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... To answer the third research question, the use of the ESM in a repeated design allowed for the accumulation of both collective and individual data on participants' flow experiences to explore their temporal dynamics over the eight weeks. Generally, instead of an upward trend, such as that identified in Jia et al. (2024), the level of flow remained high and stable across time, suggesting that the selfregulatory process of language learning outside classrooms provides conditions for the occurrence of flow. SRLL could be considered as adjunct to formal language instruction (Karakaya & Bozkurt, 2022). ...
... This external motivation likely influenced participants to opt for activities that were within their comfort zone. The consistence of being in flow across time sustained participants' engagement in English learning after class (Hong et al., 2017;Jia et al., 2024;Piniel & Albert, 2017. However, in contrast to the proposition that the optimal experience is expected to drive people to continually engage in new and higher challenges (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984), in this study, the state of flow was not motivating enough to prompt participants to try higher challenges, suggesting that the flow derived from comfort, and little challenge might have limited impact on improving language skills. ...
Flow, a subjective state of optimal engagement and immersion, is characterized by a balance of perceived challenges and skills, interest, attention, and a sense of control (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Investigating flow in language learning can provide valuable insights into effective learning processes and contexts (Egbert, 2003). Self-regulated learning is a proactive learning approach where learners establish learning objectives and actively regulate their cognition, motivation, and behavior (Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 1990). This study explores the flow experience of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in technology-enhanced self-regulated language learning (SRLL) using the experience sampling method. Through event-contingent sampling, 26 EFL learners from a Chinese university documented their flow experiences over an eight-week period, reporting the duration, engagement, and subjective experiences each time after completing English learning activities outside the classroom. Results demonstrated the prevalence of flow in SRLL activities despite a challenge–skill imbalance, with approximately half of the participants consistently experiencing flow. Furthermore, the state of flow induced more engagement in and commitment to self-regulated English learning. Intense flow was strongly associated with interest-driven reading and vocabulary learning via mobile applications and media, as well as with grammar drills. However, general variations of flow across time suggested that flow did not necessarily motivate participants to seek greater challenges and improve their skills. Individual variations of flow were explored, highlighting the complexity of flow, which was influenced by diverse individual factors.
... Positive mastery experiences strengthen self-efficacy, enhancing students' ability to cope with negative emotions and reducing the likelihood of procrastination. Conversely, failure experiences may lower self-efficacy, making students more prone to using procrastination as a coping strategy [48][49][50]. • Vicarious Experiences: Observing others, especially peers with similar backgrounds, successfully complete tasks can positively impact students' self-efficacy. When facing negative emotions, witnessing others' success can inspire students to believe that they also can overcome challenges, thus reducing the tendency to procrastinate [51,52]. ...
... Negative academic emotions represent adverse learning experiences, which negatively affect both self-efficacy and procrastination. According to Bandura's self-efficacy theory, learners' self-efficacy is closely related to their ability to cope with challenges [15,50,56]. Rakes emphasized in his research that negative learning experiences can undermine students' subjective judgments about their abilities, reducing self-efficacy and thus increasing procrastination [93]. ...
Academic procrastination is a widespread phenomenon among college students, significantly affecting their academic performance and mental health. Although previous studies have suggested a relationship between negative academic emotions and academic procrastination, the underlying mechanisms of this relationship remain insufficiently explored. Based on theoretical analysis and a review of the literature, this study utilizes structural equation modeling to examine the effects of negative academic emotions, self-efficacy, and goal orientation on academic procrastination. The results indicate a significant positive correlation between negative emotions and academic procrastination. Furthermore, self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship between negative academic emotions and academic procrastination, while goal orientation plays a moderating role in this relationship. This study reveals the intricate relationships between negative academic emotions and academic procrastination among Chinese college students, emphasizing the importance of enhancing self-efficacy and goal orientation to prevent procrastination. It provides theoretical and empirical support for improving learning efficiency and academic achievement, as well as for designing interventions to address academic procrastination.
... In the context of EFL learning, a study among Chinese EFL undergraduates revealed that students with higher self-efficacy are more likely to experience positive academic emotions, including enjoyment and pride (Wang et al., 2021). A recent study has also confirmed the importance of nurturing EFL learners' self-efficacy in facilitating their flow experience (Jia et al., 2024). This suggests that students with greater self-efficacy tend to be more optimistic and confident, which can lead to a more positive emotional state and academic engagement (Putwain et al., 2013). ...
... It suggests that teachers' encouragement and guidance play a vital role in fostering students' academic self-efficacy beliefs, which ultimately contribute to their engagement and flow in the classroom. Additionally, the findings indicated a positive correlation between academic self-efficacy and the experience of flow within the classroom, which aligns with prior research that highlighted the predictive role of self-efficacy in the occurrence of flow experience during EFL learning contexts (Jia et al., 2024). This suggests that students with higher self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to show greater engagement and persistence that is necessary to achieve academic goals, and thus are more likely to experience flow in their learning process. ...
Informed by social support theory and control-value theory, this study investigates the predictive role of teacher support on classroom flow among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners and the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy. A survey was conducted among 557 Chinese university EFL learners to gather relevant data. Descriptive statistics indicate that the participants exhibited a moderate level of classroom flow and exhibited significant variations based on gender and grade. Analysis using structural equation modeling revealed that teacher support has a noteworthy, positive predictive impact on EFL learners’ classroom flow. Furthermore, academic self-efficacy serves as a partial mediator between teacher support and classroom flow, with instrumental and emotional teacher support showing the strongest indirect effects. Notably, various dimensions of teacher support, aligning with students’ psychological needs as outlined by self-determination theory, have unique predictive effects on both classroom flow and academic self-efficacy. Appraisal and informational teacher support have the greatest predictive influence on classroom flow among the teacher support considered. The findings enhance understanding of the dynamics between teacher support, academic self-efficacy, and classroom flow, offering practical implications for creating autonomy-supportive educational environments that can elevate EFL learners’ engagement and academic achievements.
... The relationship between PU-L2LA and language mindset may be influenced by complex internal mechanisms, with flow and motivation intensity potentially mediating this association (Dörnyei & Henry, 2022;González Mujico, 2020;Jia et al., 2024;Paradowski & Jelińska, 2023;Peng et al., 2023). Flow refers to a psychological state characterized by intense focus, immersion, and enjoyment in an activity (Abdolrezapour & Ghanbari, 2022). ...
Existing research has explored the connection between perceived usefulness and growth mindset, but there are still gaps in our understanding of how the perceived usefulness of second language learning apps (PU-L2LA) relates to L2 learner's language mindset (LM). Our study seeks to investigate the serial mediating role of flow and motivation intensity in the association between PU-L2LA and LM, as well as the network-level interaction between flow and motivation intensity (MI). This is a cross-sectional study conducted with a convenience sample of 524 Chinese university students, aiming to assess PU-L2LA, flow, MI, and LM. The results of the mediation analyses reveal that flow and MI play sequential mediating roles in linking PU-L2LA to LM. Furthermore, through network analysis techniques, two key bridge indicators ("The experience is extremely rewarding." and "After I graduate from college, I will continue to study English and try to improve.") were identified as important links between flow and MI. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how PU-L2LA influences LM and the underlying mechanisms involved. They highlight the importance of considering flow experiences and MI in promoting a positive language mindset among learners. Educators, app developers, and researchers can utilize these insights to design effective interventions, enhance engagement, and optimize language learning outcomes.
Self-efficacy in learning is an individual's belief in their ability to effectively achieve learning goals during autonomous learning. Its measurement is typically conducted through self-report questionnaires, aiming to comprehensively assess students' levels of self-efficacy in learning. Factors influencing self-efficacy in learning include personal successful experiences, personality traits, social support, learning environments, task difficulty, among others. Self-efficacy in learning is closely related to online learning, as it not only affects students' attitudes, motivation, and strategies in learning but also predicts their behaviors and outcomes in online learning. Therefore, enhancing students' self-efficacy in learning is crucial for promoting their autonomous learning and academic success in online learning environments.
Strengths use at work has a significant positive impact on employees’ job performance. However, little research has been done on the effect of strengths use on performance beyond routine tasks, such as innovative behavior. In this daily diary study, we examined the relationship between daily strengths use and daily innovative behavior, building on the broaden-and-build theoretical framework. We proposed a moderated mediation model where the link between one’s daily strengths use and daily innovative behavior is mediated by daily flow at work and moderated by daily gratitude toward the organization (GTO). We collected daily data from 204 full-time employees over a period of three consecutive weeks, resulting in a total of 3060 data entries. Our results supported the hypothetical model, indicating that employees who utilized their daily strengths more at work are more likely to engage in daily innovative behavior. Furthermore, increased daily strengths use is associated with a stronger sense of flow at work, which further fosters daily innovative behavior. We also found that the relationship between daily strengths use and daily flow is intensified for employees with a higher daily GTO level at work. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
The purpose of this research was to explore the reciprocal associations between teachers’ grit, foreign language teaching enjoyment (FLTE), and work engagement using a cross-lagged panel design. In addition, the role of teacher self-efficacy as the predictor in the model was also examined. A sample of 786 English as foreign language (FL) teachers were recruited as the participants. The results of a cross-lagged analysis showed the reciprocal relations between the constructs. More gritty teachers at first assessment point showed further FLTE at the second point. Also, teachers who demonstrated further engagement at Time 1 showed greater degrees of FLTE at Time 2. Furthermore, higher levels of FLTE at Time 1 also led to greater levels of grit and engagement at Time 2. Finally, teacher self-efficacy positively predicated grit, FLTE, and work engagement just at Time 1, revealing that teacher self-efficacy failed to significantly predict the three latent constructs five months later.
Academics' conceptions of teaching (ACTs) and academics' teaching approaches (ATAs) are essential factors in informing academics' teaching behaviors. However, empirical evidence from longitudinal research exploring the causal link between ACTs and ATAs is lacking. In the current study, we employed a cross-lagged panel model approach in three waves to assess four hypotheses (i.e. stability, causal, reversed, and reciprocal models) concerning the causal association between ACTs and ATAs. For the data collection from 115 academics (60.9% female), we used the Conceptions of Teaching and Learning and the Revised Approaches to Teaching Inventory. Our findings indicated that ATAs were a causal predictor of ACTs, not vice-versa, regardless of participants' gender and teaching responsibilities. Specific ATAs (i.e. student-centered or teacher-centered) predicted complementary ACTs in time. Our results reveal that conceptual changes in academics can be possible after observing the positive effects of a specific teaching method on student learning. Therefore, academic developers should help academics (especially novice teachers) accurately distinguish student-centered from teacher-centered teaching behaviors and learn how to apply specific student-centered teaching methods in conjunction with self-reflective techniques. More empirical longitudinal studies with sound designs are needed to understand better the multi-directional nature and influence between ACTs and ATAs over time.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine the day-to-day within-person associations between employees' flow experience and organizational identification within the rarely studied context of construction engineering project organizations.
Design/methodology/approach
In this daily diary design, the authors surveyed 204 ( M age = 28.3, SD = 5.69) employees of a state-owned construction engineering project organization in southwest China via the online questionnaires comprising flow and organizational identification scales once daily on each workday for three consecutive weeks, which yielded 3,060 data entries. The authors then tested the temporal directionality between flow and organizational identification with multilevel time-series cross-lagged path analysis using Mplus 8.3.
Findings
Daily flow experience was linked positively with same-day organizational identification. Importantly, flow experience on the previous day predicted organizational identification on a subsequent day, but not vice versa.
Practical implications
This study suggests that construction engineering project managers should implement interventions fostering the employees' flow experience to promote organizational identification, with important implications for organizations aiming at flourishing workforces by facilitating organizational identification through implementing flow strategies.
Originality/value
There is a dearth of diary studies on flow and organizational identification specific to construction engineering project employees. The authors’ findings provide concrete evidence of the fluctuant nature of daily flow experience and organizational identification as well as their dynamic predictive pathway relationship.
In China, under the influence of examination-driven culture and teacher-centered ways of learning, students’ self-regulated learning (SRL) capabilities, self-efficacy, and actual English proficiency are greatly hindered. Given this situation, the Chinese Ministry of Education has promulgated the use of formative assessment in the College English curriculum at the tertiary level since 2004. Feedback, as an integrated part of formative assessment, takes up the largest proportion of the Chinese College English classroom assessment and intends to facilitate SRL and learning. However, whether feedback could facilitate students’ SRL and learning has not been fully investigated in this context in China. Therefore, this study first explored how students self-reported their conceptions of feedback, SRL, and self-efficacy, and second, the relationships among these constructs and their English language achievement in the College English course. A questionnaire was used to collect data on students’ conceptions of feedback, SRL, self-efficacy, and self-perceived English language proficiency. Their English test scores as an indicator of English language achievement were also collected. A total of 538 participants from a university in Northern China participated in this study. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analyses, Pearson correlation analyses, and multiple regression analyses. The results found that Chinese students from the College English course reported a high level of conceptions of teacher and peer feedback, SRL, and self-efficacy, yet a low level of Teacher/Peer Feedback Ignored. For the relationships among these variables, students’ conceptions of feedback contributed to SRL and self-efficacy. Besides, self-efficacy was found to be the strongest predictor for self-perceived English language proficiency and standardized English test scores, both indicators for English language achievement. From the theoretical perspective, this study addressed the research gap in the literature by examining four constructs together, that is, students’ conceptions of feedback, SRL, self-efficacy, and English language achievement within a university context in China. From the pedagogical angle, the results can also support teachers in their feedback practices to facilitate students’ SRL, self-efficacy, and learning.
This research investigates Chinese EFL students' flow experience in academic writing and its effect on students' writing performance. The research consists of two studies: (1) a preliminary study involving a survey of 162 college students immediately after their completion of a short English essay to examine whether and how intensely they experienced flow during their writing and whether their perceived levels of challenge of the writing task and their writing skills affected their flow experience, and (2) a main study including a survey of 216 different students at the end of a semester-long writing course to ascertain how frequently these students experienced flow during the course, whether their intrinsic writing motivation and attention control ability were significantly correlated with their flow experience, and whether their flow frequency had an effect on their performance in the writing course. Results of statistical tests (including Class Factor Analyses and regression analyses) of the data in the preliminary study revealed that a large majority (76%) of the students experienced a certain level of flow in their writing and their perceived levels of writing skills had a significant influence on their flow experience. The statistical test results of the main study indicated that (1) 66.4% of the students experienced flow with various frequency levels, while 33.6% of the students rarely or never experienced flow, (2) students' level of motivation and attention control were significantly correlated with their level of flow frequency, and (3) students' flow frequency had a significant influence on their writing course scores. Research and pedagogical implications of the study are also discussed.
Happiness is valued as one of the most important goals in raising children, but what factors make children happy? Inspired by philosophical conceptions of ‘eudaimonia’ in life, we investigated how children’s social and academic functioning, including prosocial behaviors, peer preference, and academic achievement, may be related to happiness, over and above desire satisfaction. Participants included 2,144 children (initial ages of 9 and 10 years) in China. Two waves of longitudinal data were collected from multiple sources including self-reports, peer evaluations, and school records. Cross-lagged panel analysis indicated that prosocial behaviors, peer preference, and academic achievement predicted children’s self-reported happiness over a year, controlling for desire satisfaction. Bidirectional relations were found between peer-assessed happiness and prosocial behaviors, peer preference, and academic achievement. The results suggest that children’s happiness is linked to their social and academic functioning from middle childhood, contributing to a better understanding of the nature and development of happiness.
The present study focuses on the experience of flow among 168 Arab and Kurdish English Foreign Language (EFL) learners in both in-person and emergency remote teaching (ERT) classes. Statistical analyses of questionnaire data revealed that learners did experience flow in their ERT classes but for a significantly shorter time than in the pre-pandemic in-person classes. Those who experienced flow in in-person classes were also more likely to experience it in ERT classes. In the in-person classes, the proportion of time in flow was linked to age, self-rated proficiency, attitudes toward English, attitudes toward the teacher, and the teacher frequency of use of English. In contrast, in ERT classes, the proportion of time in flow was only linked to attitude toward the teacher. This is interpreted as evidence that the ERT does not just cause physical and social isolation but also mental isolation.
The purpose of the present study was to explore the direct influence of self-concept and self-imagination on English language learning outcomes (ELLO). Furthermore, this study examined the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between self-concept, self-imagination, and ELLO. A survey questionnaire of 21 items was used in this study. We distributed the questionnaire through QR code and collected the data from 2,517 participants who enrolled in blended learning courses at the undergraduate level in Chinese universities. The relationship among the variables was measured through SmartPLS-SEM 3.3.3 (partial least squares structural equation modeling). The outcomes of the present study indicated a direct, positive, and significant connection of self-concept, self-imagination, and self-efficacy with ELLO. Looking at indirect influences, self-concept and self-imagination, positive and significant, influence ELLO through self-efficacy. Thus, self-efficacy was indicated to play a mediating role between self-concept, self-imagination and ELLO. We can conclude that self-concept, self-imagination, and self-efficacy are the main predictors of ELLO in blended learning courses during the pandemic. Additionally, self-concept and self-imagination along with the intervening role of self-efficacy, play a more effective role in improving ELLO. Moreover, this study provided some useful, practical implications, and future research directions.
Academic self-efficacy beliefs influence students’ academic and career choices, as well as motivational factors and learning strategies promoting effective academic success. Nevertheless, few studies have focused on the academic self-efficacy of university students in comparison to students at other levels. Furthermore, extant measures present several limitations. The first aim of this study was to develop a reliable and valid scale assessing university students’ self-efficacy beliefs in managing academic tasks. The second aim was to investigate differences in academic self-efficacy due to gender, years of enrollment, and student status. The study involved 831 students (age M = 21.09 years; SD = 1.34 years; 66.3% women) enrolled in undergraduate programs. Indicators of academic experiences and performance (i.e., number of exams passed and average exam rating) were collected. A new scale measuring students’ academic self-efficacy beliefs was administered. Results from a preliminary Exploratory Factor Analysis were consistently supported by findings from a Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Multigroup CFA supported the presence of measurement invariance. Analyses revealed that the new scale has eight factors: “Planning Academic Activities,” “Learning Strategies,” “Information Retrieval,” “Working in Groups,” “Management of Relationships with Teachers,” “Managing Lessons,” “Stress Management,” and “Thesis Work.” Self-efficacy dimensions showed significant relations with academic experiences and students’ performance indicators, as well as differences due to gender, years of enrollment, and student status. Findings are discussed in terms of practical implications for the implementation of intervention programs aimed at fostering self-efficacy beliefs and academic success.
The present study investigated a conceptual model by testing flow experience and subjective well-being of university students during Coronavirus Diseas-19 (COVID-19) via considering their underlying mechanisms of academic self-efficacy and self-esteem. A total of 1,109 Chinese university students completed a questionnaire containing scales of subjective well-being, flow, academic self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Results yielded from the structural equation modeling analysis indicated a significant and positive association between flow experience and subjective well-being, and such an association was sequentially mediated by academic self-efficacy and self-esteem. Findings also provided empirical evidence for the proposed model highlighting the significant role of flow experience at the higher educational context in predicting subjective well-being of Chinese university students, and how such a relation can be supported by suggested mediating roles academic self-efficacy and self-esteem played.
In line with the dynamic shift in SLA domain and the need for the development of suitable methods to explore the dynamics of emerging concepts in the field such as grit and enjoyment, in the present research, we intended to investigate the growth of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and L2 grit over time. To do this, we used a bivariate latent growth curve model (LGCM) to examine the covariance between 437 EFL learners' initial and growth levels of L2 grit and FLE in four measurement occasions of 2 week intervals. The data were collected via the original foreign language enjoyment scale and the L2 grit scale. The model including the covariance between intercepts and slopes of FLE and L2 grit was tested via Mplus 7. The findings indicated an increasing trend in the association between the growth levels of both variables. That is, the means of both L2 grit and FLE were larger at their growth level than their initial level. Also, analyzing the co-variations in the model showed that the covariances between the intercepts and slopes of FLE and L2 grit were statistically significant. This would point to the existence of a parallel process (co-development) of FLE and L2 grit. This result also implied that an increase in the level of FLE among the participants was strongly correlated with an increase in the level of L2 grit during the whole course. The findings were discussed with reference to previous studies in the literature and the implications were also provided.
This study aimed to verify the effects of role modeling on adolescent athletes’ self-efficacy and flow state. The subjects were middle school and high school athletes registered with the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee. From the collected data, descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, and structural equation model analysis were performed. To verify the mediating effects of self-efficacy in the relationship between modeling and flow state, structural equation modeling analysis was conducted. The direct effects of adolescent athlete modeling on flow state (β = 0.416, B = 0.244, p < 0.01) and self-efficacy (β = 0.479, B = 0.500, p < 0.01) were all significant, and the direct effects of self-efficacy on flow state (β = 0.404, B = 0.227, p < 0.01) were also significant. Furthermore, it was confirmed that the indirect effect of modeling on flow state (β = 0.194, B = 0.114, p < 0.01) was significant, and that the partial mediated effects of self-efficacy were significant. Thus, we confirmed that when adolescent athlete use modeling through a role model, their self-efficacy increased which in turn led to a positive effect on the ability to achieve a flow state.
Determining an appropriate sample size is vital in drawing realistic conclusions from research findings. Although there are several widely adopted rules of thumb to calculate sample size, researchers remain unclear about which one to consider when determining sample size in their respective studies. ‘How large should the sample be?’ is one the most frequently asked questions in survey research. The objective of this editorial is three-fold. First, we discuss the factors that influence sample size decisions. Second, we review existing rules of thumb related to the calculation of sample size. Third, we present the guidelines to perform power analysis using the G*Power programme. There is, however, a caveat: we urge researchers not to blindly follow these rules. Such rules or guidelines should be understood in their specific contexts and under the conditions in which they were prescribed. We hope that this editorial does not only provide researchers a fundamental understanding of sample size and its associated issues, but also facilitates their consideration of sample size determination in their own studies.
This study examined the role of growth mindset, self-efficacy, and intrinsic value in self-regulated learning (SRL) and English language learning achievements in Hong Kong primary school students. A sample of 690 4th graders participated in the study. The findings suggest that the level of SRL strategy use (i.e. monitoring, effort regulation, and goal setting and planning) was driven by the students’ motivational beliefs (i.e. growth mindset, self-efficacy, and intrinsic value) in different ways. Monitoring and effort regulation, in turn, were significant contributors to the participants’ English language learning achievements, but goal setting and planning did not predict their English language learning achievements. The finding suggests that growth mindset was a stronger predictor of SRL than self-efficacy and intrinsic value. Implications for fostering adaptive motivational beliefs and SRL are discussed. Future research should consider the influence of the socio-cultural context on the relationships between motivational factors, SRL strategy use, and English language learning achievements.
Self-efficacy is a well-known psychological resource, being positively associated with increased performance. Furthermore, results from field studies suggest a positive impact of self-efficacy on flow experience, which has not yet been tested experimentally. In this study, we manipulated self-efficacy by means of positive feedback and investigated whether self-efficacy serves as a mediator in the relationship between positive feedback and flow and in the relationship between positive feedback and performance. Our sample consisted of 102 participants (63 female, 39 male). The experimental group received positive feedback after completing 5 min of mental arithmetic tasks on a computer, whereas the control group received no feedback. A second session of a mental arithmetic task was then completed for 5 min. Mediation analyses confirmed that specific self-efficacy mediated a positive effect of positive feedback on flow as well as on both performance measures (quality and quantity) in a subsequent task. However, direct effects of feedback on flow and on performance were not significant, which suggests the presence of other mechanisms that remain to be investigated.
Following the recent shift from negative psychology to positive psychology, interest in foreign language enjoyment (FLE) has grown noticeably in second language acquisition. Given the fact that learners are “persons-in-context” and are not “ergodic ensembles,” the particular learner-context ecosystem goes through ongoing momentary changes with respect to individual differences like FLE. Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) contributes to our understanding of the dynamics of this ecosystem in terms of the interaction between individual learners and their learning environments. In this study, using a time-based sampling scheme of EMA, we explored the dynamism of different facets of FLE across different timescales including seconds, minutes, weeks, and months in a course of intermediate English as a foreign language. To do this, we applied open-ended interviews with two intermediate English language learners in a private English language institute across months, journals across weeks, enjoymeters across minutes, and the idiodynamic approach across seconds. Findings indicated that enjoyment in foreign language fluctuates in terms of a hierarchy of temporal scales, from moment-to-moment changes to the ones over months. The emerging patterns of enjoyment across different timescales in terms of the tenets of complex dynamic systems theory are discussed.
A growing number of studies suggest that flow experience is associated with life satisfaction, eudaimonic well-being, and the perceived strength of one’s social and place identity. However, little research has placed emphasis on flow and its relations with negative experiences such as anxiety. The current study investigated the relations between flow and anxiety by considering the roles of self-esteem and academic self-efficacy. The study sample included 590 Chinese university students, who were asked to complete a self-report questionnaire on flow, anxiety, self-esteem, and academic self-efficacy. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) with AMOS software, in which both factorial analysis and path analysis were performed. Results revealed that the experience of flow negatively predicted anxiety, and both self-esteem and academic self-efficacy fully mediated the path between flow and anxiety. Specifically, self-esteem played a crucial and complete mediating role in this relationship, while academic self-efficacy mediated the path between self-esteem and anxiety. Our findings enrich the literature on flow experience and help with identifying practical considerations for buffering anxiety and more broadly with fostering strategies for promoting psychological sustainability and resilience.
This paper critically examines the body of literature on emotions in second language acquisition (SLA). More specifically, the following topics are discussed: (a) the three phases of emotion research in SLA and their scope and topics, (b) the main underpinnings of emotion-related theories or assumptions in SLA, and (c) the methodological and epistemological diversity of emotion research in SLA. Finally, the article offers suggestions for further research and implications for L2 teaching and learning.
二语学习情绪研究(栏目主持人:李成陈) 积极心理学(Positive Psychology,PP)是心理学领域的一个热门分支,以促进个体或集体的发展 和幸福感为目标,呼吁实现从过去一贯关注心理缺陷到关注积极心理品质的转变。 在二语习得领 域,积极心理学的主要目标是提高语言学习者的幸福感,而情绪是幸福感的核心维度,关乎学习者 个体身心健康,亦对个体表现具有明显的预测作用。 拓展—建构理论(broaden-and-build theory)对 不同情绪的作用进行区分,突显各种情绪在语言学习中的不同影响,打破了以焦虑为中心的情绪 观,推动了二语学习情绪研究在国外蓬勃发展。 但可惜的是,相关研究却鲜见于国内外语学术期 刊。 为与国际学界接轨,本专栏在积极心理学视角下,探讨我国外语学习者课堂内外的情绪体验、 影响/ 相关要素及调节策略,由一篇综述和三篇实证论文构成。 Jean-Marc Dewaele 和李成陈对二语 学习情绪领域的理论、研究及实践进行梳理,从理论、主题和研究方法等方面提出建议,并为未来 研究指出方向。 两位作者呼吁从教育心理学领域引入控制—价值理论(control-value theory),该呼 吁在其后三篇实证论文中均得到有力回应。 韩晔和许悦婷采用个案研究方法,以书面纠正性反馈 为例探究大学生二语写作学习的情绪体验及情绪调节策略。 姜艳采用焦点式写作研究方法,考察 影响大学生外语课堂愉悦的教师因素。 李成陈基于问卷调查和英语测评,探究高中生情绪智力、 外语课堂情绪(愉悦、焦虑及倦怠)与英语成绩之间的复杂关系。 三篇实证论文所涉对象群体包括 高中生到大学生,研究方法多样,理论视角新颖,情绪种类丰富,能为后续相关研究提供诸多有益 启示和思路。 时值全国新冠肺炎疫情防控的决战决胜之际,谨向奋战在抗疫一线的医务工作者和社会各界 人士致敬! 众志成城,积极战疫,勇夺胜利!
This study introduces the statistical theory of using the Standardized Root Mean Squared Error (SRMR) to test close fit in ordinal factor analysis. We also compare the accuracy of confidence intervals (CIs) and tests of close fit based on the SRMR with those obtained based on the Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA). The current (biased) implementation for the RMSEA never rejects that a model fits closely when data are binary and almost invariably rejects the model in large samples if data consist of five categories. The unbiased RMSEA produces better rejection rates, but it is only accurate enough when the number of variables is small and the degree of misfit is small. In contrast, across all simulated conditions, the tests of close fit based on the SRMR yield acceptable type I error rates. SRMR tests of close fit are also more powerful than those using the unbiased RMSEA.
This paper examines the relationships between student interest, self-efficacy, and perceptions of the instructor on a set of learning outcomes that include, but are broader than, traditional measures of student learning. Consistent with the focus of positive psychology, the study focuses not only on knowledge gains but also on the flow experience and student satisfaction as important outcomes. Results show learning outcomes are affected by student interest, self-efficacy, and perceptions of the instructor.
Although digital game-based vocabulary learning (DGBVL) has attracted considerable attention, factors attributing to the facilitative effects of DGBVL have not yet been satisfactorily understood. To this end, under the theoretical framework of flow theory, this study investigates the effects of flow experiences on Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners’ learning outcomes. Specifically, this study explores the influences of learner factors (balance of skill and challenge, and clear goal) and contextual factors (feedback and playability) on learners’ flow experiences, such as concentration, intrinsic motivation and enjoyment. It also examines the effects of flow experiences on learners’ perceived learning and satisfaction. Based on a survey of 291 Chinese EFL learners who used a DGBVL APP (application) named Baicizhan, the results demonstrated that balance of skill and challenge, clear goal and playability provided by the DGBVL have a positive effect on concentration. Feedback positively influences intrinsic motivation. Moreover, both concentration and intrinsic motivation positively affect perceived learning and satisfaction, but enjoyment only positively influences perceived learning rather than satisfaction. Lastly, satisfaction is positively affected by perceived learning. Implications of the findings are also discussed.
Recent research has shown that Chinese foreign language learners’ classroom emotions stand out from learners in the rest of the world. The present mixed-method study investigated to what extent foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) of 564 Chinese undergraduate EFL learners are different from learners outside China. While mean levels of FLE and FLCA were found to differ, most of the patterns between FLE and FLCA and a range of learner-internal and teacher-related variables were comparable to those identified in previous research, except for Chinese students' dislike of unpredictable behaviour by the teacher. Participants reported similar levels of FLE but higher levels of FLCA compared to the international sample in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014), which could be attributed to the Chinese educational context. Multiple regression analyses revealed that FLE was predicted more strongly by teacher-related variables while FLCA was mostly predicted by learner-internal variables, confirming earlier research outside China. Qualitative analysis of learners’ emotional experiences also revealed that FLE was more likely to have been triggered by the teacher while FLCA was more related to learners themselves. Pedagogical implications of the findings are provided for EFL teaching in Chinese universities.
This study adapted a Chinese remote‐associated game for team competition, and explored the correlates between self‐efficacy in Chinese word learning, competitive anxiety, collective self‐esteem in gameplay and flow experience. A total of 206 valid data was collected from fifth‐grade students. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling showed that while self‐efficacy in Chinese word learning was positively related to collective self‐esteem, it was negatively related to competitive anxiety. It was also found that collective self‐esteem in gameplay was positively related to flow experience, but that competitive anxiety was negatively related to flow experience. The findings of this study imply that group competition can enhance the participants’ flow experience and collective self‐esteem, and will decrease the level of gameplay anxiety in general.
Practitioner Notes
What is already known about this topic Educational application (app) games could be considered as an effective way of providing a more interesting learning environment for acquiring knowledge.
Learning with educational games is beneficial.
What this paper adds Self‐efficacy in Chinese word learning was positively related to collective self‐esteem but negatively related to gameplay anxiety.
Collective self‐esteem in gameplay was positively related to flow experience, and gameplay anxiety was negatively related to flow experience.
Implications for practice and/or policy Flow experience makes the students’ learning experience more memorable.
The advantage of a remote‐associated game in Chinese learning is obvious.
An integrated mobile game for group competition can enhance the participants’ flow experience and collective self‐esteem, and will decrease the level of gameplay anxiety in general.
Flow refers to a special experience of total absorption in one task. Sustained flow (also known as directed motivational currents) is the occurrence of flow in a series of tasks aimed at achieving a certain outcome (for example improving proficiency in a second language). In this article, we investigate shared, sustained flow—which occurs when a group of individuals working collaboratively experience sustained flow. Interviews were conducted with five participants (two teachers and three students) to find out the conditions perceived to have facilitated this experience during pre-sessional language courses at two British universities. The results point to three main conditions: forming a group identity, attaching personal value and providing partial autonomy. We discuss how teachers can apply these findings to design motivational out-of-class activities.
We compare the accuracy of confidence intervals (CIs) and tests of close fit based on the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) with those based on the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Investigations used normal and nonnormal data with models ranging from p = 10 to 60 observed variables. CIs and tests of close fit based on the SRMR are generally accurate across all conditions (even at p = 60 with nonnormal data). In contrast, CIs and tests of close fit based on the RMSEA are only accurate in small models. In larger models (p ≥ 30), they incorrectly suggest that models do not fit closely, particularly if sample size is less than 500.
Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s own ability to carry out a given task, and has been shown to be a powerful predictor of performance. Although researchers have considered self-efficacy within language learning, it remains a relatively underused and unexplored construct. This longitudinal mixed-method study set out to address this, by developing a questionnaire to measure students’ English speaking self-efficacy, which was then given to first-year university students on eight occasions over the course of an academic year. Changes in self-efficacy were modeled using Hierarchical Linear Modeling, and potential predictors of change were assessed. The model showed that students grew in self-efficacy, although there were different rates of growth for individuals. Students were interviewed regarding growth in self-efficacy, and possible reasons for change. Students stated that efficacy increased as they became used to the class, but the importance of context as an influence on self-efficacy also emerged.
https://books.google.hu/books?id=ErctDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=UZRT+2017&source=bl&ots=yB6oVsHU2j&sig=IMHG9qCP_ZHYBI4j576y-lGdLDI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE7Ouz_f7VAhXlPZoKHeHwB-sQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=UZRT%202017&f=false
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
Our study describes the relationship of second language learning motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety; that is, how motivation, cognition, and affect might interact during the process of second language learning. Questionnaire data were collected from 236 Hungarian students studying at various secondary schools. Structural equation modeling was used to investigate the proposed circular relationship of students’ motivated learning behavior, language learning experience, self-efficacy beliefs, and both debilitating and facilitating anxiety. Our results indicate that: (a) the process of motivation is complex and influenced by other individual difference (ID) variables, and (b) the investigation of ID variables in constellations rather than in isolation seems to be more fruitful in understanding language learner differences.
A reciprocal effects model linking emotion and achievement over time is proposed. The model was tested using five annual waves of the Project for the Analysis of Learning and Achievement in Mathematics (PALMA) longitudinal study, which investigated adolescents’ development in mathematics (Grades 5–9; N = 3,425 German students; mean starting age = 11.7 years; representative sample). Structural equation modeling showed that positive emotions (enjoyment, pride) positively predicted subsequent achievement (math end-of-the-year grades and test scores), and that achievement positively predicted these emotions, controlling for students’ gender, intelligence, and family socioeconomic status. Negative emotions (anger, anxiety, shame, boredom, hopelessness) negatively predicted achievement, and achievement negatively predicted these emotions. The findings were robust across waves, achievement indicators, and school tracks, highlighting the importance of emotions for students’ achievement and of achievement for the development of emotions.
Flow is an optimal psychological state that has been described at length by Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 1993) as a state in which people become totally immersed in an activity and enjoy it intensely. According to Csikszentmihalyi, such a peak experience can emerge in any situation in which there is an activity to do. Researchers have indeed found evidence for flow during the execution of a large number of different activities including sports, work, and playing music. However, state of flow during language learning activities has hardly been studied. The present study was designed to investigate the relationship between task-induced state of flow during vocabulary acquisition activities and the achievement in terms of short-term and long-term vocabulary acquisition. Sixty five learners at an English Language Institution took part in vocabulary acquisition tasks aimed at engaging learners cognitively and affectively in the state of flow. To measure flow state the " Flow Perceptions Questionnaire " in the Likert format (Egbert, 2003) was used. It was an instrument for gathering the data concerning students' affective responses during task engagement. The researcher-made retention measurement was used to determine vocabulary learning efficiency. The result indicated that flow existed in the vocabulary learning classroom and that there was a significant relationship between the level of flow state and vocabulary retention both in immediate and delayed measurements. Also male and female learners of EFL were different in terms of vocabulary retention resulting from flow state.
This study examined the relationship between flow experience and place identity, based on eudaimonistic identity theory (EIT) which prioritizes self-defining activities as important for an individual’s identification of his/her goals, values, beliefs, and interests corresponding to one’s own identity development or enhancement. This study focuses on place identity, the identity’s features relating to a person’s relation with her/his place. The study is also based on flow theory, according to which some salient features of an activity experience are important for happiness and well-being. Questionnaire surveys on Italian and Greek residents focused on their perceived flow and place identity in relation to their own specific local place experiences. The overall findings revealed that flow experience occurring in one’s own preferred place is widely reported as resulting from a range of self-defining activities, irrespective of gender or age, and it is positively and significantly associated with one’s own place identity. Such findings provide the first quantitative evidence about the link between flow experienced during meaningfully located self-defining activities and identity experienced at the place level, similarly to the corresponding personal and social levels that had been previously already empirically tested. Results are also discussed in terms of their implications for EIT’s understanding and enrichment, especially by its generalization from the traditional, personal identity level up to that of place identity. More generally, this study has implications for maintaining or enhancing one’s own place identity, and therefore people–place relations, by means of facilitating a person’s flow experience within psychologically meaningful places.
This study sought to explore the relationship between mindfulness, coping self-efficacy (CSE) and foreign language anxiety (FLA) among a sample of 295 Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Further, the capacity of CSE in mediating the relationship between mindfulness and FLA was tested. The participants were administered self-reported questionnaires. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was utilised. The results of SEM analysis showed that higher levels of mindfulness were associated with lower levels of FLA and greater CSE. In addition, it was found that CSE could partially mediate the relationship between mindfulness and FLA. Implications are discussed.
Eudaimonistic identity theory posits a link between activity and identity, where a self-defining activity promotes the strength of a person’s identity. An activity engaged in with high enjoyment, full involvement, and high concentration can facilitate the subjective experience of flow. In the present paper, we hypothesized in accordance with the theory of psychological selection that beyond the promotion of individual development and complexity at the personal level, the relationship between flow and identity at the social level is also positive through participation in self-defining activities. Three different samples (i.e., American, Chinese, and Spanish) filled in measures for flow and social identity, with reference to four previously self-reported activities, characterized by four different combinations of skills (low vs. high) and challenges (low vs. high). Findings indicated that flow was positively associated with social identity across each of the above samples, regardless of participants’ gender and age. The results have implications for increasing social identity via participation in self-defining group activities that could facilitate flow.
Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is a recent concern resulting from the dramatic increase in worldwide smartphone use. Although prior studies have indicated the between-person relationship between happiness motives and PSU, less is known about the within-person connection. This study investigated the week-to-week associations between PSU and two types of happiness motives (i.e., hedonic motives and eudaimonic motives) using a weekly diary design. A sample of 270 young adults (Mage = 19.06 years, SD = 0.88 years) completed the online questionnaires once a week for ten consecutive weeks. The results indicated that hedonic motives were positively linked with PSU while eudaimonic motives were negatively associated with it in the same week. More importantly, the multilevel cross-lagged path analysis showed that hedonic motives from the previous week positively predicted PSU in the following week. There was also a reverse relationship between them, whereas there was no predictive relationship between eudaimonic motives and PSU. These results provide convincing evidence that the two types of happiness motives play different roles in the development of PSU, and for the reciprocal relationships between hedonic motives and PSU.
Although the performance of female students in STEM subjects is as good as that of male students, their self-efficacy expectations are at a low level. Given the influence of self-efficacy expectations on academic careers and later career decisions, measures are needed in this area. Serious games could be one way of increasing the self-efficacy expectations of adolescents and girls in particular. The property of serious games to enable flow experiences is said to have a positive effect on motivation and possibly also a positive influence on self-efficacy expectations. In order to investigate this, a serious game on the topic of electricity
theory was developed and the flow experience and the influence on
self-efficacy expectations were examined in a pre-post design. The results indicate a positive effect, which is partly mediated by the flow.KeywordsSelf-efficacyFlowSerious gamesSTEM
The global Covid-19 pandemic that hit educational contexts worldwide transformed our regular educational practices and some tasks such as peer revision, a staple in many additional language (AL) writing courses (Hyland & Hyland, 2019), were put aside. As teachers have become more familiar with many new technologies since the start of the pandemic, there is a need to implement peer revision tasks and to understand learners' experiences in this process. The aims of the present study were to examine AL learners’ subjective experience through flow theory as they engage in peer revision tasks with two components: an individual peer feedback component with a follow-up shared feedback component. Flow, a positive experiential state characterized by focus and involvement in challenging yet doable tasks, has been associated with enhanced self-confidence and task performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Participants of French as an AL (n = 18) engaged in two peer revision tasks (PR) which included both an individual (I-PR) and a follow-up sharing component (S-PR). Flow perception questionnaires were completed immediately following each task. Findings provide empirical evidence that despite being physically isolated and having limited experience with online technologies, learners experienced flow, especially during the S-PR but that technology familiarity and familiarity with peer revision procedures as a result of repeating the procedure mediated flow experiences.
Numerous empirical studies confirm the role of self-efficacy in the foreign/second language (L2) learning context. Despite this, few studies have explored the construct of L2 English self-efficacy (L2 self-efficacy) from a longitudinal perspective. This study investigates the developmental features of self-efficacy in English L2 learning by focusing on two research questions: first, whether L2 self-efficacy is a changeable construct, and second, whether L2 self-efficacy growth factors affect L2 English learning outcomes over time. A sample was obtained from the Gyeonggi Education Panel Study (N = 4,501; 1,967 female, 2,084 male) from 63 secondary schools in South Korea. The curve-of-factor model approach using Mplus 8.4 revealed that L2 self-efficacy slightly increased over three years. Furthermore, the growth of L2 self-efficacy beliefs was positively associated with L2 learning outcome-related variables including L2 class comprehension, L2 class engagement, and L2 achievement, after controlling for the effect of prior attainment and family socioeconomic factors. The findings are discussed in terms of applied language teaching and learning practices, the pedagogical implications in second language acquisition, and further research.
Flow has been widely researched in the fields of psychology, educational psychology and so on ever since it was first proposed by Csikszentmihalyi (1975), and in recent years it has been further explored in relation to the emotions related to online course learning (Shin, 2006) and digital game playing (Killi, 2005). However, it has less been applied in the field of foreign language education, especially in the era of digital language learning. To fill this gap, we focused on the flow experience of 235 Chinese junior high school students during online English learning using English Fun Dubbing as the software medium. Three stages of flow (antecedents, experience and consequences) were measured to investigate: (1) students’ experience during the dubbing task in terms of the three flow stages, and (2) differences between students with high and low dubbing work scores. Quantitative data analysis followed by interviews showed the students had a moderately-high flow experience among the three flow stages. The flow experience was similar for both student groups, but there were significant variations in the flow antecedents (skill, challenge, and clear goals). These findings have implications for designing and implementing young learners’ English teaching and learning activities.
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
Providing teachers with innovative teaching approaches that combine simulation-based learning systems with entrepreneurship education helps create and recognize entrepreneurial opportunities. In this study, key antecedents are identified as critical drivers of flow experience and the impact of flow experience on learning performance and entrepreneurial self-efficacy is examined in order to propose a behavior model based on flow theory. Virtual Business Retailing (VBR) software, a business simulation system for convenience store operations, is used in this study to investigate the learning behavior of students and to collect data for analysis. The results reveal that challenge-skill balance and playability play a critical role in enhancing flow experience and, consequently, in improving learning performance and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The findings contribute to existing flow theory, the literature on simulation and game-based learning, and the literature on entrepreneurship education. Furthermore, the findings provide VBR education-system educators and developers with a better understanding of students’ expectations and needs when interacting with retail business simulation-based learning environments as well as with guidelines to effectively design VBR educational systems that are conducive to flow experience, which may help improve entrepreneurial self-efficacy in students.
This study aims to examine how writing self-efficacy and writing self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies are related to writing proficiency among college students in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The Questionnaire of English Writing Self-Efficacy (QEWSE) and the Questionnaire of English Writing Self-Regulated Learning Strategies (QEWSRLS) were administered to 319 sophomore Chinese students. Their writing proficiency was measured by their writing scores on the writing section of the College English Test Band 4 (CET-4). The results showed that EFL students reported a moderate level of self-efficacy and infrequent use of SRL strategies in the course of writing. Moreover, both writing self-efficacy and writing SRL strategies contributed significantly to the prediction of students’ writing proficiency. Since self-efficacy and self-regulation are crucial to students’ writing proficiency, the current study provides classroom teachers with insights about how to incorporate instructions into EFL classrooms to improve students’ writing outcomes.
This article reports on a quantitative study investigating Vietnamese college students' selfefficacy beliefs as related to their English language proficiency and prior learning experience. A sample of 767 Vietnamese first-year college students responded to the Questionnaire of Self-Efficacy Beliefs. Results of this study support Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory and previous research (e.g., Chen, 2007) in that mastery experience is a significant source of self-efficacy beliefs. Results also showed a positive relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and English language proficiency when student background
information and their learning experience were controlled. Students from the south region reported higher levels of self-efficacy beliefs than their classmates from the north and central regions in Vietnam. However, no significant differences were found between male
and female students. Implications of the findings to research and the instruction of English as a foreign language in the Vietnamese context were discussed.
Students of Southeast Asian Heritage Learning Chinese (SSAHLC) in Taiwan have frequently demonstrated difficulty with traditional Chinese (a graphical character) radical recognition due to their limited exposure to the written language form since childhood. In this study, we designed a Chinese radical learning game (CRLG), which adopted a drill and practice mode, for SSAHLC to practice recognizing Chinese radicals. To facilitate Chinese writing, non-native learners need to use aspects of the radical knowledge as cues to encode characters, from which the contents of the game were built up for SSAHLC to master the Chinese written forms by playing the CRLG with gesture-based interactions. In addition, the game was used to explore the students’ intrinsic motivation relevant to online learning self-efficacy, as well as the experience of flow, to predict the degree of learning progress. Data were collected from 78 SSAHLC participating in the study, and 73 valid questionnaires were returned. After applying confirmatory factor analysis as well as structural equation modeling to the valid data, it was found that four constructs, namely intrinsic motivation, online learning self-efficacy, flow experience, and learning progress, were all positively correlated. Our results indicated that intrinsic motivation of Chinese learning predicted online learning self-efficacy, and that flow experience was relevant to the students’ learning progress. Moreover, the degree of learning progress could be predicted by the mediating factors. These findings imply that heritage language teachers may utilize the CRLG to enhance learners’ Chinese radical recognition ability, and eventually improve their Chinese character recognition ability.
Positive psychology has the potential to become a prominent research area in SLA. The field is focused on positive emotion, positive character traits, and institutions that enable individuals to flourish, all of which are major concerns in language learning. The present chapter identifies key trends, such as the move toward studying positive emotions, flow, and learner strengths in SLA, as well as novel conceptual framework called EMPATHICS developed by Rebecca Oxford. The paper also addresses some of the fair and unfair criticism of positive psychology based on the tendency to separate positive and negative emotion, a failure to study individuals in sufficient depth, measurement issues, and an over-reliance on cross-sectional research designs. Two issues in particular, the health benefits of positive emotion and the critique of the 3:1 positivity ratio, are considered in some detail. In several notable respects, the development of positive psychology within SLA already is addressing these issues creatively and proposing solutions. The paper concludes that research into positive psychology in SLA is off to a good start, and is in some ways already ahead of positive psychology more generally.
