYCLES Scientific journal of the
ISSN 2416-2140 European Ecocycles Society
49
Ecocycles, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 49-57 (2024)
DOI: 10.19040/ecocycles.v10i1.411
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Impacts of settlement structure and urban development on crime
types and distribution
Szabolcs Mátyás1, Krisztina Keller2, László Bói1
1Ludovika University of Public Service, 2 Ludovika tér, H-1083 Budapest, Hungary
2Corvinus University of Budapest, 8 Fővám tér, H-1093 Budapest, Hungary
Corresponding author: Mátyás, Sz. email: matyas.szabolcs@uni-nke.hu
Abstract – As far as the authors know, this study presents a topic that is the first time anyone has dealt with. Many people have
examined the issues in the title individually but not the three concepts together, even though there is a close connection among
the three concepts. A clear relationship can be shown between specific urban characteristics and the types of crime. Nowadays,
several stages of urban development are present in many large cities in Europe, and the urban structure is changing, which affects
both the number and structure of crimes. The study presents the main urban structural belts and their characteristics and compares
them with the urban development stages. The authors examined and analyzed the settlement structure and crime characteristics
of Central and Eastern European countries in the research. The results of the research can be used both in the field of law
enforcement and urban development.
Keywords – Settlement structure; criminal geography; spatial crime; urbanization.
Received: March 7, 2024 Accepted: March 29
1. INTRODUCTION
Research on the relationship between settlement structure and
crime goes back a relatively long. Chicago School researchers
have already investigated the relationship between spatial
structure and crime. Nevertheless, the area is among the
under-researched topics.
The authors worked as policemen for almost a decade, during
which they noticed that even within the same district, there
are often sharp differences in crime, criminal structure, and
settlement structure. The reason for this is clear: the different
socio-economic characteristics of people living in different
settlement zones. Geographical, sociological, and
criminological research has proven that the settlement
structure impacts crimes.
The study’s motto could also be one of the eternal sayings of
the British polymath Bertrand Russell, according to which
“Sin is geographical.” During the research, the authors proved
that crime (structure, intensity, etc. of crime) also has
geographical causes in this case.
The authors want to present and examine the geographical
reasons in the study. Our work is based on theoretical
foundations and decades of police experience and is practical,
the results of which can also be used in everyday police work.
The study primarily focuses on European cities, including
Central European countries. The authors consider it necessary
to emphasize this because there are significant differences
between European and American cities. However, urban
structure and development differences can also be observed
between European cities. Most Central and Eastern European
cities followed a different development path than Western
ones (Bujdosó et al., 2016). For example, industrialization
and suburbanization also started later. The Soviet occupation
and forced industrialization also impacted the development of
cities in former socialist countries.
The authors formulated a research question:
Q1: What could be the reason for that – out of the different
city areas - most types of crime occur in the downtown area?
The assumption is based on the fact that downtown areas have
the most functions. The residential function is less dominant
(although more and more people live in the city center due to
re-urbanization). However, the commercial, tourist, and
entertainment functions are vital, increasing the number and
the types of crimes committed.
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
50
2. METHODS
To prepare the study, the authors studied previous literature in
Hungarian and foreign languages and drew conclusions from
it. The Google Scholar search engine and MTMT (Library of
Hungarian Scientific Works) were used as databases. The
keywords in the title were entered into the search engines. The
search results showed no study on settlement structure, urban
development, and crime. The three areas have not been
examined in their relationships before.
The sources used come from many scientific fields. These
fields are geography, sociology, criminology, settlement
sociology, and law enforcement. When choosing the works
used, the authors emphasized using the most recent resources
so that the latest research results could be applied to the
article. The authors tried to select those studies that were
based on independent research and did not process the results
of previous research.
The authors’ previous observations and experiences helped
them write the study. They worked as detectives for many
years, during which time they experienced the connection
between the settlement structure and crime in everyday life.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Literature review
A significant increase in the population first occurred in
Western Europe (2nd population cycle), where people moved
to the cities. At the beginning of the 19th century, there were
no scientific studies yet, but it was recorded in London, Paris,
and several big cities that the number of crimes increased
significantly. Slums developed in the big cities (Jorgenson et
al., 2010).
The problem was scientifically investigated for the first time
in Chicago. The city’s population grew by nearly 1 million in
half a century. The researchers of the Chicago School showed
that the settlement was made up of concentric circles and
zones (zone theory). People of different social statuses inhabit
different zones. The frequency of crime, the structure of
crimes, and the settlement structure are also different. The
main reason for the large-scale increase in crime was the
significant increase in population. The emergence and
advance of organized crime deserve special mention (Park et
al., 1967). Researchers from the Department of Sociology at
the University of Chicago began investigating the above
anomalies, as the problems generated significant social
conflicts between the peaceful majority and the minority. This
research refrains from presenting the results of the Chicago
school, as it is well known.
The book Introduction to the Science of Sociology, written by
Park & Burgess, can be considered a milestone in this field
and one of the foundational works of urban sociology.
After the Chicago researchers, there was no thorough
research on the subject for a long time. It was Denis Szabo
who wrote his thesis on the topic of settlement sociology. He
studied the relationship between crime and settlement
structure (Crimes et villes, 1960). He can be considered the
founder of this topic. In his works published in the 1960s, the
author states that in the Western world (Western Europe and
America) around the 1950s, urbanization processes can be
considered completed with suburbanization (Szabó, 1963,
1968). At that time, he could not have thought there would be
two more stages of urban development.
In the case of developing countries, there is a large amount of
literature on the impact of urban development on crime. The
obvious reason for this is that these countries are where we
encounter the second population cycle. The rural population
is still moving to the cities in large numbers, but the cities
need the necessary infrastructural conditions. Slums develop
in cities. Pakistani authors note that the urbanization process
can be considered positive, but its negative side is increased
crime (Jalil & Muhammad, 2010). Rapid urbanization is also
a problem in Nigeria. The influx of people into the big cities
increased the number of crimes. In addition to traditional
criminological research, spatial data and satellite images were
used to understand the problem better (Adegbola & Oluwole,
2019). Andrew Burton talks about “demographic distortion”
in his work regarding urbanization in Tanzania since the
proportion of young men in the cities will be
disproportionately high (Burton, 2005).
The impact of urbanization and crime has been studied in
many developed countries. Philip J. Levchak examined the
relationship between urbanization and homicide. During the
research, the author examined the homicide data series of 57
countries (between 1993 and 2005) and used mathematical
statistical methods in the correlation study. Levchak found a
strong positive correlation between the degree of urbanization
and the number of homicides (Levchak, 2016).
The trend of the past decade and a half is that research mainly
examines networks and not specifically the urban structure.
During data processing (Big Data), they mostly try to identify
spatial patterns, not the traditional settlement structure (White
et al., 2015; Quick et al., 2018).
Kim and his co-authors analyzed street network
configurations to understand the spatial pattern of crime.
They found that the impact of the street’s structure was
moderated by the social and economic characteristics of the
people living there. The physical environment and crime are
closely related (Kim et al., 2020).
The relationship between urbanization and victimization was
investigated in a sample of 9,000 households in Stockholm
and Gavleborg counties. The research established a direct
correlation between the degree of urbanization and becoming
a victim. In other words, the more significant the proportion
of urbanization is, the greater the number of victims. The
authors explain this by the magnitude of social cohesion. In
less urbanized areas, the relationship between people is
closer, they pay more attention to each other, etc. These
factors reduce the magnitude of victimization (Wikstrom &
Dolmen, 2001).
The above sources show that the relationship between the
settlement structure in the classical sense and crime has yet to
be researched anywhere.
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
51
3.2. The city structure and crime types
Settlements are not homogeneous but made up of sharply
separated parts (settlement structural belts). The Chicago
School researchers highlighted this more than a hundred years
ago. The individual settlement structural belts can be more
loosely or more closely connected to each other. The more
significant difference is primarily observed in cities, where
people of different social statuses are sharply separated from
each other (Burdick & Will, 2013).
The first figure shows the number of different structural zones
within a city. People of different social statuses live in each
zone, meaning the number, structure, and dynamics of crimes
will also differ. Hoyt’s model is an idealized model; in reality,
the structure of a city is much more complex.
Figure 1. Hoyt Sector Model.
Each urban structure belt has several names, which only
sometimes match those in sociology, criminology, and
geography literature. Naming individual belts is complicated
because their function constantly changes, so a name used a
few decades ago cannot be used in all cases today. This study
uses the name convention used in the geographical literature.
Table 1 contains the names of individual urban structural
zones. In the column next to them, crime is the most
characteristic of the zone. Of course, other crimes may occur
in a given zone, but these are the most typical ones. It is also
worth mentioning that the crimes committed may change due
to the stages of urban development and social changes. The
individual urban structural belts changed function. For
example, we can cite that thirty years ago, different crimes
were committed in a slum city center than today. The city
center was renewed in many places; people of low social
status who lived there moved out, and young families moved
in to replace them.
Table 1. Urban structure belt and crime.
Urban structure belt
Crime type
City
Pickpocketing, car break-in, robbery, armed robbery, bank robbery, vandalism, bike
stealing, drug crime, graffiti, prostitution
Inner residential zone
Car break-in, theft, robbery, vandalism, hawker cheating, prostitution, drug crime
Garden city zone
Burglary, cheating with deceive (logs, roof renovation, garden work, etc.)
Housing estate
Car and bicycle theft, celler break-in, burglary, vandalism, robbery, drug crime
Holiday houses/farm zone
Burglary, animal, and crop theft
Agglomeration zone
Burglary, animal theft, hawker cheating
3.3. Downtown
The urban structure zones in the downtown areas are the ones
most affected by crime. The reasons for this do not need any
particular explanation since the city center is the area with the
highest population density, where most people visit. The
number of crimes and their diversity characterize this urban
structural belt (Ditton, 2000).
Downtowns are home to entertainment venues and major
tourist attractions with a high crime-generating effect. Drugs
and alcohol are present in entertainment venues. Alcohol
increases aggressiveness, which increases the number of
riotous acts in and around the entertainment venue (Bromley
& Nelson, 2002). Unfortunately, it can be observed that
nowadays, fewer and fewer people are tolerant, especially the
younger generation. Arguments develop more quickly, which,
in many cases, escalate into actions. This may be due to
different skin colors, languages, etc. (Speer et al., 1998).
Many physical assaults occur as a result of these disputes.
As a result of disorderly conduct, vandalism is also a crime
(broken shop windows, breaking into public transport waiting
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
52
rooms and glass parts of phone booths, damaging parked cars
/e.g., breaking rear-view mirrors and windshield wipers/).
Graffiti occurs in relatively large numbers in downtown areas.
This is because “graffiti artists” place their creations where
many people can see them. For them, the challenge is to paint
their “works” in the most risky areas (Ley & Cybriwsky,
2018).
Unfortunately, the use of drugs has become common, but
inner-city places are very overrepresented. Drug users can be
found in the majority of entertainment venues. Especially in
the case of new types of drugs (designer drugs), it can be
observed that the aggressiveness of drug users has increased
significantly. This increases the number of violent crimes
committed in and around downtown entertainment venues
(Lawton et al., 2017).
In many cases, the consumption of alcohol and drugs makes
the consumer vulnerable. He falls asleep on the street, lies
helpless, is in a defenseless state, or does not perceive the
processes taking place around him. These persons are “ideal”
victims of the crime of robbery, as they can control the
environment less and cannot protect themselves. Due to the
above reasons, robbery is also higher in downtown areas;
these two crimes are the ones that most worsen people’s
subjective sense of security. From the point of view of law
enforcement, the prevention of these acts is, therefore,
essential.
It is also due to the large number of tourists that prostitution
is present in many places (Graburn, 1983). Thermal tourism
is significant in many Hungarian cities. In the case of
Budapest, for example, the most visited thermal spas are
located in areas close to the city center, where tourists are also
significantly victimized. As a result of the spa improvements,
it is expected that the capacity of the spas will continue to
increase, and with it, the number of victims is expected to
increase, too (Benkő et al., 2022; Hojcska & Szabó, 2021).
The downtown mainly functions as the financial and
economic center of the settlements, which is why most bank
branches, post offices, travel agencies, currency exchange,
jewelry stores, etc., are located here. Therefore, these
financial companies handle large amounts of money and are
potential targets. It is a positive fact that the number of armed
robberies has significantly decreased over the past decade.
Several factors contributed to the decrease in the number of
armed robberies. On the one hand, it can be observed that the
general trend is that the number of violent crimes is
decreasing (Cundiff, 2024). On the other hand, the number of
surveillance cameras in downtown areas has increased
significantly, and bank security has greatly improved.
The number of various thefts is also the highest in this area.
Let us first mention pickpocketing. It can occur in any place
where there is a large crowd, such as a place of entertainment,
public transport, or at its stop. Downtown stops and public
transport are usually the most crowded. We can also think
about the hesitant and staring tourists, who can also be
potential victims (Ozascilar & Mawby, 2023).
The number of thefts is increased by car break-ins and
shoplifting (thefts committed in expensive stores) in
downtown areas.
In many cases, foreign tourists become victims of fraud, but
in their case, we can count on significant latency, as many do
not file a report. Possible places of fraud in the city center are,
for example, taxis (overbilling, long journeys), restaurants
(overbilling), night clubs (wiping up unrealistically expensive
drinks), money changers (primarily illegal, street money
changers).
3.4. Inner residential zone
The inner residential area wraps around downtown, which is
closely connected. One consequence of this is that the
population of the inner residential area also affects crime in
the downtown.
What is the main difference between the two areas? There are
primarily functional differences. As seen from the belt’s
name, the residential function dominates. However, the
ground floor areas and some parts of the courtyard of inner
cities also have commercial functions (e.g., small restaurants,
repair shops, hairdressers, tattoo and beauty salons, pubs, and
solariums).
The inner residential area has lower houses with fewer floors.
Their height usually depends on the buildings in the city
center. However, the buildings here are usually two or three
floors lower. Sometimes, there are one-story, attached houses
in the inner residential area. Some of the houses in terrible
condition were demolished, and multi-story apartment
buildings were built in their place, which usually did not fit
into the streetscape but contributed to changing the area’s
population (Mátyás, 2023).
In the case of settlements where these parts have not become
slums, the number of crimes is significantly lower than in the
inner city areas. On the other hand, where many people live
below the social average, crime rates are typical of those in
the city center.
The inner residential area has a residential function, but many
people take advantage of lower real estate prices to set up
some business here. In other words, vulnerable values are
present here in a relatively high proportion (although
obviously in a much smaller proportion than in downtown
areas). One of the consequences is that certain crimes (e.g.,
theft and car break-ins) occur in relatively higher numbers
here as well. On the other hand, downtown areas are mostly
covered by surveillance cameras. This is a positive fact, but
criminals also know this, so they go from the city center to
the surrounding streets to commit crimes (this is called “water
bed effect”). This increases the number of crimes committed
in the inner residential area (Os & Schneider, 2020).
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
53
Residents’ cars parked on the street are considered easy
“prey,” so in some infected areas, the number of car break-
ins, burglaries, and house burglaries during the day may be
higher.
Among drug-related crimes, illegal acts related to
consumption are particularly typical. Street prostitution can
also be present in some segregated areas. One form of fraud
is the so-called hawker cheating. Hawker cheaters try to sell
certain products (e.g., dishes, blankets, bed linen), but these
products are of poor quality and often fakes of well-known
brands.
Graffiti is a common crime in the urban structure belt. In
segregated areas, unmotivated vandalism and graffiti are
common means of self-expression for young people who are
idle, aimless, and unable to follow social norms.
3.5. Garden city zone
Moving out of the downtown area and leaving the inner
residential area, a more relaxed residential area can be found.
The residential properties have one or two floors and do not
form a continuous street front. Previously, these areas were
considered suburban areas. Less wealthy people moved here.
They could not afford to buy real estate in the city center or
surrounding inner residential areas. The ratio of industrial
workers and people who moved in from the countryside was
high in the past. The settlement structure and the socio-
demographic characteristics of the population are different in
this area, so crime will also be different than in the two areas
mentioned above.
The proportion of older people is still relatively high in the
garden city residential area. Due to their age, they are much
more vulnerable to crime. Compared to other settlement
structural zones, frauds committed by deception are more
common here. The proportion of those who still heat with
firewood is high, so fraudsters take advantage of this to
deceive elderly victims. Furthermore, fraudsters defraud
older people by trying to sell services such as repairing
shutters and roofs, doing garden work, cutting trees, etc.
(Mátyás, 2023; Sóvágó, 2007). In the past, animal husbandry
was typical in these parts, but nowadays, most people have
given up on it. So, the related crimes only occur in small
numbers. However, in some Central European cities, the theft
of tools related to agriculture and housework occurs (e.g.,
theft of machines, lawnmowers, and pumps).
The changes in the settlement structure of the past two or
three decades did not leave these areas unchanged. More and
more young people are moving in to replace the elderly and
are building new houses to replace the old ones. To their
detriment, it is already more difficult to commit various
crimes, partly due to their age and due to the use of property
protection devices (e.g., alarms, security doors, sensors).
These areas used to be located in the peripheral areas of the
cities, but nowadays (since the beginning of the 90s), they
belong to the increasingly appreciated areas of the settlements
and are not considered to be marginally located. They have
mostly preserved the milieu of a loosely built, village-style
atmosphere.
However, another area with similar characteristics can be
classified in the “category” of the garden city residential area.
These parts are located where construction started mainly in
the 1980s. At the time of the construction, these areas were
also mostly in marginal places; families moving out of the
city center, inner residential areas, and housing estates settled
down here. These families were affluent primarily and young.
The newly built houses had a larger floor area than the city
average and a more modern layout. Still, they had more
miniature gardens than the houses in the “other” garden city
residential area. Here, agricultural production was no longer
relevant (there were no farm animals, and there are none
now), and the garden served almost exclusively recreational
purposes. Thanks to the development of the past decades,
these areas are now also an integral part of the city, and
similar areas and districts are being developed.
Significant differences between the “older” and “younger”
garden city zones can be observed. On the one hand, the
differences between the ages of the residents make the two
areas different. The residents of newly built housing estates
are mostly younger, and it is more challenging to defraud
them (e.g., sell firewood, dishes, and bed linen).
A sharp difference can also be observed in stolen objects. As
a result of the more modest financial circumstances of the
residents, less value can be stolen from the houses of the
previously built garden city zones. Furthermore, the
inhabitants of the previously built garden city zones spend
less on asset security (e.g., cameras, alarms, sensors). On the
other hand, in the yards of the houses in the newer garden city
zones, there are objects of greater value (e.g., garden tools
and furniture, valuable dogs). On the other hand, the
inhabitants of the newer garden city zones are more difficult
to steal from due to the security equipment. However, during
construction, mechanical equipment theft (water heating
boilers, radiators, heat, faucets) is high (Sóvágó, 2007).
Considering that the population of these housing estates is
younger, the proportion of the working-age population is
high, so practically few people are only at home during the
day. This provides favorable conditions for committing house
burglaries.
3.6. Housing estates
After the Second World War, European countries had a
significant population increase (Dekker and Van Kempen,
2004). The problem of population growth in the former
socialist countries culminated in the problem that, as a result
of forced collectivization and industrialization, hundreds of
thousands of people chose urban life out of necessity
(Sezneva, 2016). A place to live had to be provided for them.
So, at least four-story factory apartments were constructed for
them. In the 1970s, much taller, 10-12-story houses were built
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
54
in the housing estates. Tens of thousands of people lived in
each of the larger housing estates.
In the largest European cities, housing estates have struggled
and are still struggling with several sociological (and,
therefore, law enforcement) problems. Deprived of their
“roots,” rural people lived in a new environment. In many
cases, this caused problems, especially for the children of
newly moving families (Sezneva, 2016).
Primarily, larger housing estates served as subcultural
environments that had a negative impact on young people.
The often aimless and wandering children often became
victims of each other. To conform to peers and fit in, shared
alcohol consumption and, from the 1980s, shared drug
consumption appeared in some areas (Dekker & Van
Kempen, 2004). For some, living together resulted in the
commission of minor crimes (e.g., theft, vandalism).
At the time of the construction of the housing estates, the
population moved here from two directions:
1. people moving from the city center,
2. people moving from the countryside to the city.
Those who wanted better living conditions and were
unsatisfied with the increasingly run-down living
environment moved out of the city center. Those who moved
away were primarily young people who wished for better
living conditions. Significant crowds also flowed in from the
settlements surrounding the big cities (in terms of
proportions, this was the most significant). They were the
ones who moved to the town in the hope of better job
opportunities, higher salaries, a more comfortable life, and
better education opportunities for their children.
In the initial period, housing estates were less sensitive places
from a criminal point of view. However, especially for the
rural population, the radically different living environment
caused problems (e.g., immediate neighbors and the problem
of spending free time). In many cases, this caused conflict
between the residents.
Comparing the impact of the urban development phases on
crime in the housing estates, it can be concluded that the
impact of the urban development phases had a negative effect
on crime. Families wealthier than the housing estate average
moved to residential parks on the city’s edge, outside the city,
or to agglomeration settlements. Less affluent groups took
their place with higher criminality. The real “disaster” to the
housing estates in the former communist countries was the
regime change. Many people lost their jobs and needed help
maintaining even the low-maintenance panel apartments.
Those in trouble vegetated for a while and moved into houses
with low comfort.
However, based on the past decade or two, we can see that the
prestige of housing estates has increased in many European
countries (mainly Central European countries). Despite the
improvement, we cannot say that the safest areas of cities are
housing estates. A significant difference can be observed
between the individual housing estates regarding the financial
situation, education, attitude, etc., of the people living there.
Among the forms of vandalism, graffiti is present in all
housing estates, and its detection faces many difficulties, as
there are few surveillance cameras in housing estates. Among
crimes against persons, robbery and assault also occur in
higher numbers in housing estates, although their number has
decreased significantly nationally in recent years.
Among the crimes against property, cellar break-ins,
apartment burglaries, and bicycle thefts are typical, although
following the trend of recent years, these are also increasingly
being repressed. Drug use is also an existing problem. In the
1960s and 1970s, smoking and taking drugs (alone or with
alcohol) were common among young people involved in
gangs (Mátyás, 2020). Today, designer drugs and classic
drugs are present both on the distributor and consumer side.
3.7. Holiday houses/farm zone
Farms were created primarily in flat areas, which has
historical reasons. Farms, even tens of kilometers away, were
also part of some cities (administratively). These isolated
settlements are far from each other and are now inhabited
mainly by older people.
As a result of the above, the inhabitants of the farms are
defenseless. Farmers can only rely on themselves against
external attacks. Crimes against property and theft (e.g.,
animals and tools) are mostly committed against them.
It can also be interesting to examine what illegal acts they
commit. As far as the authors are aware, there has yet to be
any such research; however, it can be assumed that in the
absence of regular waste transport, the waste is burned or
buried in the ground, which is a crime. However, these do not
come to the attention of the authorities but remain dormant.
It can be assumed that the crime of animal cruelty can occur
in a relatively large number of cases, which is partly due to
ignorance of the law and the fact that the people living on the
farm live according to traditional animal husbandry (e.g., the
dog is kept on a chain, and unnecessary breeding animals are
beaten to death).
The weekend-house zone is similar to the farm zone but
differs in many cases in its characteristics. This is mainly
typical of former communist countries. This development can
be primarily linked to people who move to the big city but
want to spend their free time in nature and usefully. From the
1950s and 1960s, people who moved from the countryside to
the city bought land near the towns. Here, they built a small
house. They mostly went out on weekends, as they worked in
the town during the week. However, this age group began to
age in the eighties (Csordás, 2021; Mátyás, 2023).
The change of regime also affected this process. The collapse
of socialism in the former socialist countries caused
unemployment to rise from zero to ten percent in a few years.
Many people lost their jobs, became insecure, and could not
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
55
even pay their apartment’s utilities, rent, or loan repayments
(Csordás, 2022).
At that time, many people got rid of their apartments in the
housing estates and moved to weekend house zones around
the cities. These properties were much cheaper, but their
comfort and social environment were much lower than their
previous apartment. This foreshadowed social decline for
many people, which, if associated with unemployment, also
had a criminogenic effect. This unlucky situation was coupled
with the population displaced from the inner-city and inner-
residential areas. They also moved to smaller settlements
around the city with low real estate prices and the weekend
houses zone. As a result, the physical rehabilitation of the
inner cities was mainly achieved, but the problem was not
solved. The socially disadvantaged population, in many
cases, gypsy people, were moved to places already inhabited
by people considered to be underprivileged. According to the
authors, it would have been necessary for the social
rehabilitation of the evicted persons and their follow-up and
after-care. This did not happen, so crime in the receiving area
increased significantly.
In the weekend houses zones, due to the two-way increase in
the residential population mentioned above, property security
deteriorated significantly (Mátyás, 2023). Comparing the
magnitude and structure of crime with the farm environment,
it can be concluded that there are differences. As a result of
the larger population, the number of crimes is also significant
in absolute terms. The number of crimes against property and
persons is substantial. The most typical crimes are theft and
burglary (theft of animals and crops, theft of beehives),
assault, and rowdyism.
3.8. Suburbanization zone
Suburbanization zones began to form around some big cities
more than a hundred years ago. They were formed in the
former socialist countries from the 1980s. This process
accelerated after the system change and continues today
(Hesse & Siedentop, 2018).
Generally, this zone is 10-20 km long, and in the case of larger
cities, 40-50 km. It can be observed as a trend that the extent
of the suburbanization zone is increasing. The reason for this
is the development of linear infrastructure and transport
(better quality and multi-lane roads, more and more families
owning a car, the development of public transport), the spread
of remote work, and the affordability of real estate prices. The
further away someone moves from big cities, the cheaper they
can buy real estate; an inverse correlation can be observed
between the distance from cities and real estate prices.
According to the authors, the suburbanization zone should be
divided into two parts. Some areas exist as independent
housing estates, although administratively, they belong to a
settlement. They live quasi-independent lives; the residents
have no daily contact with the “mother settlement.” To work,
study, and use the services, the residents go to the “emitting”
settlement. Only newly built houses are in the residential area,
and the residents belong to a similar social class.
However, during the suburbanization process, many people
moved not into separated residential parks but into
settlements in the agglomeration zone (although it is evident
that the former category is also part of the settlement). In this
case, an older house is renovated, a new one is built in place
of an old one, or a new one is built on a vacant lot. At that
time, the person moving out of the big city has a more direct
and lively connection with the settlement.
Mostly, families with low criminality decided to move out
from the cities, which would positively influence the area’s
crime conditions. However, large-scale moving out has a
criminogenic effect. In the first case (when people move out
of the city to residential parks), the residential area mostly has
a sleeping function (the English name, sleeping town, is no
coincidence). Most of those moving out are of working age,
living their active years, and going to work regularly. Most
residents go to work in the morning and only return home in
the afternoon. The negative criminogenic aspect of this can
be found in the fact that the proportion of people staying in
residential areas during the day is low, so this fact is favorable
for burglars.
In the second case, the population is more mixed regarding
age. As a result, there is a greater chance that someone is at
home on the street, which means there is a greater risk of
being caught during a burglary. In addition to home
burglaries, high-value dogs are also stolen.
The creation of the suburbanization zone also brought large
shopping centers to life along the roads leading out of the city.
Most people shop here in the late afternoon when the parking
lots are full of cars. These provide “ideal” conditions for
vehicle break-ins and for committing tricky thefts by taking
advantage of customers’ lack of attention (they have bags in
both hands, pushing a shopping cart, etc.). On these
occasions, the attention of the future victim is distracted by
some kind of legend (e.g., they are asked for help, money, or
directions). At the same time, another person steals some of
the valuables left behind from the open car or shopping cart.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The research examined the types of crimes committed in the
urban structural zones. The research presented the history of
the formation of urban structural zones and the flow of the
population. It found differences between Western and Eastern
Europe in the case of some belts. The suburbanization zone
was formed earlier in Western countries, as the conditions
appeared earlier. In the former socialist countries, these
urbanization processes started only with a delay of a few
decades. A similar process can be observed concerning inner
cities’ rehabilitation (re-urbanization). The inner-city areas
also began to be renovated earlier in Western Europe. The
criminal structure, however, is almost identical.
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
56
The weekend house area can be considered as unique. This
area is typical of former socialist countries, which developed
around cities.
The authors encountered many problems during the research,
which can be considered a research limitation. The urban
environment is a dynamically changing area, so it isn’t very
easy to analyze and investigate. Above, we also mentioned
that it is impossible to generalize, as the individual countries
are not uniform. Time is also an essential factor. Even on a
human scale, cities’ structure, population, and function are
changing rapidly. If we only think about the 30 years
following the change of the regime (starting in 1989), this
also shows how fast changes can be observed. A further
problem is that cities have different functions, and the other
functions result in different urban development in many
cases.
During the research, the authors formulate proposals for
reducing the number of crimes in each zone. In the case of
downtown and the inner residential zone, wider use of
CCTVs and predictive software are recommended. In the
garden city zone and the suburbanization zone with a lower
population, it is recommended that the population’s attention
be drawn to the broader use of alarm systems. Neighbours
watching each other’s values can also play a role in crime
prevention. The basic condition for this is that the people
living in the street know and trust each other enough to ask
each other to keep an eye on their houses. To achieve this
goal, community programs must be organized where
residents can get to know each other. Similar proposals can
be formulated in the areas of housing estates. The community
approach needs to be revived here as well. Regarding holiday
houses/farm zones, the resident population is very low. Alarm
systems, cameras, and large dogs are recommended here to
create personal safety. It is also necessary to organize a police
service that regularly checks the area. This has a crime
prevention effect.
The following answer can be given to the research question.
The city center has the most crime. This is because downtown
areas have business, entertainment, and commercial functions
in addition to residential ones. As a result, they provide
“space” for several crimes that could not develop without
them (e.g., pub fights and bank robberies).
REFERENCES
Bromley, R. D., & Nelson, A. L. (2002). Alcohol-related
crime and disorder across urban space and time: evidence
from a British city. Geoforum, 33(2), 239–254.
DOI: 10.1016/S0016-7185(01)00038-0
Benkő, B., Dávid, L., & Farkas, T. (2022). Opportunities for
the development of innovation among hotels in Northern
Hungary. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 40(1), 267–
273.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.40132-828
Bujdosó, Z., Kovács, T., Szűcs, Cs., & Brambauer, Zs.
(2016). “New” direction of urban development from a Central
European perspective. Theoretical and Empirical Researches
in Urban Management, 11(2), 55–64.
Burdick-Will, J. (2013). School violent crime and academic
achievement in Chicago. Sociology of Education, 86(4), 343–
361.
DOI: 10.1177/0038040713494225
Burgess, E. W., & Park, R. E. (2009). Introduction to the
Science of Sociology. Project Gutenberg.
Burton, A. (2005). African Underclass: Urbanisation, crime
and colonial order in Dar es Salaam. James Currey.
Cundiff, K. (2024). City-Level Violent Crime Trends and
Racial-Ethnic Income Inequality. Journal of Contemporary
Criminal Justice, 40(1), 48–64.
DOI: 10.1177/10439862231189986
Csordás, L. (2021). Development of the Hungarian resort
stock from 1960 to 2019 (in Hungarian). GRADUS, 8(3),
111–117. DOI: 10.47833/2021.3.ECO.004
Csordás, L. (2022). The Closed Garden Planning and Its
Impact on Holiday Construction in Hungary (in Hungarian).
GRADUS, 9(2).
DOI: 10.47833/2022.2.ECO.008
Dekker, K., & Van Kempen, R. (2004). Large housing estates
in Europe: current situation and developments. Tijdschrift
voor economische en sociale geografie, 95(5), 570–577.
DOI: 10.1111/j.0040-747X.2004.00340.x
Ditton, J. (2000). Crime and the City. British Journal of
Criminology, 40(4), 692–709.
https://popcenter.asu.edu/sites/default/files/61-ditton-
crime_and_the_city_public_attitudes_towards_open-.pdf
Graburn, N. H. (1983). Tourism and prostitution. Annals of
Tourism Research, 10(3), 437–443.
DOI: 10.1016/0160-7383(83)90068-3
Hesse, M., & Siedentop, S. (2018). Suburbanisation and
suburbanisms – Making sense of continental European
developments. Raumforschung und Raumordnung| Spatial
Research and Planning, 76(2), 97–108.
DOI: 10.1007/s13147-018-0526-3
Hojcska, Á., & Szabó, Z. (2021). Investigating natural
treatment factors and inequalities of medicinal water
institutions in the aspect of tourism in Hungary. Geojournal
of Tourism and Geosites, 36(2), 555–562.
DOI: 10.30892/gtg.362spl01-683
Jalil, H. H., & Iqbal, M. M. (2010). Urbanisation and Crime:
A Case Study of Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review,
49(4), 741–755.
DOI:10.2307/41428686
© 2024 The Author(s). Ecocycles © European Ecocycles Society, ISSN 2416-2140 Volume 10, Issue 1 (2024)
57
Jorgenson, A. K., Rice, J., & Clark, B. (2010). Cities, slums,
and energy consumption in less developed countries, 1990 to
2005. Organization & Environment, 23(2), 189–204.
DOI: 10.1177/1086026610368376
Kim, Y. A., & Hipp, J. R. (2020). Pathways: Examining Street
Network Configurations, Structural Characteristics and
Spatial Crime Patterns in Street Segments. Journal of
Quantitative Criminology, 36, 725–752.
DOI: 10.1007/s10940-019-09428-7
Lawton, B. A., Taylor, R. B., & Luongo, A. J. (2017). Police
officers on drug corners in Philadelphia, drug crime, and
violent crime: Intended, diffusion, and displacement impacts.
Drug Abuse: Prevention and Treatment, pp. 63–87.
Routledge.
DOI: 10.1080/07418820500364619
Levchak, J. Philip (2016). The relationship between
urbanization and cross-national homicide rates: robustness
across multiple estimation methods. International Journal of
Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 40(3), 225–243.
DOI: 10.1080/01924036.2016.1153492
Ley, D., & Cybriwsky, R. (2018). Urban graffiti as territorial
markers. In Johnson, N. C. (Ed.) Culture and Society, pp.
143–157. Routledge.
DOI: 10.4324/9781351160360
Mátyás, Sz. (2020). The fight against drug-related crime as a
strategic challenge for Hungarian law enforcement (in
Hungarian). Nemzeti Köszszolgálati Egyetem. ISBN
9789634981312
Mátyás, Sz. (2023). Crime Geography (in Hungarian).
MRTT. ISBN 9786150196497
Ojo, A., & Ojewale, O. (2019). Urbanisation and Crime in
Nigeria. Palgrave Macmillan Cham.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-19765-0
Ozascilar, M., & Mawby, R. I. (2023). The impact of crime
on tourists and the need for greater support for tourist victims.
International Review of Victimology, 29(1), 3–15.
DOI: 10.1177/02697580221080006
Park, R. E., Burgess, E. W., & McKenzie, R. D. (Eds.) (1967).
The City, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226646114
Quick, M., Li, G., & Brunton-Smith, I. (2018). Crime-general
and crime-specific spatial patterns: A multivariate spatial
analysis of four crime types at the small-area scale. Journal
of Criminal Justice, 58, 22–32.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.06.003
Sezneva, O. (2016). Cities of socialism: migration, mass
housing, and political change in Eastern Europe and the
Soviet Union after World War II. Journal of Urban History,
42(6), 1153–1157.
DOI: 10.1177/0096144216676776
Sóvágó, S. (2007). Evaluation report on the activities of the
Debrecen Police Department in 2006 (in Hungarian).
Évértékelő jelentés, Debrecen.
Speer, P. W., Gorman, D. M., Labouvie, E. W., & Ontkush,
M. J. (1998). Violent crime and alcohol availability:
relationships in an urban community. Journal of public health
policy, 19, 303–318.
DOI: 10.2307/3343538
Szabo, D. (1960). Crimes et villes. Étude statistique de la
criminalité urbaine et rurale en France et Belgique. Université
catholique de Louvain.
Szabo, D. (1968). Vie urbaine et criminalité. Recherches
sociographiques, L’urbanisation de la société canadienne-
française.
Szabo, D. (1963). “Urbanisation et criminalité”. In Szabo, D.
& Normandeau, A. (Eds.) Librairie Armand Colin, pp. 37–52.
Paris.
van Os, E., & Schneider, E. (2020). The cyber-security
waterbed effect. Atlantisch Perspectief, 44(4), 31–35.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/48600569
White, S., Yehle, T., Serrano, H., Oliveira, M., & Menezes, R.
(2015). The spatial structure of crime in urban environments.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 102–111.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15168-7_14
Wikstrom, P.-O. H. & Dolmen, L. (2001). Urbanisation,
Neighborhood Social Integration, Informal Social Control,
Minor Social Disorder, Victimisation and Fear of Crime.
International Review of Victimology, 8(2), 121–140.
DOI: 10.1177/026975800100800202
© 2024 by the author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
