Access to this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
Content available from Humanities and Social Sciences Communications
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
ARTICLE
Philosophical practice and its development in
China: opportunities and challenges
Xiaojun Ding1✉, Caifeng Xie1& Feng Yu2✉
This paper examines the application and evolution of philosophical practice in China, which
employs philosophical principles and methods to facilitate insights and address life’s com-
plexities. We aim to bridge the knowledge gap regarding the trajectory and contemporary
landscape of China’s philosophical practice and its impact on individual and societal flour-
ishing. Guided by the research question, “How has philosophical practice evolved in China,
and what are its challenges and future prospects?”this study adopts a qualitative research
methodology, including a literature review, historical analysis, and case studies from Chinese
philosophical communities. Findings indicate a burgeoning growth of philosophical practice in
China, with traditional Chinese philosophies being adapted to provide practical guidance for
contemporary issues. The spread of philosophical practice communities across China reflects
a growing embrace of these practices. This paper outlines the hurdles and prospects for
philosophical practice, pinpointing opportunities for further research and cross-cultural
engagement. The insights furnished by this study offer a framework for scholars, practi-
tioners, and policymakers to enhance philosophical practice’s role in personal growth and
societal well-being, both within China and internationally.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 OPEN
1Department of Philosophy, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China. 2Department of Psychology, Academy of
Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China. ✉email: xiaojunding@xjtu.edu.cn;psychpedia@whu.edu.cn
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 1
1234567890():,;
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Introduction
Philosophical practice, also known as philosophical coun-
seling or therapy, is a burgeoning discipline that applies
philosophical theories, concepts, and methods to everyday
life, fostering critical thinking and personal development (Amir,
2004; Cohen, 2013; Ding and Yu, 2022; Grosso, 2002; LeBon,
2001). It aims to connect abstract philosophical thought and the
tangible challenges of everyday life, empowering individuals to
tackle deep questions and gain insights into themselves and their
environment (Gindi and Pilpel, 2015; Grimes and Uliana, 1998;
Lahav, 1996,2017; Louw, 2013).
Drawing from ancient philosophical traditions, philosophical
practice has become a global movement, enhancing personal well-
being and stimulating intellectual exchange (Cooper, 2012; Fatic,
2013; Ferraiolo, 2010; Hadot, 1995,1998; Knox, 2014; Sharpe and
Ure, 2021; Shevchuk et al., 2022). The establishment of the
Institute for Philosophical Practice and Counseling by Gerd
Böttcher Achenbach in 1981 marked a pivotal milestone for
philosophical practice in Germany and Europe (Achenbach, 1998;
Lahav and Tillmanns, 1995; Schuster, 2004). However, as
reminded by an anonymous reviewer, similar underpinnings were
concurrently developing in the United States, notably through
Pierre Grimes’work on Philosophical (or Socratic) Midwifery,
influenced by Plato’sTheaetetus and manifested through the
Noetic Society since 1967 (Grimes and Uliana, 1998). Pierre
Grimes, as the Director of the Noetic Society’s Philosophical
Midwifery Program, played a crucial role in demonstrating and
teaching the art of philosophical midwifery, using the Socratic
dialectic for understanding human problems and thereby
attaining excellence.
American philosophers like John Dewey and Mortimer Adler,
and less-known Seymon Hersh, also anticipated this movement.
As a leading philosopher of education and an influential Amer-
ican Pragmatist, John Dewey asserted in 1917 the necessity for
philosophy to address real-life issues, claiming that “Philosophy
recovers itself when it ceases to be a device for dealing with the
problems of philosophers and becomes a method, cultivated by
philosophers, for dealing with the problems of men”(Dewey,
1917). Mortimer Adler criticized the insularity and “suicidal
epistemologizing”of 20th-century analytic philosophy in 1965,
suggesting that philosophy “must cease to be an activity con-
ducted by moles, each burrowing in its own hole, and become a
public and cooperative enterprise”(Adler, 1965). Seymon Hersh
foresaw the role of philosophical counselors in 1980, envisioning
how counselors can help people update their personal philoso-
phies by helping them understand their motivations, think criti-
cally, take inventory of their lives, and become familiar with
alternative viewpoints (Hersh, 1980).
These early American philosophers championed an engaged
and communal philosophy, setting the stage for what would later
become the modern movement of philosophical practice. This
philosophy revival, which seeks to reinvigorate ancient wisdom in
contemporary life, has gained international momentum (de Paula
and Raabe, 2015; Knapp and Tjeltveit, 2005; Marinoff,
1999,2001; Raabe, 2002,2013; Schuster, 1999). China’s engage-
ment in this movement is a recent yet significant addition to the
global philosophical landscape, bringing a unique cultural per-
spective to this growing field.
China’s engagement with philosophical practice, grounded in
its rich philosophical heritage, represents a notable integration of
traditional introspection into contemporary life (Hsu, 2004; Lee,
2017; Lu, 2004b; Su, 2011). In the early 21st century, philoso-
phical practice in China emerged from academia into the public
domain, introducing philosophical counseling and Socratic dia-
logs to those seeking personal growth and ethical clarity (Ding,
2016; Pan, 2016).
This movement has since grown, with various philosophical
practice communities fostering philosophical discourse and
offering support to navigate the complexities of modern life
(O’Neill and Wang, 2021; Wang, 2019). Academic inquiry has
also deepened, examining the theoretical frameworks, meth-
odologies, and applications of philosophical practice, with Chi-
nese scholars contributing to its evolving landscape (Li, 2017;
Pan, 2017; Xia, 2017,2019).
However, integrating philosophical practice within China’s
unique cultural context presents challenges, such as aligning
cultural values with universal philosophical principles without
compromising the discipline’s authenticity (Ma et al., 2021;
Zhang, 2019). Despite these hurdles, philosophical practice in
China has fostered a vibrant platform for philosophical engage-
ment (Huang, 2019; Xia, 2017,2019; Zhang, 2015).
This paper will trace the development of philosophical practice
research in China, confront its challenges, and explore pro-
spective pathways. Addressing these concerns is pivotal for
advancing philosophical practice’s potential for profound impact
within China and, potentially, on a global scale.
The historical roots of philosophical practice in China
Chinese philosophy, with its emphasis on practicality, has long
provided a compass for everyday life (Cheng, 1971; Hansen,
1985). The historical underpinnings of philosophical practice in
China are deeply rooted in its rich and diverse traditions, parti-
cularly Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, each contributing
to the nation’s intellectual heritage and informing the con-
temporary manifestation of philosophical practice with centuries
of wisdom and practical insights.
Confucianism is central to China’s philosophical tapestry,
advocating a life of moral rectitude and harmonious social rela-
tionships (Ding et al., 2022; Lu, 2004a; Pan, 2022; Su, 2011; Tan,
2004). Central to this tradition is the Five Constant Virtues (i.e.,
benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthi-
ness), which underpin the practical ethos of Confucian thought
(Ramsey, 2016). The enduring influence of Confucianism is evi-
dent in the moral and ethical frameworks that permeate Chinese
society (Fukuyama, 2016; Jiang, 2018; Low and Ang, 2013).
Daoism offers a contrasting philosophical perspective that
values harmony with the Dao, or the essential nature of the
universe (Ding et al., 2022; Hsu, 2004; Wang and Ren, 2019; Wu,
2013). This school promotes simplicity and adaptability, advo-
cating for a deep, intuitive connection with the world and
peaceful coexistence with its rhythms (Saso, 2012; Thompson,
1990; Tucker, 1993). The Daoist approach is often sought for
personal tranquility and a balanced response to life’s vicissitudes
(Simpkins and Simpkins, 2015).
Buddhism, though of foreign origin, has become intimately
woven into the fabric of Chinese philosophical thought (Ch’en,
2015; Ding et al., 2022; Hsu, 2011; Yang, 2013). It foregrounds the
cessation of suffering through the development of wisdom and
ethical living (Ding et al., 2023; Gethin, 2011; Kang and
Whittingham, 2010). Chan Buddhism, in particular, prioritizes
meditation and the direct apprehension of reality as pathways to
enlightenment and liberation from suffering (Fromm, 1959;
Kasulis, 1980; Shih, 1953; Steffney, 1977; Wright, 1992).
The resonance of Chinese philosophical doctrines extends
beyond its borders, influencing the intellectual and cultural fab-
rics of other East Asian nations such as South Korea, Japan,
Singapore, Vietnam, and others, shaping their intellectual and
cultural landscapes (Chang and Kalmanson, 2010; Ding et al.,
2022). These countries have absorbed and adapted Chinese phi-
losophical traditions, integrating them into their own cultural
ARTICLE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
2HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
contexts. The practical and applicable nature of Chinese philo-
sophical traditions has made them continue to resonate with
individuals across East Asia, providing guidance on ethical con-
duct, spiritual fulfillment, and a balanced existence (Rošker, 2017;
Tu, 1996).
The introduction of philosophical practice into China
Philosophical practice’s advent in China represents a fusion of
Western methodologies with the country’s philosophical tradi-
tions, a blend of modern movements and age-old Eastern wis-
dom. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the influence of
Western philosophical practice began to permeate Chinese
intellectual circles, fueled by an international surge in applying
philosophical inquiry to everyday life (Chen, 2012; Ouyang,
2012). Key figures from both West and East Asia introduced these
concepts to China, sharing their expertise and approaches (Bre-
nifier and Gong, 2013; Ding and Marinoff, 2021).
Chinese intellectuals, in turn, began assimilating Western
practices with their philosophical heritage, tailoring philosophical
practice to their distinct cultural milieu (Ding, 2016; Zhang,
2015). This cultural synthesis, drawing on Confucian, Daoist, and
Buddhist doctrines, led to a unique iteration of philosophical
practice in China that resonated deeply with local sensibilities
(Hsu, 2004; Lee, 2017; Su, 2011; Wang and Ren, 2019; Yang,
2013). This cross-pollination has enriched the field, with Chinese
contributors enhancing theoretical and methodological aspects of
philosophical practice (Ding, 2016; Pan, 2017; Xia, 2017,2019;
Zhang, 2015). The result is a distinctive Chinese mode of philo-
sophical practice that contributes to a global, intercultural dialog
within the field.
Reflecting its burgeoning stature, philosophical practice is now
recognized by more and more Chinese academic and professional
bodies. Universities and research institutions have established
dedicated programs and departments, while conferences, work-
shops, and publications have proliferated, facilitating scholarly
exchange (Pan, 2017; Xia, 2017). Professional organizations have
also been formed to promote the development and standards of
philosophical practice in China, fostering collaboration and net-
working among practitioners (Li, 2017). The growing recognition
of philosophical practice within academic and professional
spheres reflects the increasing acceptance and appreciation of its
value as a practical and applied discipline.
The expansion of philosophical practice communities in China
The expansion of philosophical practice communities in China
has witnessed the emergence of various institutions and initiatives
dedicated to promoting and advancing the principles and meth-
ods of philosophical practice.
Philosophical practice in Chinese mainland. The Laboratory of
Thought Analysis, established by Tianqun Pan at Nanjing Uni-
versity in 2012, stands as a prominent institution in China’s
philosophical practice landscape. The laboratory advocates for
“Thought Analysis,”a method combining Socratic dialog and
logical analysis to alleviate mental distress stemming from con-
fusion. This technique promotes philosophical inquiry as a means
to clarify complex philosophical and personal challenges (Pan,
2013,2016). Furthermore, Pan’s establishment of the Philosophy
for Children academic society in Jiangsu province in 2021 reflects
his dedication to exploring philosophical practice in diverse
contexts and for different age groups.
Nanjing University’s Laboratory of Thought Analysis has been
instrumental in advancing philosophical practice in China. A key
activity includes hosting international workshops that bring
together esteemed Western practitioners like Lou Marinoff, Oscar
Brenifier, and Peter Harteloh. These events offer Chinese scholars
hands-on training and exposure to diverse philosophical
methods, significantly bolstering the field’s growth and academic
recognition in China. The exchange of Eastern and Western
philosophical insights during these workshops has enriched the
discipline’s local application and understanding.
The influence of Nanjing University’s philosophical practice
initiatives reaches beyond its campus. The collaborative “Nanjing
Circle,”comprising professors and students from neighboring
institutions such as Anhui University and Anhui Normal
University, is deeply invested in philosophical counseling
research and the translation of pertinent texts. This collective’s
work is vital to the progression of philosophical practice in China,
deepening the appreciation for the discipline and enhancing its
practical integration across various settings.
Beyond the Laboratory of Thought Analysis at Nanjing
University, other prominent academic institutions in China have
actively engaged in and advanced the field of philosophical
practice. Xiamen University’s Nanqiang Philosophy for Children
(P4C) Research Center, founded by Jianbo Cao in 2019,
epitomizes this trend by promoting P4C within the region
(Chen, 2023). The center has distinguished itself through
initiatives such as the annual P4C Summer School, which equips
educators with the tools to incorporate philosophical inquiry into
their pedagogical practices.
The Nanqiang P4C Research Center extends its influence
through a series of lectures and demonstration classes, drawing
millions of participants both online and offline. By 2023, it has
established thirteen practice bases across cities including Xiamen,
Fuzhou, Quanzhou, Nanjing, and Changzhou. These centers
facilitate the spread of P4C, allowing a diverse cohort of educators
and students to delve into philosophical practice.
The 1957 Café at Inner Mongolia University, inaugurated in
2017 by Huiling Wang, represents a pioneering philosophical café
within a Chinese university, offering a novel setting for
philosophical engagement (O’Neill and Wang, 2021; Wang,
2019). The Café’s Philosophical Dramas provide an immersive
experience that invites participants to explore philosophical
dilemmas, interact with classic philosophical texts, and appreciate
various perspectives, nurturing personal philosophical thought.
Its Philosophical Games utilize a “cross-questioning”approach
that melds philosophical understanding with playful elements,
perpetuating intellectual traditions through linguistic and thea-
trical gaming experiences (Wang and He, 2021). As a hub for
critical discourse, ethical reflection, and philosophical explora-
tion, the 1957 Café exemplifies how philosophical practice can be
integrated into educational contexts, demonstrating the signifi-
cance of philosophy in intellectual and personal growth.
Philosophical practice in Hong Kong. Philosophical practice in
Hong Kong has made significant strides, championed by initia-
tives that encourage philosophical dialog and practical applica-
tions of philosophy. The Hong Kong Philosophy Cafe, established
in 1999 under the vision of Stephen R. Palmquist from Hong
Kong Baptist University, serves as a testament to this movement
(Palmquist, 2017,2018). This forum has been pivotal in culti-
vating a community engaged in philosophical discourse, holding
monthly sessions, and inspiring similar cafes citywide. Through
the Hong Kong Philosophy Cafe, the practice of philosophical
inquiry is extended beyond academic settings, making it acces-
sible to the general public and promoting a broader under-
standing of philosophy in everyday life.
Higher education institutions in Hong Kong have recognized
the importance of practical philosophy for fostering personal
development and critical thinking. Hong Kong Polytechnic
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
University and Lingnan University, among others, offer dedicated
courses and programs in practical philosophy. These academic
offerings are designed to impart life skills, encourage ethical
deliberation, and facilitate self-discovery and comprehensive
world understanding.
The professionalization of philosophical counseling in Hong
Kong has been bolstered by strategic alliances and collaborations.
The Hong Kong Practical Philosophy Society (HKPPS), founded
in 2010, has aligned with the American Philosophical Practi-
tioners Association, enriching the local scene with international
expertise. Notably, the HKPPS offers certification courses led by
prominent figures such as Lou Marinoff, enhancing the skill set of
practicing and prospective philosophical counselors. This certi-
fication process not only ensures adherence to high professional
standards but also solidifies the reputation of philosophical
counseling as a credible and effective discipline in Hong Kong’s
helping professions.
Philosophical practice in Taiwan. In Taiwan, philosophical
counseling has evolved significantly, merging traditional Chinese
philosophy with modern practices and gaining institutional
support through academic programs. Pioneering this evolution is
Jess Fleming from Tamkang University, whose extensive work
has facilitated the synthesis of ancient Chinese philosophical
principles with contemporary counseling methods (Fleming,
1996,2000,2003,2009). Fleming’s efforts have yielded a dis-
tinctive counseling approach that aligns with local cultural
nuances and juxtaposes Eastern and Western philosophies,
enhancing the practice within Taiwan’s psychological and phi-
losophical landscapes.
Universities like Huafan University and Fu Jen Catholic
University have recognized the pertinence of philosophical
counseling, integrating it into their curricula. Such academic
integration signals an increased valuation of philosophical
counseling’s role in surmounting life’s challenges. The educa-
tional programs crafted by these universities empower students to
delve into philosophical counseling, fostering a cadre of
professionals steeped in the cultural richness that Chinese
philosophy contributes to the discipline (Li, 2004).
A milestone in this field was the establishment of a
philosophical counseling curriculum at Fu Jen Catholic Uni-
versity’s Department of Philosophy, spearheaded by Bernard Li in
2003 (Li, 2007). Li’s contributions continued with the founding of
the Taiwan Philosophical Counseling Association (TPCA) in
2011, a pivotal entity in the professional growth of philosophical
counseling in Taiwan (Li, 2017). The TPCA’s certification courses
offer comprehensive training to aspirants, covering both the
theoretical and practical dimensions of philosophical practice
while adhering to established professional and ethical standards.
The association also provides a Logic-Based Therapy certification,
developed by this therapeutic approach’s creator, Elliot D. Cohen.
Through such educational initiatives, the TPCA fosters expertise
in philosophical counseling, propelling its recognition and
advancement across Taiwan.
Advancements in philosophical practice research in China
Chinese scholars have embarked on a comprehensive examina-
tion of philosophical practice or philosophical counseling, delving
into its intrinsic essence, tapping into the wealth of philosophical
thought, and shedding light on its applicative merits in con-
temporary settings, yielding a body of noteworthy scholarly
contributions (Huang, 2019). Philosophical practice research in
China has made substantial strides, with academics exploring the
relationship between philosophical and psychological counseling
and the application of philosophical principles in counseling
contexts (Feng, 2010; Wei, 2013; Zhou and Liu, 2009). Xi Yang’s
(2015) work particularly emphasizes the value of philosophical
counseling in the Chinese milieu, suggesting its capacity to aug-
ment psychological counseling. The potential of philosophical
counseling to disseminate and apply Marxist philosophy and
Marx’s life philosophy has also been a focus (Feng and Huang,
2010; Xu, 2021).
These researchers are actively summarizing and adapting
Western philosophical counseling methods for local use. Research
has been conducted on the Socratic method (Chen, 2014; Lu,
2007; Pan, 2007), the FITT stages (Chen, 2018; Su, 2007), the
PEACE process (Chen, 2012,2015; Yu, 2007; Zhang, 2016; Zhou,
2008), and the worldview interpretation (Zhang, 2023). These
works have been instrumental in tailoring Western approaches to
the cultural contours of China, enhancing the practice of philo-
sophical counseling in the nation.
Moreover, Chinese scholars are pioneering original counseling
techniques. Tianqun Pan developed the “Thought Analysis”
method, while Xisheng Wang introduced “Thought Counseling”
or “Ethical Counseling,”exploring its narrative therapy, moral
healing, and adaptation in the Chinese context (Wang,
2014,2015,2020). Xiaojun Ding (2016) constructed “Analytic
Philosophical Practice”based on analytic philosophy techniques
such as clarifying concepts, disclosing presuppositions, eliminat-
ing conflicts, and inquiring into reasons. Bernard Li (2007) pro-
posed the C.I.S.A. method—Consciousness, Insight, Spiritual
Moving, and Ascend, emphasizing its potential for fostering
“physical and psychological maturity”.
Significantly, Chinese scholars contribute to the integration of
national philosophical traditions into practice, analyzing Con-
fucianism (Lu, 2004a; Pan, 2022; Su, 2011; Tan, 2004), Daoism
(Ding et al., 2022; Hsu, 2004; Wang and Ren, 2019; Wu, 2013),
Buddhism (Ding et al., 2023; Hsu, 2011; Yang, 2013), and other
schools of thought (Lee, 2017; Yang, 2016). These endeavors
elucidate how ancient wisdom can inform modern living, pro-
moting virtues, ethical behavior, and societal harmony. Such
scholarly work not only enriches the knowledge base of practi-
tioners but also fosters the growth and contextual application of
philosophical counseling in China. Continued research in this
domain promises to further refine and contextualize philosophi-
cal practice to meet the nation’s specific needs and aspirations.
Nevertheless, when juxtaposed with the dynamic developments
in global academia, it becomes evident that philosophical practice
research in China encounters certain challenges that need
addressing (Huang, 2019). A particular concern is the tendency
toward practical application at the expense of theoretical depth
(Ding, 2016). While the application of traditional Chinese phi-
losophy to everyday life is well-explored, there is a pressing need
for a more rigorous theoretical investigation to uncover the full
depth of these philosophical systems. Additionally, the practical
emphasis has sometimes led to oversimplifications, with insuffi-
cient attention to the logical and reasoned aspects integral to
these philosophies (Ding, 2016). Chinese philosophy’s intellectual
rigor and logical structure are as crucial as its life guidance
principles; thus, equitable treatment of both dimensions is
required for a holistic understanding.
To overcome these obstacles, Chuangen Huang (2019) further
identifies a quintet of focal enhancements essential for the
maturation of philosophical practice research in China: the
meticulous translation and interpretation of seminal texts on
philosophical practice, the rigorous inquiry into foundational
theoretical and practical quandaries in philosophical practice
research, the revitalization of (eastern and western) classical
philosophical resources with practical wisdom, the encourage-
ment of philosophical practice’s real-world application, and the
increased public recognition and impact of philosophical practice.
ARTICLE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
4HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
In particular, Chinese scholars must engage more deeply with
theoretical aspects and consider Western philosophical con-
tributions. Western philosophies provide robust analytical tools
and logical structures that can enhance the study of Chinese
philosophical practice (Ding et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2021). Such
integration will not only fortify theoretical foundations but also
facilitate a richer, more nuanced perspective on philosophical
practice in China. Furthermore, the pursuit of a more balanced
approach that honors both the practical and theoretical will
enrich the academic development of philosophical practice in
China. This endeavor will not only advance the discipline within
China but also contribute to the global discourse, encouraging
cross-cultural dialog and intellectual exchange (Li, 2017; Pan,
2017; Xia, 2017,2019). The goal is to cultivate a field that is both
deeply rooted in Chinese tradition and broadened by global
philosophical thought, fostering a dynamic and diversified aca-
demic landscape.
Discussion
The expanding pool of philosophical practitioners is paralleled by
a rising client base seeking philosophical insights into personal,
organizational, and societal issues. Despite this global trend, the
practice within China remains nascent, necessitating robust the-
oretical exploration and practical applications attuned to the
Chinese context (Ding, 2016; Wang, 2014). Internationally, the
discipline garners increasing acknowledgment; however, it still
struggles to achieve similar recognition within Chinese academia.
This obscurity hampers the ability of philosophical practitioners
to publish works or obtain research funding, thereby impeding
the field’s progression. Moreover, as a field that continues to
evolve, philosophical practice presents numerous issues that are
worth exploring. The involvement of Chinese scholars in this
process can provide unique interpretations and methods based on
their own cultural backgrounds and philosophical traditions.
Current challenges and trends of philosophical practice
in China. In China, philosophical practice is experiencing a
burgeoning phase marked by an uptick in practitioners and the
establishment of institutions dedicated to the field (Li, 2017; Pan,
2017; Xia, 2017). This increase is a testament to the rising
acknowledgment of philosophy’s potential to address China’s
unique societal and personal challenges.
Yet, the integration of philosophical practice into the Chinese
societal fabric faces cultural obstacles. Traditional mindsets and
established problem-solving paradigms may impede the accep-
tance of philosophical practice. To mitigate this, educational
initiatives that elucidate the benefits of philosophical practice and
the creation of culturally congruent counseling techniques are
necessary (Wang, 2014).
A pivotal concern is the preservation of Chinese philosophical
heritage amid global influences, ensuring that globalization does
not erode the essence of China’s philosophical identity. Safe-
guarding this authenticity demands a deliberate approach to
applying Chinese philosophical tenets within philosophical
practice (Li, 2017; Pan, 2017; Xia, 2017).
Practitioners in China are responding to these challenges by
integrating modern approaches and tackling contemporary issues,
striving to tailor philosophical practice to the intricacies of
modern Chinese society (Ding et al., 2022,2023; Li, 2010; Wang,
2014). This adaptation is crucial for the discipline’s relevance and
impact on individual and societal well-being.
Moreover, there is an ongoing initiative to enhance the
international stature of Chinese philosophical practice through
active participation in global dialogs, contributing to international
publications, and fostering collaborative relationships with global
counterparts (Li, 2017; Pan, 2017; Xia, 2017). These efforts serve
not just to elevate the discipline’s profile worldwide but also to
encourage a reciprocal enrichment of philosophical practice
across cultural divides.
The growth and development of philosophical practice
in China. The advancement of philosophical practice in China
hinges on educational initiatives, community involvement, and
government endorsement. These elements are vital for nurturing
aflourishing community that contributes to individual and
societal enrichment, as well as intellectual advancement.
Educational integration is a cornerstone, with philosophical
education beginning in schools (e.g., philosophy for children
(P4C); Daniel and Auriac, 2011; Lipman et al., 1980; Vansiele-
ghem and Kennedy, 2011) and extending into lifelong learning
opportunities. Infusing curricula with philosophical content
equips students with critical thinking and ethical reasoning skills
from a young age (Chen, 2023; Pan, 2007,2022; Yu, 2021).
Moreover, adults benefit from continuous development through
lifelong philosophical engagement, promoting a sustained
commitment to philosophical inquiry (Lahav and Tillmanns,
1995; Marinoff, 1999,2001; Schuster, 2004; Raabe, 2002).
Community engagement is equally critical. Philosophical
organizations and forums facilitate intellectual exchange, foster
a sense of community, and advance the application of philosophy
in daily life (Ding, 2019; Wang and He, 2021). These platforms
also play a key role in propagating philosophical knowledge and
showcasing its practical benefits (O’Neill and Wang, 2021; Wang,
2019; Yang, 2016).
Government backing is indispensable for creating a supportive
environment for philosophical practice (Marinoff, 1999,2001).
Governmental initiatives could include the funding for research,
the establishment of institutes for philosophical practice, and
resources for philosophical practitioners’professional develop-
ment. Such support not only emphasizes the government’s
commitment to fostering critical and ethical capacities but also
encourages collaborative pursuits among practitioners and
scholars, thereby stimulating the field’s progression (Kono et al.,
2017; Rhee, 2017).
The future of philosophical practice in China. The trajectory of
philosophical practice in China is marked by the potential for
significant expansion, with an increasing appreciation for critical
thinking and personal development. Given the societal emphasis
on intellectual growth and holistic well-being, philosophical
practice is well-positioned to flourish. It provides a framework for
individuals grappling with complex issues to engage in reflection,
self-discovery, and personal growth (de Miranda and Loughlin,
2023; Ding, 2016).
Innovation and adaptation are essential for the evolution of
philosophical practice in China. Philosophical practitioners must
remain responsive to societal shifts and emerging challenges by
leveraging technology, including online platforms and virtual
counseling, to broaden access and adaptability, particularly in
response to crises like the COVID-19 pandemic (Bogdanova and
Rezvushkin, 2021; Feary, 2020; Marinoff, 2023; Schumm, 2020).
Furthermore, Chinese philosophical practice could act as a
conduit for cross-cultural exchange, deepening global under-
standing and dialog. Given China’s profound philosophical
traditions and increasing global influence, philosophical practi-
tioners can facilitate intercultural appreciation and identify
common values, thereby contributing to global harmony (Yu,
2020).
The field is also expected to gain broader acceptance
academically and publicly. As the benefits of philosophical
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 5
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
counseling become more widely experienced, the demand for
practitioners will rise. Academic recognition is growing, with
philosophical practice being integrated into mainstream acade-
mia, enriching the discipline with practical applications (Li, 2017;
Pan, 2017; Xia, 2017).
The prospective establishment of a national philosophical
practice association in China is pivotal for addressing the cultural
specifics of the Chinese populace. This body would standardize
practices, uphold ethical standards, and foster professional
development, ensuring the field’s integrity and cultural congruity.
Lastly, philosophical practice is poised to democratize
philosophy, transitioning it from an academic discipline to a
practical tool for everyday life. This shift empowers individuals to
apply philosophical concepts in practical ways, leading to more
considered life choices and societal advancement (Gregory, 2004;
Marinoff, 1999,2001; Raabe, 2002).
Conclusions
In conclusion, philosophical practice in China has made con-
siderable progress, gaining traction within educational settings,
scholarly research, and public discourse. Chinese scholars have
adeptly intertwined the nation’s rich philosophical traditions with
modern-day counseling techniques, providing tangible benefits
for personal and societal well-being.
Despite its nascent stage and the hurdles in achieving wide-
spread recognition, the potential for philosophical practice to
deeply integrate into Chinese society is significant. The ongoing
development of this field relies on the continuous refinement of
practice, addressing the dynamic needs of the populace. Colla-
boration across academics, practitioners, and institutional spheres
will be instrumental in enhancing the reach and impact of phi-
losophical counseling.
As the discipline garners increased legitimacy, its influence on
personal growth and life satisfaction is expected to grow. With
sustained investment in research, application of innovative
practices, and dedication to public engagement, the future of
philosophical practice in China appears promising, with a tra-
jectory that points towards greater societal influence and trans-
formative potential.
Received: 29 November 2023; Accepted: 25 March 2024;
References
Achenbach GB (1998) On wisdom in philosophical practice. Inquiry 17(3):5–20
Adler MJ (1965) The conditions of philosophy: its checkered past, its present
disorder, and its future promise. Atheneum, New York
Amir LB (2004) Three questionable assumptions of philosophical counseling. Int J
Philos Pract 2(1):58–81
Bogdanova V, Rezvushkin K (2021) Philosophical practice as a way to address the
students’existential problems during the pandemic. Rev Port Filos
77(2–3):979–994
Brenifier O, Gong Y (2013) From philosophy theory to its practice: an interview
with Oscar Brenifier. J Nanjing Univ Philos Humanit Soc Sci 50(3):139–148.
+160
Ch’en KKS (2015) Chinese transformation of Buddhism (1351). Princeton Uni-
versity Press, Princeton
Chang W, Kalmanson L (eds) (2010) Confucianism in context: classic philosophy
and contemporary issues, East Asia and beyond. State University of New
York Press, New York
Chen H (2012) The rise and development of philosophical counseling. J Anhui
Univ Philos Soc Sci Ed 36(4):26–31
Chen H (2014) Revival of the Socratic method: a new paradigm of philosophical
practice. J Anhui Univ Philos Soc Sci Ed 38(3):22–26
Chen H (2018) Peter Raabe’s four-stage method of philosophical counseling. Philos
Anal 9(4):147–159. +198−199
Chen Y (2023) The research and review of philosophy of the children in the pre-
linguistic development in Chinese context. J Guizhou Univ Soc Sci
41(5):117–124
Chen H (2015) Analysis of Lou Marinoff’s philosophical counseling method.
Lanzhou Acad J (8):105–108
Cheng C (1971) Chinese philosophy: a characterization. Inquiry
14(1–4):113–137
Cohen ED (2013) Theory and practice of logic-based therapy: integrating critical
thinking and philosophy into psychotherapy. Cambridge Scholars Publishing,
Newcastle, UK
Cooper JM (2012) Pursuits of wisdom. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Daniel MF, Auriac E (2011) Philosophy, critical thinking and philosophy for
children. Educ Philos Theory 43(5):415–435
de Miranda L, Loughlin M (2023) Philosophical health: unveiling the patient’s
personal philosophy with a person-centred method of dialogue. J Eval Clin
Pract 29(7):1161–1170
de Paula L, Raabe P (eds) (2015) Women in philosophical counseling: the anima of
thought in action. Lexington, Northvale, NJ
Dewey J (1917) The need for a recovery of philosophy. In: Dewey J, Moore AW,
Brown HC et al (eds ) Creative intelligence: essays in the pragmatic attitude.
Henry Holt, New York, pp. 3–69
Ding X (2019) The aroma of philosophy: philosophical cafe in theory and practice.
Philos Pract Couns 9:53–91
Ding X, Marinoff L (2021) Philosophical practice: philosophy from theory to
practice, from academy to life—an interview with professor Lou Marinoff. J
Anhui Univ Philos Soc Sci Ed 45(2):17–24
Ding X, Yu F (2022) Philosophical practice as spiritual exercises towards truth,
wisdom, and virtue. Religions 13(4):364
Ding X, Shang B, Yu F (2022) How to cope with loneliness during the COVID-19
pandemic? Perspectives of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Religions
13(11):1085
Ding X, Ma Y, Yu F, Abadal LM (2023) The therapy of desire in times of crisis:
lessons learned from Buddhism and Stoicism. Religions 14(2):237
Ding X (2016) Dialogue, analysis and therapy: the conception and construction of
“analytic philosophical practice”. Dissertation, Nanjing University
Fatic A (2013) Epicureanism as a foundation for philosophical counseling. Philos
Pract 8(1):1127–1141
Feary V (2020) How might philosophical practice respond to the Covid-19 pan-
demic? Philos Pract 15(2–3):2495–2507
Feng Z (2010) Complementarity between philosophical consultation and psycho-
logical consultation. J Beijing Norm Univ Soc Sci (2):86–90
Feng Z, Huang Y (2010) The role of philosophical consultation in the popular-
ization of Marxist philosophy. Seeker (4):89–91
Ferraiolo W (2010) The IDEA method: stoic counsel. Philos Pract 5(2):627–663
Fleming J (1996) Philosophical counseling and the I Ching. J Chin Philos
23(3):299–320
Fleming J (2000) Wisdom and virtue in philosophical counseling. Pract Philos
3(1):14–20
Fleming J (2003) Comparative philosophy: Its aims and methods. J Chin Philos
30(2):259–270
Fleming J (2009) A set theory analysis of the logic of the Yijing. J. Chin. Philos.
36(5):37–47
Fromm E (1959) Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism. Psychologia 2(2):79–99
Fukuyama F (2016) Reflections on Chinese governance. J Chin Philos 1(3):379–391
Gethin R (2011) On some definitions of mindfulness. Contemp Buddhism
12(1):263–279
Gindi S, Pilpel A (2015) Bridging the gap between philosophy and psychotherapy:
an outline for the integration of philosophical counselling into therapeutic
practice. J Humanit Ther 6(2):1–24
Gong Y (2013) Theoretical research on rational emotive behavioral therapy: per-
spectives on scientific methodology. Dissertation, Nanjing University
Gregory M (2004) Practicing democracy: social intelligence and philosophical
practice. Int J. Appl Philos. 18(2):163–176
Grimes P, Uliana RL (1998) Philosophical midwifery: a new paradigm for
understanding human problems with its validation. Hyparxis Press, Costa
Mesa
Grosso M (2002) Philosophical café for spiritual health: how to start one. Int J
Philos Pract 1(3):1–4
Hadot P (1995) Philosophy as a way of life: spiritual exercises from Socrates to
Foucault. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford
Hadot P (1998) The inner citadel: the meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA
Hansen C (1985) Chinese language, Chinese philosophy, and “truth”. J Asian Stud
44(3):491–519
Hersh S (1980) The counseling philosopher. Humanist 40(3):32–33. +60
Hsu H (2004) “Free and Easy Wandering”in the twenty-first century: Zhuang Zi’s
methodology of philosophical counseling. Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult
31(1):67–88
ARTICLE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
6HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Hsu H (2011) The healing effects of Buddhist philosophical counseling on life.
Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 38(3):173–187
Huang C (2019) Retrospect and prospect: review on the research of philosophical
consultation in mainland China. J Dial Nat 41(11):118–124
Jiang Y (2018) Confucian political theory in contemporary China. Annu Rev
Political Sci 21:155–173
Kang C, Whittingham K (2010) Mindfulness: a dialogue between Buddhism and
clinical psychology. Mindfulness 1:161–173
Kasulis TP (1980) Truth and Zen. Philos East West 30(4):453–464
Knapp S, Tjeltveit AC (2005) A review and critical analysis of philosophical
counseling. Prof Psychol Res Pract 36(5):558–565
Knox JBL (2014) Philosophy as an art of living. Situating the method of Socratic
dialogue within a framework of “care of the self”. Rev Int Filos Apl HASER
(5):33–54
Kono T, Murase T, Terada T, Tsuchiya Y (2017) Recent development of philo-
sophical practice in Japan. Philos Pract 12(2):1935–1946
Lahav R (1996) What is philosophical in philosophical counselling? J Appl Philos
13(3):259–278
Lahav R (2017) New paradigms for philosophical practice. J Humanit Ther
8(1):91–121
Lahav R, Tillmanns MV (eds) (1995) Essays on philosophical counseling. Uni-
versity Press of America, Lanham
LeBon T (2001) Wise therapy: philosophy for counsellors. Sage, London
Lee HC (2017) Persuasive reasoning on Mohist philosophy and philosophical
counseling. Universitas-Mon Rev Philos Cult 44(1):39–55
Li B (2004) The theory and practice of philosophical counseling. Universitas-Mon
Rev Philos Cult 31(1):3–22
Li B (2007) The practice and application of the C.I.S.A theory. Universitas-Mon
Rev Philos Cult 34(1):3–17
Li B (2010) The three fundamental principles of philosophical counseling.
Universitas-Mon Rev Philos Cult 37(1):3–19
Li B (2017) Development of philosophical counseling in Taiwan. Philos Pract
12(2):1921–1934
Lipman M, Sharp AM, Oscanyan FS (1980) Philosophy in the classroom. Temple
University Press, Philadelphia, PA
Louw D (2013) Defining philosophical counselling: an overview. S Afr J Philos
32(1):60–70
Low KCP, Ang SL (2013) Confucian ethics, governance and corporate social
responsibility. Int J Bus Manag 8(4):30–43
Lu C (2004a) Philosophical counseling of the Analects. Universitas—Mon Rev
Philos Cult 31(1):51–66
Lu C (2004b) The beginning of consulting in Chinese philosophy. Universitas—
Mon Rev Philos Cult 31(12):141–143
Lu C (2007) The philosophical counseling in Plato’s dialogues—the Socratic’s
dialogue methods and helping behavior in Phaedo. Universitas—Mon Rev
Philos Cult 34(1):31–52
Ma Y, Ding X, Yu F (2021) Horizontal thinking vs vertical thinking: a comparison
between Chinese and Western philosophical counseling based on Socrates
and Confucius. J. Humanit Ther. 12(2):37–58
Marinoff L (1999) Plato, not Prozac!: applying philosophy to everyday problems.
HarperCollins, New York
Marinoff L (2001) Philosophical practice. Academic Press, New York
Marinoff L (2023) Philosophical practice during the pandemic: dancing in the
noosphere. Rev Int Filos Apl HASER (14): 129–157
O’Neill R, Wang H (2021) Combatting student alienation: community building in
the academic philosophy café. J Humanit Ther 12(1):7–25
Ouyang Q (2012) Philosophical counseling: return to the origin and symbol of a
new start. J Anhui Univ Philos Soc Sci Ed 36(4):20–25
Palmquist SR (2017) An overview of the Hong Kong Philosophy Café’s legacy: the
public impact of eighteen years of free philosophical discourse. J Humanit
Ther 8(2):75–112
Palmquist SR (2018) Philopsychic guidelines for using conceptual maps in coun-
seling sessions. Philos Pract Couns 8:73–112
Pan H (2007) The application of Socratic dialogue in the education of philosophy—
an exploration based on group-oriented philosophy for children and philo-
sophical counseling. Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 34(9):39–60
Pan H (2022) The practical model of philosophy for children based on Confucian
classics—the designs for the teaching activities on Analects and Mengzi.
Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 49(10):47–63
Pan T (2013) On logic and techniques of thought-therapy. J Nanjing Univ Philos
Humanit Soc Sci 50(1):141–147
Pan T (2016) Why is analysis therapy? J Humanit Ther 7(1):25–37
Pan T (2017) Philosophical practice in China. Philos Pract 12(2):1914–1920
Raabe PB (2002) Issues in philosophical counseling. Praeger Publishers, Westport,
USA
Raabe PB (2013) Philosophy’s role in counseling and psychotherapy. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, New York
Ramsey J (2016) Confucian role ethics: a critical survey. Philos Compass
11(5):235–245
Rhee YE (2017) Philosophical practice in South Korea. Philos Pract
12(2):1947–1951
Rošker JS (2017) Between tradition and modernity: modern Confucianism as a
form of East Asian social knowledge. Asian Stud 5(2):43–62
Saso M (2012) Gold pavilion: Taoist ways to peace, healing and long life. Tuttle
Publishing, Boston
Schumm A (2020) Philosophy and social media: remedies to compulsion and the
loss of the self. Philos. Pr. 15(2–3):2573–2584
Schuster SC (1999) Philosophy practice: an alternative to counseling and psy-
chotherapy. Praeger Publishers, Westport, USA
Schuster SC (2004) Marinoff’s therapy: a critique of his books on philosophical
practice. Int J. Philos. Pr. 2(2):14–22
Sharpe M, Ure M (2021) Philosophy as a way of life: history, dimensions, direc-
tions. Bloomsbury, London
Shevchuk D, Shevchuk K, Matusevych T (2022) The philosophical counselling:
synthesis of the essence and modern tendencies of philosophy. J Study Relig
Ideol 21(61):48–60
Shih H (1953) Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism in China: its history and method. Philos East
West 3(1):3–24
Simpkins CA, Simpkins AM (2015) Simple Taoism: a guide to living in balance.
Tuttle Publishing, Boston
Steffney J (1977) Transmetaphysical thinking in Heidegger and Zen Buddhism.
Philos East West 27(3):323–335
Su Y (2007) An introduction to Raabe’s methodology of philosophical counseling.
Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 34(1):83–99
Su Y (2011) The Confucian philosophical counseling progress of “Keh-Sheng-
Shou-Sheh”. Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 38(1):39–54
Tan Y (2004) Did Confucius possess or even transcend the characteristics of a
modern consultant? Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 31(12):131–140
Thompson KO (1990) Taoist cultural reality: the harmony of aesthetic order. J
Chin Philos 17(2):175–185
Tu W (ed) (1996) Confucian traditions in East Asian modernity: moral education
and economic culture in Japan and the four mini-dragons. Harvard Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, MA and London
Tucker ME (1993) Ecological themes in Taoism and Confucianism. Bucknell Rev
37(2):150–160
Vansieleghem N, Kennedy D (2011) What is philosophy for children, what is
philosophy with children—after Matthew Lipman? J Philos Educ
45(2):171–182
Wang H (2019) Language training in activities of academic philosophy cafe. J
Humanit Ther 10(1):119–137
Wang H, He R (2021) The development of philosophical activities of the academic
philosophy cafe from language game to theater game. Philos Pract Couns
11:121–141
Wang X (2014) Outline of “thought counseling”and its Chinese style questions. J
Anhui Norm Univ Humanit Soc Sci 42(2):134–140
Wang X (2020) On the narrative therapy of “thought consultation”. J Anhui Norm
Univ Humanit Soc Sci 48(1):27–32
Wang Z, Ren Y (2019) Lead a life based on Daoism? Philos Pract 14(1):2282–2291
Wang X (2015) On the moral healing function of ethical counseling. Philos Trends
(4):81–86
Wei C (2013) A comparison of philosophical counseling and psychological
counseling. J Anhui Univ Philos Soc Sci Ed 37(5):46–51
Wright DS (1992) Rethinking transcendence: the role of language in Zen experi-
ence. Philos East West 42(1):113–138
Wu Y (2013) Study on the ascend method in philosophical counseling from the
perspective of Daoist philosophy. Dissertation, Fu Jen Catholic University
Xia W (2017) Philosophical practice in mainland China. Philos Pract
12(2):1952–1965
Xia W (2019) A study of the sinicization of philosophical consultation. Philos Pract
14(3):2403–2415
Xu J (2021) Philosophical consultation—a channel for practicing Marx’s philoso-
phy of life. Acad Explor (11):30–37
Yang W (2013) Buddhist doctrines and mental therapy. J Jiangsu Adm Inst (3):
23–26
Yang X (2015) On the correlation and difference of thought counseling and psy-
chological counseling. J Guizhou Norm Univ Soc Sci (4): 8–13
Yang X (2016) On counselling and confusion-resolving function of secular ethics.
Morality Civiliz (1): 145–149
Yu A (2007) Aristotle’s wisdom and Marinoff’s PEACE. Universitas—Mon Rev
Philos Cult 34(1):67–82
Yu H (2021) Exploring the value of philosophy with children from “imagination”.
Universitas—Mon Rev Philos Cult 48(2):65–78
Yu KH (2020) Humanistic reflection about “connectivity”in the hyper-connected
era. J Humanit Ther 11(1):191–207
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 ARTICLE
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8 7
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Zhang L (2016) The discrimination of methods of philosophical counseling. J Dial
Nat 38(2):127–132
Zhang L (2019) The philosophical counseling according to Tao Teh Ching. J
Humanit Ther 10(2):137–150
Zhang L (2015) Philosophical consultation as a practical wisdom: focusing on the
nature of the discipline. Dissertation, Shandong University
Zhang L (2023) A method of philosophical counseling: on Lahav’s theory of
worldview interpretation. J Int Soc Sci (7): 17–27
Zhou N, Liu J (2009) Philosophical counseling: an alternative of psychotherapy and
counseling. J Dalian Univ Technol Soc Sci 30(1):102–105
Zhou Y (2008) On the survival state of philosophical practice in North America.
Mod Philos (4):122–127
Acknowledgements
This paper was initially presented at the Department of Philosophy, Dongguk University,
Seoul, on November 10, 2023. We would like to express our gratitude to the attendees for
their valuable feedback. This work was supported by the National Social Science Funds
(Grant Nos. 20CZX059 and 20FZXB047) and the Ministry of Education in China (MOE)
Project of Humanities and Social Sciences (Grant No. 19YJC720006).
Author contributions
XD: conceptualization, funding acquisition, methodology, resources, writing—original
draft. CX: conceptualization, writing—review, and editing. FY: funding acquisition,
resources, supervision, writing—review, and editing. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Competing interests
Xiaojun Ding and Feng Yu were members of the Editorial Board of this journal at the
time of acceptance for publication. The manuscript was assessed in line with the journal’s
standard editorial processes.
Ethical approval
It does not apply to this article as it does not contain any studies with human
participants.
Informed consent
It does not apply to this article as it does not contain any studies with human
participants.
Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Xiaojun Ding or
Feng Yu.
Reprints and permission information is available at http://www.nature.com/reprints
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the
article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/.
© The Author(s) 2024
ARTICLE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
8HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2024) 11:494 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02985-8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:
use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at
onlineservice@springernature.com
