Development of Reading in Multilingual Environments in 2nd Grade Children

Abstract

The main objective of this study is to assess the Spanish literacy competence of students enrolled in bilingual and trilingual programs by analyzing the developmental process and evolutionary course of reading during the first cycle of Primary Education. This analysis aims to determine whether the reading skills in Spanish of students in multilingual schools are affected by immersion in a foreign language, in this case, English. To achieve this, a total of 258 second-grade primary students were examined, categorized into groups based on the number of languages they knew (two or three), in comparison to a control group of monolingual students. Two variables were measured: intelligence using the WISC-IV and literacy competence using the TALE. The results of both tests indicate that there are no significant differences in reading competence between bilingual and trilingual students and monolingual students. These results reinforce the idea that learning to read is a process not influenced by the number of languages spoken.

Full text

Journal of Education and Learning; Vol. 13, No. 3; 2024
ISSN 1927-5250 E-ISSN 1927-5269
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
39
Development of Reading in Multilingual Environments in 2nd Grade
Children
Esther Moraleda1, Noelia Pulido2, Noelia Santos2 & Patricia López2
1 Facultad de Psicología, Complutense University, Madrid, España
2 Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Castilla-La Mancha University, Talavera, España
Correspondence: Esther Moraleda, Facultad de Psicología, Complutense University, Madrid, España.
Received: November 6, 2023 Accepted: February 3, 2024 Online Published: April 2, 2024
doi:10.5539/jel.v13n3p39 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v13n3p39
Abstract
The main objective of this study is to assess the Spanish literacy competence of students enrolled in bilingual
and trilingual programs by analyzing the developmental process and evolutionary course of reading during the
first cycle of Primary Education. This analysis aims to determine whether the reading skills in Spanish of
students in multilingual schools are affected by immersion in a foreign language, in this case, English. To
achieve this, a total of 258 second-grade primary students were examined, categorized into groups based on the
number of languages they knew (two or three), in comparison to a control group of monolingual students. Two
variables were measured: intelligence using the WISC-IV and literacy competence using the TALE. The results
of both tests indicate that there are no significant differences in reading competence between bilingual and
trilingual students and monolingual students. These results reinforce the idea that learning to read is a process
not influenced by the number of languages spoken.
Keywords: multilingual, skills, development, reading, writing
1. Introduction
The teaching of foreign languages in the Spanish educational system has always occupied an important place.
Some Autonomous Communities have regulated its start from the age of three. Its study is carried out on a
general and mandatory basis from early childhood education to the end of post-compulsory education, that is,
until the age of 18. This means that young Spaniards who complete their secondary education study a language
for a minimum of 10 years and currently do so for up to 15. This is undoubtedly more than enough time to
achieve good levels of linguistic competence (Gisbert, 2011). The study of second and third language acquisition
is of current scientific interest, especially in the educational context. In the current European social framework,
characterized by linguistic diversity, it appears essential that one of the central objectives of European language
policy is the promotion of bilingual and multilingual education, understood as a value and competence (Madrid,
2005; Rumlich, 2020).
Plurilingualism is defined as the ability to use multiple languages for interpersonal communication, including
intercultural competence, as communication with other people involves intercultural interaction (García &
Otheguy, 2020). In 1999, UNESCO, in its Resolution 30 C/12, advocated multilingual education as the only way
to meet the demands of global and national participation, as well as to address the specific needs of different
communities concerning their culture and language (UN-UNESCO, 2003). It should also be noted that linguistic
diversity is an educational value associated with linguistic tolerance and intercultural education (Beacco &
Byram, 2003; Busse et al., 2020; Council of Europe, 2002; Council of Europe, 2005; Cervantes Institute, 2005;
Røyneland & Lanza, 2023). Bilingualism and multilingualism should be considered valuable tools for students’
personal education and citizenship education. Therefore, it is of particular importance for educational systems to
promote the status and development of linguistic repertoires considered as linguistic varieties (languages)
available to the community (Beaco & Byram, 2003; Lüdi, 2021). Furthermore, research has shown that
bilingualism and multilingualism enhance students’ cognitive abilities (Baker, 2000; Boumeester et al., 2019;
Cummins, 1989; Krashen, 1996; Mehisto & Marsh, 2018; Tsimpli et al., 2020).
It is clear that the development of languages other than the native language needs to be promoted. Under the
premise of plurilingual development, new ways of conceiving foreign language teaching have been developed in

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Europe, including Spain, since the 1990s, materializing these ideas in the implementation of bilingual and
multilingual programs on a large scale through the CLIL model (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In
Spain, CLIL programs are present at all educational levels, although they are more prominent in the Primary and
Secondary levels. The organization of these programs may vary between autonomous communities and even
sometimes between schools, but, in summary, it could be said that in most schools, the percentage of immersion
in the foreign language ranges from 35% to 50% (partial immersion), and the most commonly taught subjects
through the foreign language are Science, Physical Education, Arts, and Music. The plurilingual perspective
promoted by European institutions implies the diversification of languages offered in educational institutions. A
threat to the promotion of plurilingual competence is the overwhelming presence of English bilingual programs,
not only in Spain but also in the rest of the European scene. The limited availability of bilingual programs in
other languages (German, Spanish, French, Russian, Italian, etc.), along with the clear dominance of English as
the first foreign language in European educational curricula, are evidence that the goal of plurilingualism is far
from being achieved. Since the introduction of bilingual programs in Spain through the CLIL model, numerous
studies have been conducted on the levels of foreign language (English) proficiency achieved by students
(Lasagabaster, 2008; Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster, 2010; Navés & Victori, 2010; Villoria, Hughes, & Madrid,
2011). The academic performance of students in subjects taught through the foreign language (English) has also
been studied, albeit to a lesser extent (see Sierra, Gallardo del Puerto, & Zarobe, 2011; Madrid, 2011; Anghel,
Cabrales, & Carro, 2013). However, research on the influence of the foreign language on the development of
students’ L1 (first language), not only in the Spanish context but also in other European contexts, remains scarce
(Sierra, Gallardo del Puerto, & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2011).
For instance, Cabrelli et al. (2019) concluded that there was a phonotactic influence of L1 on the perception of
L2 in Portuguese-English bilingual students. Yamashita (2004) identified the presence of difficulties in the
development of verbal inflectional morphology in English-Spanish bilingual students. From observations in
various studies, there is a genuine need to conduct field research in bilingual institutions and make the results
available to educators (Segovia, 2008).
Moreover, various authors focused on the study of phonetic-phonological implications in the reading
development of multilingual individuals have underscored the importance of transparency in both languages
(Bellocchi et al., 2012; Niolaki & Masterson, 2012). For instance, Meshyan and Hernández (2005), examining
bilingual individuals with Spanish as L1 and English as L2, demonstrated an increased latency in L2, identified
as their less proficient language. In this regard, it appears that differences in the consistency of
phoneme-grapheme correspondence in transparent and opaque languages may account for this phenomenon
(Soares et al., 2023). Additionally, scholars such as Haim (2015) have addressed the extent of academic literacy
transfer in trilingual individuals, concluding that literacy proficiency in L1 predicts reading and writing
performance in L2 and L3.
Therefore, we believe it is important to conduct an in-depth study on the implementation of bilingual and
trilingual programs in Spain through the comparison of reading competence acquired by students during the first
cycle of Primary Education. The main objective of this study is to determine the level of Spanish reading
competence in students from bilingual and trilingual programs. The secondary objectives are:
• Analyze the development process and evolutionary course of reading in the first cycle of Primary Education
(1st and 2nd grade).
• Determine whether the Spanish reading skills of students in bilingual and trilingual schools are affected by
immersion in the foreign language (English).
2. Method
Procedure. For the sample selection, contact was made with different national primary schools (non-CLIL
schools, schools with bilingual programs in English, and a school with a multilingual program in
Spanish-Valencian-English) whose students could be suitable for each of the proposed experimental groups.
Initially, a phone call was made to explain the project's objectives and the possible involvement of the schools.
Once participation was accepted, written authorization was obtained from parents. Furthermore, researchers
visited the schools where data collection was carried out. Children were individually taken from the regular
classroom to a designated room, where a team member conducted the tests.
Instruments. For intelligence assessment (for the prior matching of experimental groups), the WISC-IV test
(Weschler, 2003) was used. To evaluate reading and writing, the TALE test (Toro & Cervera, 1984) was used.
This test is designed to determine general reading and writing levels for children aged 6 to 10. It comprises two
parts (Reading and Writing), each of which includes several tests. In the case of reading, it evaluates letter

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reading (uppercase and lowercase), time spent on each, syllable readings, time spent on syllable readings, word
reading (and pseudowords), corresponding time spent, time spent on automatic text reading, time spent on
comprehensive text reading, correct answers in comprehensive reading, and total score (in reading).
Participants. The sample consisted of a total of 258 2nd-grade students. The monolingual group (comprising
students from non-CLIL schools in various autonomous communities) and the two experimental groups
(bilingual – Aragon, Castilla-La Mancha, and Madrid – and trilingual – Valencian Community) each consisted of
86 students. In the monolingual group, students receive 3 hours of English per week. The schools to which these
students belong do not offer extracurricular English classes. Students in Spanish-English bilingual schools study
at least one more curricular subject in English, in addition to the English subject. Finally, students in the
trilingual school receive 6 weekly sessions of English and 4 weekly sessions of Valencian.
3. Results
The results of the ANOVA show significant differences in the effect of Group on several variables, which are
detailed below. In the total score for lowercase letter reading, the trilingual group displayed the highest number
of correct answers (F (1, 257) = 19.83; p < .001 compared to the monolingual group and F (1, 257) = 9.93; p
< .001 compared to the bilingual group). On the other hand, there are significant differences in favor of the
monolingual group in the time spent on the automatic reading test. This group showed a higher reading speed in
this task compared to the other two experimental groups (F (1, 257) = 2.44; p < .001 compared to the bilingual
group and F (1, 257) = 0.30; p < .001 compared to the trilingual group). Lastly, the data indicate that there are
also significant differences in the total reading score (reading of…) (correct answers) in favor of the trilingual
group (F (1, 257) = 28.37; p < .001 compared to the monolingual group and F (1, 257) = 8.64; p < .001
compared to the bilingual group). There are also significant values between the bilingual group and the trilingual
group in the time spent on uppercase letter reading, in favor of the trilingual group (F (1, 257) = 11.74; p < .005).
There are no significant differences between the monolingual and bilingual experimental groups in any of the
tests. In summary, it can be stated that there is no lower reading competence in Spanish in either the bilingual or
trilingual groups compared to the monolingual control group.
4. Discussion
The main objective of this research was to determine whether the reading competence in Spanish of students
participating in bilingual and trilingual programs was affected by exposure to English and whether their
competence was evolving in line with their age. This study also aimed to shed light on an underexplored area in
CLIL research, which is the learning of the mother tongue. The results of our study demonstrate that the reading
competence in Spanish of the participants is not affected by the CLIL program. It appears that students are
capable of keeping their L1 and L2 (and, in the case of students in the Valencian Community, an L3) separate.
These results align with findings from other research in the European (Merisuo-Storm, 2007; Seikkula-Leino,
2007) and national (Egiguren, 2006, cited in Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster, 2010; Ramos, Ortega, & Madrid,
2011) contexts. The results of this study appear to confirm the correlation between the use of learning strategies
and learning effectiveness. Various studies have pointed to the close relationship between the development of the
ability to read and write in L1 and the acquisition of second languages, as there is a transfer of competencies
developed during the L2 learning process to L1. These competencies refer to the subskills required for lexical
decoding, such as phonological awareness and letter-sound correspondence recognition (Erdos, Genesee, Savage,
& Haigh, 2010; Genesee & Jared, 2008). Therefore, it could be concluded that learning content through an L2
fosters the development of metalinguistic awareness in L1, which is crucial for acquiring reading and writing
competence.
Our results have shown how phonological differentiation between languages does not give rise to a different
pattern of reading learning. These results have also been documented in several languages. For example, in the
case of English-French bilingual children (Krenca et al., 2020), English and different Asian languages (O’Brien
et al., 2019) and English and Dutch (Kwakkel et al., 2021). In this regard, some studies suggest that while
phonological awareness develops in multilingual children in response to exposure to different languages,
decoding ability develops based on the level of competence and explicit, individualized instruction in each
language, without transfers occurring between them (Bialystok et al., 2005; Li et al., 2021). Besides, Lallier and
Carreiras (2018) suggest that the impact of bilingualism on early literacy in children depends on the specific
combination of languages learned, and it does not manifest similarly across all bilingual populations.
However, our data seems to suggest a higher level of proficiency in trilingual individuals, although with longer
latency times compared to monolingual individuals, in line with other studies (Brito et al., 2014; Byers-Heinlein
& Werker, 2009; Hsu, 2014; Silverman et al., 2015).

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Finally, to confirm that learning curricular subjects in English is not detrimental to students’ overall linguistic
competence in Spanish, it would be necessary to determine whether the ability to write in Spanish for students in
the experimental groups is also unaffected by learning content through English. Similarly, based on the data
collected in this study, it would be interesting to explore whether there are significant individual differences
among students in the experimental groups based on their L1 (Spanish, immigrant language, or Valencian) or
what methodological and program organization aspects may be contributing to the proper development of
Spanish for the students participating in the research. The strong commitment of autonomous communities to the
CLIL model requires rigorous, comprehensive research on the effect of these programs on students’ L1, making
more research in this area necessary, especially in the Primary Education stage, which is considered one of the
most critical in terms of learning. Therefore, it seems clear that learning several languages can contribute to
satisfactory reading development. Now, educational systems must be able to respond to how to implement it
correctly within the classrooms.
Acknowledgments
Not applicable.
Authors’ contributions
Not applicable.
Funding
Not applicable.
Competing interests
Not applicable.
Informed consent
Obtained.
Ethics approval
The Publication Ethics Committee of the Canadian Center of Science and Education.
The journal’s policies adhere to the Core Practices established by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).
Provenance and peer review
Not commissioned; externally double-blind peer reviewed.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data
are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
Data sharing statement
No additional data are available.
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