Access to this full-text is provided by Wiley.
Content available from CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Received: 12 February 2024
-
Accepted: 12 February 2024
DOI: 10.3322/caac.21834
ARTICLE
Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of
incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185
countries
Freddie Bray BSc, MSc, PhD
1
|Mathieu Laversanne MSc
1
|Hyuna Sung PhD
2
|
Jacques Ferlay ME
1
|Rebecca L. Siegel MPH
2
|
Isabelle Soerjomataram MD, MSc, PhD
1
|Ahmedin Jemal DVM, PhD
2
1
Cancer Surveillance Branch, International
Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
2
Surveillance and Health Equity Science,
American Cancer Society, Atlanta,
Georgia, USA
Correspondence
Freddie Bray, Cancer Surveillance Branch,
International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC), 25 avenue Tony Garnier CS 90627
69366 Lyon Cedex 07, France.
Email: brayf@iarc.fr
Funding information
International Agency for Research on Cancer/
World Health Organization
Abstract
This article presents global cancer statistics by world region for the year 2022
based on updated estimates from the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC). There were close to 20 million new cases of cancer in the year 2022
(including nonmelanoma skin cancers [NMSCs]) alongside 9.7 million deaths from
cancer (including NMSC). The estimates suggest that approximately one in five men
or women develop cancer in a lifetime, whereas around one in nine men and one in
12 women die from it. Lung cancer was the most frequently diagnosed cancer in
2022, responsible for almost 2.5 million new cases, or one in eight cancers world-
wide (12.4% of all cancers globally), followed by cancers of the female breast
(11.6%), colorectum (9.6%), prostate (7.3%), and stomach (4.9%). Lung cancer was
also the leading cause of cancer death, with an estimated 1.8 million deaths (18.7%),
followed by colorectal (9.3%), liver (7.8%), female breast (6.9%), and stomach (6.8%)
cancers. Breast cancer and lung cancer were the most frequent cancers in women
and men, respectively (both cases and deaths). Incidence rates (including NMSC)
varied from four‐fold to five‐fold across world regions, from over 500 in Australia/
New Zealand (507.9 per 100,000) to under 100 in Western Africa (97.1 per
100,000) among men, and from over 400 in Australia/New Zealand (410.5 per
100,000) to close to 100 in South‐Central Asia (103.3 per 100,000) among women.
The authors examine the geographic variability across 20 world regions for the 10
leading cancer types, discussing recent trends, the underlying determinants, and the
prospects for global cancer prevention and control. With demographics‐based
predictions indicating that the number of new cases of cancer will reach 35
million by 2050, investments in prevention, including the targeting of key risk fac-
tors for cancer (including smoking, overweight and obesity, and infection), could
avert millions of future cancer diagnoses and save many lives worldwide, bringing
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution‐NonCommercial‐NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2024 The Authors. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Cancer Society.
CA Cancer J Clin. 2024;74:229–263. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/caac
-
229
huge economic as well as societal dividends to countries over the forthcoming
decades.
KEYWORDS
cancer burden, cancer control, epidemiology, incidence, mortality
INTRODUCTION
Cancer is a major societal, public health, and economic problem in the
21st century, responsible for almost one in six deaths (16.8%) and one
in four deaths (22.8%) from noncommunicable diseases (NCDs)
worldwide. The disease causes three in 10 global premature deaths
from NCDs (30.3% in those aged 30–69 years), and it is among the
three leading causes of death in this age group in 177 of 183 coun-
tries.
1
In addition to being an important barrier to increasing life
expectancy, cancer is associated with substantial societal and macro-
economic costs that vary in degree across cancer types, geography,
and gender.
2
One recent study illustrated the profound impact of
disproportional cancer mortality in women: an estimated one million
children became maternal orphans in 2020 because their mother died
from cancer in that year, with close to one half of these orphans the
result of maternal deaths from either female breast or cervical cancer.
3
In this article, we explore the cancer burden worldwide in 2022
based on the latest GLOBOCAN estimates produced by the Interna-
tional Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and disseminated as
Cancer Today on the Global Cancer Observatory.
4
As with previous
reports,
5–8
our lines of inquiry are threefold: (1) the description of
the cancer incidence and mortality burden at the global level, (2) the
geographic variability observed across 20 predefined world regions,
and (3) a prediction of the future magnitude of the incidence burden
(in the year 2050) based on global demographic projections. With a
focus on the 10 major cancer types, we briefly link these observa-
tions to the underlying determinants and the prospects for cancer
prevention and control on a global scale.
DATA SOURCES AND METHODS
The sources and methods used in compiling the GLOBOCAN estimates
have been documented
9
and are described online at the Global Cancer
Observatory (GCO) (https://gco.iarc.who.int). The GCO website in-
cludes facilities for the tabulation and graphic visualization of the
GLOBOCAN database at the global, world region, and national level by
cancer type, sex, and age. In brief, the national estimates are built up
from the best available sources of cancer incidence and mortality data
within each country, and their validity depends on the degree of
representativeness and quality of the source information. The methods
used to compile the 2022 estimates are largely based on those
developed previously with an emphasis on the use of short‐term pre-
dictions and the use of modeled mortality‐to‐incidence ratios, where
applicable.
10
The estimates are available in the GCO for 36 cancer
types, including nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) (International
Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition [ICD‐10] code C44, excluding
basal‐cell carcinomas). Together with all cancers combined, cancer‐
specific estimates are provided for 185 countries or territories
worldwide by sex and 18 age groups (ages birth to 4 years, 5–9 years, …,
80–84 years, 85 years and older).
The number of new cancer cases and cancer deaths were
extracted from the GLOBOCAN 2022 database for all cancers com-
bined (ICD‐10 codes C00–C97) and for 36 cancer types: lip, oral
cavity (C00–C06), salivary glands (C07–C08), oropharynx (C09–
C10), nasopharynx (C11), hypopharynx (C12–C13), esophagus (C15),
stomach (C16), colon (C18), rectum (C19–C20), anus (C21), liver
(C22, including intrahepatic bile ducts), gallbladder (C23), pancreas
(C25), larynx (C32), lung (C33–C34, including trachea and bronchus),
melanoma of skin (C43), NMSC (C44, excluding basal cell carcinoma
for incidence), mesothelioma (C45), Kaposi sarcoma (C46), female
breast (C50), vulva (C51), vagina (C52), cervix uteri (C53), corpus
uteri (C54), ovary (C56), penis (C60), prostate (C61), testis (C62),
kidney (including renal pelvis, C64–C65), bladder (C67), brain, central
nervous system (C70–C72), thyroid (C73), Hodgkin lymphoma (C81),
non‐Hodgkin lymphoma (C82–C86, C96), multiple myeloma (C88 and
C90, including immunoproliferative diseases), and leukemia (C91–
C95). For consistency with previous reports,
4
we combine colon,
rectum, and anus as colorectal cancer (ICD‐10 codes C18–C21),
whereas NMSC (C44, excluding basal cell carcinoma) is included in
the overall estimation of the total cancer burden (unless otherwise
stated) and is included within the other category when making com-
parisons of the relative magnitude of different cancers types.
For the 10 leading cancer types—which collectively comprise
around two thirds of the global burden—we present indicators of
the incidence and mortality burden across 20 aggregated regions
defined by the United Nations Population Division (Figure 1A). In
addition to the number of new cases and deaths, two measures of
direct standardization that allow comparisons between populations
adjusted for differences in their age structures are used: age‐
standardized (incidence and mortality) rates (ASRs) per 100,000
person‐years based on the 1966 Segi–Doll World standard popu-
lation
11
and the cumulative risk of (developing or dying from)
cancer before age 75 years, assuming the absence of competing
causes of death, expressed as a percentage. We also characterize
the burden according to the Human Development Index (HDI;
Figure 1B) based on the United Nations Development Program’s
Human Development Report 2021–22
12
, using the predefined four‐
tier (low, medium, high, and very high HDI) and binary proxies of
human development (low and medium HDI vs. high and very high
HDI). Given their large population sizes, the cancer profiles in
China and India are also shown separately. Finally, we provide a
230
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
prediction of the future burden of cancer in the year 2050 based
on demographic projections assuming constant rates. Throughout,
we use the terms transitioning,emerging, and lower HDI countries/
economies as synonyms for nations classified as low and medium
HDI, and the terms transitioned and higher HDI countries/economies
are used for those classified as high and very high HDI.
FIGURE 1 Global maps present (A) 20 areas of the world and (B) the four‐tier Human Development Index. The sizes of the respective
populations are included in the legend. Source: United Nations Procurement Division/United Nations Development Program. HDI indicates
Human Development Index.
BRAY ET AL.
-
231
RESULTS
Distribution of cases and deaths by world region and
cancer types
Figure 2presents the distribution of new cases and deaths according
to world region for both sexes combined and for men and women
separately. For both sexes combined, there were an estimated 20.0
million new cases worldwide (19.96 million including NMSC and 18.73
million excluding NMSC) and 9.7 million cancer deaths (9.74 million
including NMSC and 9.67 million excluding NMSC) in 2022 (Table 1).
Almost one half of all cases (49.2%) and the majority (56.1%) of cancer
deaths globally were estimated to occur in Asia in 2022 (Figure 2A),
where 59.2% of the world’s population resides (Figure 1B). The cancer
mortality burden in the African and Asian regions is disproportion-
ately greater than the corresponding incidence burden. This reflects
the respective distribution of cancer types alongside comparatively
higher case fatality rates on these continents in part because of late‐
stage diagnoses. Europe has a disproportionately higher cancer inci-
dence and mortality burden, given that the continent has one fifth of
the global cancer cases (22.4%) and cancer deaths (20.4%) yet less
than 10% of the global population (9.6%).
Table 2lists the number of newly diagnosed cancer cases and
deaths, the incidence and mortality ASR, and the cumulative risk of
developing and dying from cancer overall and for the 36 cancer types
in men and women, separately. Approximately one in five men or
women develop cancer in a lifetime, whereas around one in nine men
and one in 12 women die from it.
As illustrated in Figure 3A (with NMSC included in the other
category), the top 10 cancer types in both sexes account for over
60% of newly diagnosed cancer cases and cancer deaths. Lung
cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide (12.4%
of the total cases), followed by cancers of the female breast
(11.6%), colorectum (9.6%), prostate (7.3%), and stomach (4.9%).
Lung cancer is also the leading cause of cancer death (18.7% of
the total cancer deaths), followed by colorectal (9.3%), liver (7.8%),
female breast (6.9%), and stomach (6.8%) cancers. In women,
breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the
leading cause of cancer death, followed by lung and colorectal
cancer for both cancer cases and deaths; whereas lung cancer is
most frequent cancer in men (both cases and deaths), followed by
prostate and colorectal cancer for new cases and liver and colo-
rectal cancer for deaths (Figure 3B,C).
Global cancer patterns
Figures 4and 5present global maps of the most commonly diagnosed
cancers and leading causes of cancer death, respectively, by sex in 185
countries. The maps illustrate the diversity of leading cancer types
across nations, notably in terms of new cases and deaths in men (eight
different leading cancers) and deaths in women (seven different
leading cancers). In men, prostate cancer ranks as the most frequently
diagnosed cancer in 118 countries, followed by lung cancer in 33
countries, with liver, colorectal, and stomach cancer ranking in first
place in 11, nine, and eight countries, respectively (Figure 4A). In terms
of cancer deaths, lung cancer leads in men in 89 countries (Figure 5A),
followed by cancers of the prostate (52 countries) and liver (24
countries). In contrast, two cancer types dominate as the most
commonly diagnosed cancers in women, namely, breast cancer (157
countries) and cervical cancer (25 of 28 remaining countries;
Figure 4B). The mortality profile in women is more heterogeneous
than that of incidence, however, with breast and cervical cancer as the
leading causes of cancer death in 112 and 37 countries, respectively,
followed by lung cancer in 23 countries (Figure 5B).
Cancer incidence and mortality patterns by four‐tier
HDI, China and India
Figure 6shows the most frequent five cancers in terms of incidence
and mortality for very high, high (excluding China), medium
(excluding India), and low HDI levels, as well as for China and India.
Although lung cancer is the most frequent cancer type worldwide and
in China, female breast cancer is the most common form of incidence
at each level of HDI and in India. Colorectal cancer is among the top
five leading cancers for both incidence and mortality across HDI
levels (also in China but not India), as is liver cancer (although only for
mortality). Cervical cancer ranks in the top five cancers for both
incidence and mortality in low and medium HDI regions and India.
The five most common cancers tend to explain 40%–50% of the
incidence and mortality burden across the four‐tier HDI, China, and
India, although five cancers are responsible for over two thirds of the
cancer mortality burden in China.
From a global perspective, the risk of developing cancer tends to
increase with increasing HDI level. For example, the cumulative risk
of men developing cancer before age of 75 years in 2022 ranged
from approximately 10% in low HDI settings to over 30% in very high
HDI settings (Table 3). The risk of cancer death varies less by HDI
level, although the cumulative risk in men in high and very high
HDI settings is still about 60% higher than that of low and medium
HDI settings (around 12.5% vs. 8%, respectively). In contrast, there is
little variation across HDI levels in the cumulative risk of cancer
death in women, with the risk higher in low HDI compared with very
high HDI settings (8.8% vs. 8.2%, respectively).
Figure 7presents cancer incidence and mortality ASRs in higher
versus lower HDI countries in men and women, respectively, in 2022.
In men, the three cancer sites with the highest ASRs in descending
order were lung, prostate, and colorectal cancer (40.1, 35.5, and 27.3
per 100,000, respectively) in higher HDI countries and prostate, lung,
and lip and oral cavity cancer (12.6, 10.5, and 10.0 per 100,000,
respectively) in lower HDI countries. In women (Figure 7B), incidence
rates for breast cancer far exceed those of other cancers in both
transitioned (54.1 per 100,000) and transitioning (30.8 per 100,000)
countries, followed by lung cancer (20.7 per 100,000) in transitioned
countries and cervical cancer (19.3 per 100,000) in transitioning
232
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
countries. In terms of mortality, lung cancer rates rank in first place
among men and women in transitioned countries, and among men in
transitioning countries. Among women in transitioning countrires,
however, mortality rates from cancers of the female breast, cervix,
and ovary are of greater magnitude than those from cancers of the
lung. Rates tend to be higher in transitioned compared with
FIGURE 2 Pie charts present the distribution of cases and deaths (incidence and mortality) by world area in 2022 for (A) both sexes,
(B) males, and (C) females. For each sex, the area of the pie chart reflects the proportion of the total number of cases or deaths. Source:
GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
233
TABLE 1New cases and deaths for 36 cancers and all cancers combined in 2022.
Cancer site
Incidence Mortality
Rank New cases % of all sites Rank Deaths % of all sites
Lung 1 2,480,301 12.4 1 1,817,172 18.7
Female breast 2 2,308,897 11.6 4 665,684 6.9
Colorectum 3 1,926,118 9.6 2 903,859 9.3
Prostate 4 1,466,680 7.3 8 396,792 4.1
Stomach 5 968,350 4.9 5 659,853 6.8
Liver 6 865,269 4.3 3 757,948 7.8
Thyroid 7 821,173 4.1 24 47,485 0.5
Cervix uteri 8 661,021 3.3 9 348,189 3.6
Bladder 9 613,791 3.1 13 220,349 2.3
Non‐Hodgkin lymphoma 10 553,010 2.8 11 250,475 2.6
Esophagus 11 510,716 2.6 7 445,129 4.6
Pancreas 12 510,566 2.6 6 467,005 4.8
Leukemia 13 486,777 2.4 10 305,033 3.1
Kidney 14 434,419 2.2 16 155,702 1.6
Corpus uteri 15 420,242 2.1 19 97,704 1
Lip, oral cavity 16 389,485 2 15 188,230 1.9
Melanoma of skin 17 331,647 1.7 22 58,645 0.6
Ovary 18 324,398 1.6 14 206,839 2.1
Brain, central nervous system 19 321,476 1.6 12 248,305 2.6
Larynx 20 188,960 0.9 18 103,216 1.1
Multiple myeloma 21 187,774 0.9 17 121,252 1.2
Gallbladder 22 122,462 0.6 20 89,031 0.9
Nasopharynx 23 120,416 0.6 21 73,476 0.8
Oropharynx 24 106,316 0.5 23 52,268 0.5
Hypopharynx 25 86,276 0.4 25 40,917 0.4
Hodgkin lymphoma 26 82,409 0.4 28 22,701 0.2
Testis 27 72,031 0.4 32 9056 0.1
Salivary glands 28 55,003 0.3 27 23,894 0.2
Vulva 29 47,342 0.2 29 18,579 0.2
Penis 30 37,699 0.2 31 13,729 0.1
Kaposi sarcoma 31 35,359 0.2 30 15,911 0.2
Mesothelioma 32 30,618 0.2 26 25,372 0.3
Vagina 33 18,800 0.1 33 8238 0.1
All cancers excl. C44 18,730,216 9,667,298
All cancers 19,964,811 9,736,779
Note: Nonmelanoma skin cancer excludes basal cell carcinoma.
Abbreviation: excl. C44, excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
234
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
TABLE 2Incidence (cases, age‐standardized rate, cumulative risk) and mortality (deaths, age‐standardized rate, cumulative risk) for 36 cancers and all cancers combined (including
nonmelanoma skin cancer except basal cell carcinoma) by sex in 2022.
Cancer site
Incidence Mortality
Males Females Males Females
Cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
No. of
cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
No. of
cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
No. of
cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Lip, oral cavity 268,759 5.8 0.67 120,726 2.3 0.26 130,668 2.8 0.32 57,562 1.1 0.12
Salivary glands 30,942 0.7 0.07 24,061 0.5 0.05 13,982 0.3 0.03 9912 0.2 0.02
Oropharynx 86,269 1.9 0.23 20,047 0.4 0.05 42,792 0.9 0.11 9476 0.2 0.02
Nasopharynx 86,257 1.9 0.21 34,159 0.7 0.08 54,090 1.2 0.14 19,386 0.4 0.04
Hypopharynx 72,079 1.5 0.19 14,197 0.3 0.03 34,565 0.7 0.09 6352 0.1 0.01
Esophagus 364,999 7.6 0.93 145,717 2.6 0.31 318,284 6.5 0.78 126,845 2.2 0.25
Stomach 627,229 12.8 1.53 341,121 6.0 0.67 427,421 8.6 0.98 232,432 3.9 0.42
Colon 609,216 12.4 1.43 533,006 9.2 1.03 283,797 5.5 0.57 254,341 4.0 0.39
Rectum 436,081 9.1 1.10 293,621 5.4 0.62 205,062 4.1 0.45 138,699 2.3 0.25
Anus 23,999 0.5 0.06 30,195 0.6 0.07 10,856 0.2 0.02 11,104 0.2 0.02
Liver and
intrahepatic
bile ducts
600,243 12.7 1.49 265,026 4.8 0.55 521,433 10.9 1.26 236,515 4.1 0.46
Gallbladder 43,531 0.9 0.10 78,931 1.4 0.16 31,400 0.6 0.07 57,631 1.0 0.11
Pancreas 269,583 5.5 0.64 240,983 4.0 0.44 247,466 5.0 0.56 219,539 3.5 0.38
Larynx 165,598 3.5 0.44 23,362 0.4 0.05 90,256 1.9 0.23 12,960 0.2 0.03
Trachea,
bronchus
and lung
1,571,868 32.1 3.88 908,433 16.2 1.95 1,233,109 24.8 2.91 584,063 9.8 1.11
Melanoma of
skin
179,916 3.7 0.40 151,731 2.9 0.31 33,149 0.7 0.07 25,496 0.4 0.04
NMSC 744,792 14.0 1.29 489,803 7.5 0.70 39,703 0.8 0.07 29,778 0.4 0.04
Mesothelioma 21,411 0.4 0.05 9207 0.2 0.02 18,083 0.3 0.03 7289 0.1 0.01
Kaposi sarcoma 24,290 0.6 0.05 11,069 0.3 0.02 10,455 0.2 0.02 5456 0.1 0.01
Breast . . . 2,295,686 46.8 5.05 . . . 665,684 12.6 1.36
Vulva . . . 47,342 0.8 0.09 . . . 18,579 0.3 0.03
(Continues)
BRAY ET AL.
-
235
TABLE 2(Continued)
Cancer site
Incidence Mortality
Males Females Males Females
Cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
No. of
cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
No. of
cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
No. of
cases
Age‐
standardized
rate (world),
%
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Vagina . . . 18,800 0.4 0.04 . . . 8238 0.2 0.02
Cervix uteri . . . 661,021 14.1 1.50 . . . 348,189 7.1 0.79
Corpus uteri . . . 420,242 8.4 1.01 . . . 97,704 1.7 0.20
Ovary . . . 324,398 6.6 0.73 . . . 206,839 4.0 0.46
Penis 37699 0.8 0.09 . . . 13,729 0.3 0.03 . . .
Prostate 1,466,680 29.4 3.68 . . . 396,792 7.3 0.61 . . .
Testis 72,031 1.7 0.13 . . . 9056 0.2 0.02 . . .
Kidney 277,574 5.9 0.69 156,845 3.0 0.34 100,209 2.0 0.22 55,493 0.9 0.10
Bladder 471,072 9.3 1.05 142,719 2.4 0.26 165,541 3.1 0.28 54,808 0.8 0.07
Brain, CNS 173,591 3.9 0.39 147,885 3.1 0.32 139,737 3.0 0.33 108,568 2.2 0.23
Thyroid 206,487 4.6 0.46 614,686 13.6 1.35 17,244 0.3 0.04 30,241 0.5 0.06
Hodgkin
lymphoma
48,753 1.1 0.10 33,656 0.8 0.07 13,668 0.3 0.03 9033 0.2 0.02
Non‐Hodgkin
lymphoma
311,157 6.6 0.72 241,853 4.6 0.49 143,624 2.9 0.30 106,851 1.9 0.19
Multiple
myeloma
103,767 2.1 0.25 84,007 1.5 0.18 66,938 1.3 0.15 54,314 0.9 0.10
Leukemia 277,824 6.2 0.59 208,953 4.4 0.41 173,063 3.7 0.35 131,970 2.5 0.24
All cancers
excluding
NMSC
9,561,663 198.5 20.77 9,168,553 178.7 17.93 538,7340 108.9 11.33 4,279,958 76.3 7.93
All cancers 10,306,455 212.5 21.79 9,658,356 186.2 18.51 5,427,043 109.7 11.39 4,309,736 76.8 7.97
Abbreviations: CNS, central nervous system; NMSC, Nonmelanoma skin cancer.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
236
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
FIGURE 3 Pie charts present the distribution of cases and deaths for the top five cancers in 2022 for (A) both sexes, (B) males, and
(C) females. For each sex, the area of the pie chart reflects the proportion of the total number of cases or deaths; nonmelanoma skin cancers
(excluding basal cell carcinoma) are included in the other category. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
237
transitioning countries site‐for‐site in both men and women, although
the cancer profiles in part reflect the large incidence burden of
specific cancer types in highly populated countries, including China
(e.g., lung), India (oral cavity), and the United States (prostate).
Cancer incidence and mortality rates by sex and world
region
The incidence rate for all cancers combined (including NMSC) was
slightly higher in men (212.5 per 100,000) than in women (186.2 per
100,000) in 2022, although rates varied four‐fold to five‐fold across
world regions (Table 3). Among men, incidence rates ranged from
over 500 in Australia/New Zealand (507.9 per 100,000) to under 100
in Western Africa (97.1 per 100,000) and, among women, rates
ranged from over 400 in Australia/New Zealand (410.5 per 100,000)
to close to 100 in South‐Central Asia (103.3 per 100,000). Sex‐
specific differences in mortality rates were less pronounced than
for incidence (Table 3), with mortality rates per 100,000 persons
ranging from 68.9 in Central America to 159.6 in Eastern
Europe among men and from around 63 in Central America and
South‐Central Asia to 115.7 in Melanesia among women. The
FIGURE 4 Global maps present the most common type of cancer incidence in 2022 in each country among (A) men and (B) women. The
numbers of countries represented in each ranking group are included in the legend. Nonmelanoma skin cancer (excluding basal cell carcinoma)
is the most common type of cancer in Australia and New Zealand among men and women and in the United States among men; however, it is
excluded when making global maps. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
238
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
cumulative risk of dying from cancer among women in 2022 tends to
be highest in several regions where many transitioning countries are
located, including Melanesia and Micronesia/Polynesia (11.8% and
10.5%, respectively) and Eastern and Southern Africa (10.7% and
10.4%, respectively). In contrast, the estimated cumulative risks of
cancer death are less than 10 in North America (7.9%), Southern
Europe (8.0%), and Australia/New Zealand (7.5%).
Such regional variations in cancer incidence and mortality
largely reflect differences in underlying exposure to the dominant
risk factors for the major cancers, the distribution of associated
cancer types, and barriers to effective prevention, early detection,
and curative treatment. Below, we examine and discuss the
variations by world region in more depth, assessing the incidence
and mortality patterns for the 10 most frequent cancer types
(Figures 8–20). A focus is on the four leading incident cancers
(lung, female breast, colorectal, and prostate) that, in combination,
are responsible for close to two fifths of the overall incidence and
mortality burden.
Lung cancer
With almost 2.5 million new cases and over 1.8 million deaths
worldwide, lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer morbidity
FIGURE 5 Global maps present the most common type of cancer mortality by country in 2022 among (A) men and (B) women. The
numbers of countries represented in each ranking group are included in the legend. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
239
and mortality in 2022, responsible for close to one in eight (12.4%)
cancers diagnosed globally and one in five (18.7%) cancer deaths
(Table 1, Figure 3). The disease ranks first among men and second
among women for both incidence and mortality, with male‐to‐
female lung cancer incidence and mortality ratios of around 2.
These, however, vary widely by region, from close to unity in
North America and Northern Europe to four‐fold to five‐fold in
Northern Africa and Eastern Europe (Figure 8).
Among men, lung cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer
in 33 countries (Figure 4A) and the leading cause of cancer death in
89 countries (Figure 5A). The highest incidence rates are observed in
the Eastern Asian region in men, followed by Micronesia/Polynesia,
and Eastern Europe, with the highest national rate among men
worldwide estimated in Türkiye. Among women, lung cancer is the
leading cause of cancer death in 23 countries, including China and the
United States (Figure 5B). By world region, elevated incidence rates
are seen in Northern America, Eastern Asia, and Northern Europe,
with the highest national rate estimated in Hungary.
Given the poor survival, the marked geographic and temporal
patterns in both incidence and mortality largely reflect the stage of the
tobacco epidemic in countries where the habit has been adopted
13,14
as well as differentials in the historic patterns of tobacco exposure: the
intensity and duration of smoking, the type of cigarettes, and the de-
gree of inhalation. Among men, a diminution in smoking prevalence,
followed by a peak and decline in lung cancer rates in the same gen-
erations, was first reported in several high‐income countries where
smoking was first established (e.g., the United Kingdom and the United
States), with steep increase, peak, and subsequent decline in the lung
cancer rates mirroring those of smoking prevalence albeit a 20–25
years lag.
15,16
In general, the tobacco epidemic among women remains at a less
advanced phase than among men, and the extent to which smoking
trends in women mimic those seen earlier in men varies considerably
by region.
13,17
In most transitioned countries, lung cancer rates in
women are still rising,
18
with only a few countries (e.g., in the United
States) showing signs of a stabilization or decline in rates.
18,19
The
net result is that incidence rates in women are approaching or sur-
passing those in men in several countries at younger or middle ages
and in recent generations in Europe and Northern America,
18,20,21
forewarning of a relatively higher overall lung cancer burden among
women in future decades.
In transitioning countries where the epidemic is at an earlier
stage, among men, smoking has either peaked recently or continues
to increase,
22
and hence lung cancer rates will likely increase for at
least the next few decades barring tobacco mitigation interventions
to accelerate smoking cessation or reduce initiation.
23
The potential
for a rapid rise in global lung cancer mortality is of pressing concern
given some of the most populous countries have among the highest
daily smoking prevalence among men, such as Indonesia (54.4%) and
China (41.5%).
24
In contrast, smoking prevalence varies markedly among women
in transitioning countries. For example, only a small percentage of
women estimated to be daily smokers (<5%) in Indonesia, China, and
most African countries.
25
About one‐quarter of lung cancer cases
globally are attributable to causes other than tobacco smoking.
However, the proportion may be higher in some populations, such as
women from Eastern Asia, where smoking prevalence is low and
nonsmoker lung cancer constitutes a significant proportion of the
overall disease burden. Environmental exposures—for example,
biomass fuels, occupation, and pollution
26
—may partially explain
FIGURE 6 Pie charts present the distribution of cases and deaths (incidence and mortality) for the top 10 most common cancers in 2022
by the four tiers of the Human Development Index (HDI) (excluding China and India in high and medium HDI, respectively), and for China and
India, for both sexes. Nonmelanoma skin cancers (excluding basal cell carcinoma) are included in the other category. Source: GLOBOCAN
2022.
240
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
TABLE 3Incidence and mortality rates (age‐standardized rate per 100,000, cumulative risk) for 24 world areas and by sex for all cancers
combined (including nonmelanoma skin cancer except basal cell carcinoma) in 2022.
Incidence Mortality
Males Females Males Females
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Eastern
Africa
111.8 11.83 145.8 14.76 81.9 8.63 101.3 10.74
Middle
Africa
103.3 11.09 107.8 11.2 75.5 7.94 77.0 8.31
Northern
Africa
147.6 15.65 145.8 14.67 103.2 10.62 78.5 8.24
Southern
Africa
224.1 22.36 186.2 18.31 141.2 13.23 108.4 10.43
Western
Africa
97.1 10.55 127.2 13.11 72.1 7.65 82.9 8.85
Caribbean 217.5 22.51 175.0 17.39 115.4 11.53 87.1 8.97
Central
America
140.6 14.64 140.4 14.04 68.9 7.06 64.0 6.81
South
America
217.9 22.17 190.5 18.64 103.7 10.51 81.2 8.43
Northern
America
397.7 36.73 340.7 31.63 95.1 9.74 74.9 7.85
Eastern Asia 224.3 22.93 202.6 19.59 126.0 13.1 67.6 6.93
All but China 289.8 28.99 225.0 21.3 109.9 10.6 63.5 6.03
China 209.6 21.79 197.0 19.29 127.5 13.5 67.8 7.1
South‐
Eastern
Asia
155.1 16.3 148.9 15 110.0 11.6 80.1 8.6
South‐
Central
Asia
104.1 11.32 103.3 10.88 71.6 7.91 64.1 7.06
All but India 122.2 13.18 109.1 11.37 84.9 9.07 67.9 7.34
India 97.1 10.62 100.8 10.68 66.4 7.48 62.6 6.95
Western
Asia
188.9 19.62 160.9 16.12 119.4 12.56 74.7 7.78
Eastern
Europe
295.9 31.02 226.3 22.83 159.6 17.83 87.5 9.77
Northern
Europe
338.0 32.57 293.1 27.92 111.7 11.05 85.9 8.89
Southern
Europe
311.0 31.06 247.6 23.93 124.0 12.81 77.0 8.04
Western
Europe
338.2 33.12 277.1 26.64 121.7 12.64 82.8 8.75
Australia/
New
Zealand
507.9 45.03 410.5 36.62 102.2 9.87 74.3 7.51
(Continues)
BRAY ET AL.
-
241
these patterns. For example, the high lung cancer rates among Chi-
nese women are postulated in part to reflect increased outdoor
ambient air pollution and exposures to household burning of solid
fuels for heating and cooking.
21,27,28
A recent study estimated that adenocarcinoma was the most
common subtype of lung cancer worldwide in 2020, with incidence
rates exceeding those of squamous cell carcinoma in most countries
among men and in all 185 countries among women.
29
Although
considerable regional heterogeneity remains, incidence rates of
adenocarcinoma were highest in Eastern Asia (including China) in
both sexes. Previous epidemiological studies have linked the high
burden of adenocarcinoma to long‐term exposure to outdoor air
pollution in transitioned countries
30–32
; and, recently, a novel
mechanism has been proposed on the underlying means by which
air pollution causes adenocarcinoma.
33
Thus the high levels of air
pollution recorded in several urban areas worldwide may be among
the important underlying reasons for the observed patterns of lung
cancer.
However, tobacco remains the principal cause of lung cancer,
and the disease can largely be prevented through effective tobacco
control policies and regulations. To assist in national implementation
of effective interventions to reduce the demand for tobacco, the
World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on To-
bacco Control introduced the MPOWER package, consisting of six
policy intervention strategies. Progress in the implementation of
these interventions remains variable across countries. An increase
in the average tobacco tax, one of the most effective interventions
to reduce the demand for tobacco, has been highlighted in four
WHO regions,
34
although only the European region reaches the
75% tax benchmark suggested by the WHO. Gredner et al. have
illustrated the great potential of comprehensive implementation of
tobacco control policies in reducing the disease burden in greater
Europe, with over 1.6 million lung cancer cases preventable over a
20‐year period through the highest level implementation of tobacco
control policies.
35
Five‐year survival from lung cancer tends to be below 20% in
most countries
36
, with little difference according to human devel-
opment.
37
A study of survival differences by stage, histologic
subtype, and sex in high‐income countries suggested that factors
related to treatment, health care systems, and the extent of co-
morbidity likely play important roles.
38
Because most lung cancers
are diagnosed at a later stage when curative treatment is not
possible, there has been a longstanding focus on the screening of
high‐risk individuals (smokers and ex‐smokers), with randomized
controlled trials (e.g., the US National Lung Screening Trial [Clin-
icalTrials.gov identifier NCT00047385]
39
and the NELSON study
[International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number
63545820]
40
) demonstrating that low‐dose computed tomography
substantially reduces deaths from lung cancer. The translation of
mortality benefits to the general population has proven chal-
lenging, however, given the well documented issues around false
positives, overdiagnosis, and complication rates, while ensuring
attendance and coverage given the prohibitive costs and infra-
structure required.
41
The US Preventive Services Task Force
currently recommends annual lung cancer screening with low‐dose
computed tomography in those aged 50–80 years with a 20‐pack‐
year smoking history who currently smoke cigarettes or who quit
within the past 15 years; a recent guideline update by the
American Cancer Society relaxed the years since quitting criteria
to include former smokers who have exceeded 15 years since
quitting.
42
Australia is planning to introduce a national lung cancer
screening program by July 2025 for smokers and former smokers
TABLE 3(Continued)
Incidence Mortality
Males Females Males Females
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Age‐
standardized
rate (world)
Cumulative risk:
Birth to age 74
years, %
Melanesia 179.2 18.39 196.0 18.94 110.8 11.21 115.9 11.82
Micronesia/
Polynesia
228.6 24.29 203.4 20.59 142.7 15.02 95.1 10.5
Very
High HDI
320.6 31.49 261.9 25.25 118.3 12.21 78.5 8.21
High HDI 198.0 20.64 181.0 17.92 119.9 12.62 72.4 7.58
Medium HDI 111.1 12 113.7 11.83 76.7 8.44 69.5 7.58
Low HDI 98.7 10.52 122.5 12.55 72.0 7.7 82.6 8.82
World 212.5 21.79 186.2 18.5 109.7 11.39 76.8 7.97
Note: Nonmelanoma skin cancer excludes basal cell carcinoma.
Abbreviation: HDI, Human Development Index.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
242
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
at high risk
43
), and, through its Europe's Beating Cancer Plan, the
European Commission is also proposing the introduction of lung
cancer screening to its 27 member states.
44
Female breast cancer
Female breast cancer is the second leading cause of global cancer
incidence in 2022, with an estimated 2.3 million new cases,
comprising 11.6% of all cancer cases (Table 1, Figure 3). The disease
is the fourth leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide, with
666,000 deaths (6.9% of all cancer deaths). Among women, breast
cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer, and it is the leading
cause of cancer deaths globally and in 157 countries for incidence
(Figure 4B) and in 112 countries for mortality (Figure 5B).
Breast cancer accounts for close to one in four cancer cases and
one in six cancer deaths in women worldwide, with the highest
incidence rates seen in France, and in Australia/New Zealand,
FIGURE 7 Bar charts of the incidence and mortality age‐standardized rates in high/very high Human Development Index (HDI) countries
versus low/medium HDI countries among (A) males and (B) females in 2020. The 15 most common cancers world (W) are shown in descending
order of the overall age‐standardized rate for both sexes combined. CNS indicates central nervous system; NHL, non‐Hodgkin lymphoma.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
243
FIGURE 8 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for lung cancer among 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world (W) age‐standardized rate in males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
FIGURE 9 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence and mortality age‐standardized rates for female breast cancer in 2022. Rates are
shown in descending order of the world age‐standardized rate, and the highest national age‐standardized rates for incidence and mortality are
superimposed. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
244
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
FIGURE 10 Bar charts of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for cancers of the (A) colon and (B) rectum (including
anus) in 2022. Rates are shown in descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among men, and the highest national rates among men
and women are superimposed. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
245
FIGURE 11 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence and mortality age‐standardized rates for prostate cancer in 2022. Rates are shown
in descending order of the world age‐standardized rate, and the highest national age‐standardized rate for incidence and mortality is
superimposed. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
FIGURE 12 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for stomach cancer in 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
246
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
FIGURE 13 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for liver cancer in 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
FIGURE 14 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence and mortality age‐standardized rates for cervical cancer in 2022. Rates are shown
in descending order of the world age‐standardized rate, and the highest national age‐standardized rate for incidence and mortality is
superimposed. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
247
FIGURE 15 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for thyroid cancer in 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
FIGURE 16 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for bladder cancer in 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
248
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
FIGURE 17 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for non‐Hodgkin lymphoma in 2022. Rates are shown
in descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are
superimposed. Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
FIGURE 18 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for pancreatic cancer in 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
BRAY ET AL.
-
249
FIGURE 19 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for esophageal cancer in 2022. Rates are shown in
descending order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and females are superimposed.
Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
FIGURE 20 Bar chart of the region‐specific incidence age‐standardized rate by sex for leukemia in 2022. Rates are shown in descending
order of the world age‐standardized rate among males, and the highest national rates among males and women are superimposed. Source:
GLOBOCAN 2022.
250
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
Northern America, and Northern Europe, where incidence rates
are four times higher than in South‐Central Asia and Middle Africa
(Figure 9). Although women living in transitioned countries
have considerably higher incidence rates compared with those in
transitioning countries (54.1 vs. 30.8 per 100,000, respectively;
Figure 7B), they have considerably lower mortality rates (11.3
vs. 15.3 per 100,000, respectively; Figure 7B). The highest mor-
tality rates are found in Melanesia. Fiji has the world’s highest
mortality rate, alongside Western Africa and Micronesia/Polynesia
(Figure 9).
The higher incidence rates in transitioned versus transitioning
countries reflect a higher prevalence of numerous reproductive and
lifestyle risk factors, including early age at menarche, later age at
menopause, advanced age at first birth, fewer number of children,
less breastfeeding, hormone‐replacement therapy, oral contracep-
tive, alcohol intake, excess body weight, and physical inactivity.
45
Time trends in breast cancer incidence mainly reflect changes in
these determinants as well as increased detection through
mammographic screening. The generally uniform rises in rates over
the period from 1980 to 2000 in high‐income regions—in Northern
America, Oceania, and Europe—have been followed by stable or
declining trends by the early 2000s
46
linked to a reduced preva-
lence of menopausal hormone‐replacement therapy and possibly a
plateauing in screening participation.
47,48
Nevertheless, rising inci-
dence rates have been reported in several high‐income countries in
North America, Europe, and Oceania since 2007 for premenopausal
and postmenopausal breast cancer. In many high‐income countries
where breast cancer incidence rates are historically high, mortality
rates decreased since around the early 1990s,
49
reflecting progress
because of numerous treatment breakthroughs and improvements
in early detection by screening and heightened breast cancer
awareness. In contrast, rapid increases in breast cancer incidence
and mortality are seen in transitioning countries in South America,
Africa, and Asia
50–54
as well as in high‐income Asian countries
(Japan and the Republic of Korea).
55
There remain substantial
geographic and temporal variations in breast cancer mortality in
different regions
54,56
that appear to be linked to the level of
coverage of essential health services.
57
Many sub‐Saharan Afri-
can countries are among the countries with the highest breast
cancer mortality worldwide, reflecting weak health infrastructure
and subsequently poor survival outcomes because of late
presentation.
37
In terms of primary prevention, a reduction in excess body
weight and alcohol consumption and increasing physical activity and
breastfeeding may have an impact in reducing breast cancer inci-
dence.
58
However, with few established modifiable risk factors for
the disease, the focus of breast cancer control has been increasing
access to early diagnosis/screening and timely, comprehensive
cancer management. The WHO recommends organized, population‐
based mammography screening every 2 years for women at average
risk for breast cancer aged 50–69 years in well resourced
settings.
59
However, in limited resource settings, where women are
often diagnosed at a late stage and mammography screening is not
cost‐effective or feasible, the focus is on early diagnosis by ensuring
prompt and effective diagnosis and treatment of women with
symptomatic lesions. In response, the WHO established the Global
Breast Cancer Initiative in 2021 to galvanize stakeholders from
around the world and across sectors with the shared goal of
reducing breast cancer mortality by 2.5% per annum, which trans-
lates to the saving of 2.5 million lives within 2 decades. The Global
Breast Cancer Initiative has three key pillars as an operational
approach to achieve these objectives, centered on health promotion
and early detection; timely diagnosis; and comprehensive breast
cancer management.
60
Colorectal cancer
More than 1.9 million new cases of colorectal cancer (including anal
cancers) and 904,000 deaths were estimated to occur in 2022,
representing close to one in 10 cancer cases and deaths (Table 1).
Overall, colorectal cancer ranks in third place in terms of incidence
but second in terms of mortality (Figure 3). Incidence rates are
three to four times higher in transitioned relative to transitioning
countries, although less variation is seen for mortality given a
relatively higher case fatality in the latter countries (Figure 7).
There is an approximately 10‐fold variation in colon cancer inci-
dence rates by world region in men and women, respectively, with
the highest rates in Europe, Australia/New Zealand, and Northern
America, with Denmark and Norway ranking first in men and
women, respectively (Figure 10A). Rectal cancer incidence rates
have a similar regional distribution, although rates in Eastern Asia
rank among the regions with the highest regional rates, exceeding
those of Northern America (Figure 10B). Both colon and rectal
cancer incidence rates are relatively low in most parts of Africa and
South and Central Asia.
As a pointer to socioeconomic development, colorectal cancer
incidence rates have been steadily rising in countries undergoing
major transition,
61,62
including countries in Eastern Europe, South‐
Eastern and South‐Central Asia, and South America.
63,64
Behavioral
and dietary changes are considered the main explanatory factors for
the increases in such settings, including a relatively greater intake of
animal‐source foods and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle, leading to
an upsurge in the prevalence of overweight and obesity. There is
strong evidence that alcohol consumption, smoking, consumption of
red or processed meat, and body fatness increase the disease risk
overall, whereas calcium supplements and consumption of whole
grains, fiber, and dairy products, as well as physical activity, are
considered protective, particularly for colon cancer.
65
Although
screening in transitioning countries currently is generally not consid-
ered feasible given the prohibitive costs of colonoscopy and chal-
lenges in ensuring the necessary infrastructure to deliver diagnostic
BRAY ET AL.
-
251
and treatment services,
66
there is increasing evidence that colorectal
cancer screening with noninvasive procedures, such as the fecal
immunochemical test, given its high specificity, good sensitivity, and
ease of use, may be cost‐effective in many transitioning regions.
67–69
The declines in colorectal cancer incidence in many high‐incidence
countries over the last decades have been considered the result of
population‐level shifts toward a healthier lifestyle (e.g., increased ac-
cess to sources of fiber, such as fruits and vegetables) and the intro-
duction of screening,
63,70
with the uptake of colonoscopy screening
and the removal of precursor lesions attributed to the specific down-
turns in incidence rates from the late 1990s where implemented.
71–73
In contrast to the recent stabilizing or declining trends for all ages
combined, there are numerous recent reports documenting a rise in
colorectal cancer among younger adults (younger than 50 years at
diagnosis) in many high‐income countries, including the United States,
Canada, and Australia, with incidence rising by 1%–4% per year.
74–81
Reasons for the rising incidence in successive recent generations
are unknown but point to a profound influence of risk factors during
early life or/and young adulthood. Suspected risk factors include a
rise in the prevalence of obesity, physical inactivity, and antibiotics
affecting the gut microbiome.
82
To mitigate the rising burden of early
onset colorectal cancer, the USPSTF has updated its 2016 guidelines
to align them with those of the American Cancer Society, with
lowering the age for initiation of screening to 45 years.
83
Prostate cancer
With an estimated 1.5 million new cases and 397,000 deaths
worldwide (Table 1), prostate cancer is the world’s second most
frequent cancer and the fifth leading cause of cancer death among
men in 2022 (Figure 3B). Incidence rates are almost three times
higher in transitioned than in transitioning countries (35.5 and 12.6
per 100,000, respectively), whereas the difference in mortality rates
is much smaller (7.3 and 6.6 per 100,000, respectively; Figure 7).
Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer among men
in almost two thirds (118 of 185) of the world’s countries
(Figure 4A). Incidence varies markedly by region, and rates range
from 6.4 to 82.8 per 100,000, with the highest rates seen in
Northern Europe, Australia/New Zealand, the Caribbean, and
Northern America and the lowest rates seen in several Asian and
African regions (Figure 11). The regional patterns of mortality rates
do not follow those of incidence, with the highest mortality rates
found in the Caribbean and sub‐Saharan Africa, indicative of dis-
parities in early detection and treatment. Still, prostate cancer is the
leading cause of cancer death among men in 52 countries, including
many countries in the Caribbean and sub‐Saharan Africa, in Central
and South America (e.g., Ecuador, Chile, and Venezuela), as well as
Sweden in Europe (Figure 5A).
Despite its prominence as a commonly diagnosed cancer and a
leading cause of cancer death, few lifestyle and environmental fac-
tors have been identified for prostate cancer. Advancing age, family
history, and certain genetic mutations and conditions are the only
established risk factors, although there are speculative roles for
smoking, excess body weight, and some nutritional factors in modu-
lating risk.
84
Of note, elevated incidence of prostate cancer in the
Caribbean and sub‐Saharan African countries may reflect in part
increased genetic susceptibility, given that multiple genetic variants
associated with disease risk are more frequent in men with Western
African ancestry.
85,86
Differences in diagnostic practices at the national level are
a driving factor explaining much of the marked variations in prostate
cancer incidence worldwide.
87
In North America, selected Nordic
countries, and Australia, there were rapid increases in incidence
rates from the late 1980s to the early 1990s as a result of the
widespread introduction of prostate‐specific antigen (PSA) testing.
88
The increases were followed by equally pointed reductions within a
few years, likely reflecting a depletion of prevalent cancers, with
declines thereafter largely attributed to a reduction in the use of
PSA testing,
87–91
reflecting changes in PSA–based screening guide-
lines.
92–95
After about 2 decades of declining incidence in the United States,
however, a 3% per annum average increase in incidence (notably at
later stages of diagnosis) was reported from 2014 to 2019, in parallel
with the stabilization of prostate cancer mortality.
96
The USPSTF has
since upgraded screening recommendation to informed decision for
men aged 55–69 years to discuss the benefits and harms of PSA
screening with their health care provider to make an individualized
decision on whether or not to get screened.
97
In greater Europe,
Southern and Central America, and Asia, later, less emphatic trends
have been reported, reflecting a more recent and moderate adoption
of PSA testing.
86–88,98
In contrast, incidence rates continue to in-
crease in China and countries in the Baltic and Eastern Europe.
86
Rapidly increasing trends have been also found in sub‐Saharan Africa,
with annual increases reported in Southern and Eastern African
countries from 1995 to 2018.
99
These may primarily reflect in-
creased awareness and improvements in the respective health care
systems that have permitted greater use of PSA testing and tran-
surethral resections.
99
There is little in the way of geographic or temporal correlation
between the incidence and mortality rates of prostate cancer.
Mortality rates have decreased in most high‐income countries since
the mid‐1990s, including those in Northern America, Oceania, and
Northern and Western Europe,
88,98,100
likely reflecting advance-
ments in effective treatment and earlier detection through
increased testing of asymptomatic men.
101,102
During the same
period, rates increased in many countries in Central and Eastern
Europe, Asia, and Africa
88
and continued until recently in some
countries
86
, partly reflecting a concomitant increase in incidence
rates alongside lesser access to PSA testing and curative treatment.
Recent mortality trends in transitioned countries indicate that the
trends continue to decline in greater Europe outside of the Baltic
countries and Eastern Europe.
86
In the United States, mortality
rates have stabilized during the most recent period after declining
for several decades, in part because of the increase in advanced‐
stage disease.
103,104
252
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
Common infection‐related cancers
Cancers of the stomach, liver, and cervix combine to represent 2.5
million new cases of cancer worldwide in 2022, equivalent to one in
eight new cancers diagnosed and close to one in five cancer deaths
(Figure 3). The main oncogenic agents responsible for stomach cancer
(Helicobacter pylori), cervical cancer (human papillomavirus [HPV]),
and liver cancer (hepatitis B virus [HBV] and hepatitis C virus [HCV])
are all either preventable (HPV, HBV) or treatable (H. pylori, HCV).
There were over 968,000 new cases of stomach cancer in 2022
and close to 660,000 deaths, ranking the disease as fifth in terms of
both incidence and mortality worldwide (Table 1, Figure 3A). In men,
it is the most frequent cancer and the leading cause of cancer death
in several South‐Central Asian countries (Figures 4A and 5A),
including Afghanistan, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. In Tajikistan,
it is also the leading cause of cancer death in women. Incidence rates
are highest in Eastern Asia (with Mongolia having the highest inci-
dence rates in both sexes) alongside Eastern Europe, with rates
lowest across the African continent (Figure 12).
Although stomach cancer is often reported as a single entity,
it can generally be classified topographically as two epidemiologically
distinct entities of the cardia (upper stomach) and noncardia (lower
stomach). Chronic H. pylori infection is considered the principal cause
of noncardia gastric cancer, with approximately nine in 10 cases
attributable to this bacterium.
105,106
Yet only a small fraction of
infected hosts will develop cancer, likely because of differences in
bacterial genetics, host genetics, age of infection acquisition, and
environmental factors.
107
Other risk factors for noncardia gastric
cancer include alcohol consumption, tobacco smoking, and foods
preserved by salting, with low consumption of fruit intake and high
consumption of processed meat, grilled or barbecued meat, and fish
possibly also increasing risk.
65
Fewer cancers of the gastric cardia—
about one in five cases globally—are attributable to H. pylori infec-
tion, although a recent study from China put that proportion at over
60%
108
. A dual etiology is implicated, with some cancers associated
with excess body weight and gastroesophageal reflux disease, similar
to the epidemiologic profile of esophageal adenocarcinoma.
109
Overall trends in stomach cancer rates have been stead-
ily declining over the last half century in most populations—
hypothesized to be mainly attributable to decline in noncardia
gastric cancer—an unplanned triumph of prevention that includes
better preservation and storage of foods as well as a decreased
prevalence of H. pylori.
110
Yet recent studies have pointed to rising
trends among younger age groups, particularly in low‐incidence
populations,
111,112
with concomitant increases in autoimmune
gastritis and dysbiosis of the gastric microbiome postulated to be
underlying factors for the shift toward tumors occurring close to the
esophagogastric junction.
113
Incidence rates in cancers of the gastric
cardia rose from the 1960s in the United Kingdom
114
and the United
States
115
but appear to have leveled off in recent decades in the
United States,
116
Sweden,
117
and the Netherlands.
118
There were over three quarters of a million liver cancer deaths
worldwide in 2022, positioning liver cancer as the third leading cause
of cancer death after lung and colorectum and the sixth most
frequently diagnosed, with an estimated 865,000 new cases and
757,948 deaths in 2022 (Table 1, Figure 3). The disease ranks in
second place among men in terms of mortality (Figure 3B), with both
incidence and mortality rates two to three times higher in men than
in women across most world regions (Figure 13). Rates tend to be
higher in transitioning countries, with the disease the most common
form of cancer death among men in 24 geographically diverse
countries in Eastern Asia (Mongolia), South‐Eastern Asia (e.g.,
Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam), Northern and Western
Africa (e.g., Egypt, Senegal, and Ghana), and Central America
(Guatemala Figures 5A and 13).
Primary liver cancer comprises mainly hepatocellular carcinoma
(HCC) (75%–85% of cases) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma
(10%–15% of cases), with HBV or HCV chronic infection responsible
for 21% to 55% of HCC worldwide.
105,119
Other risk factors for HCC
include aflatoxin exposure, heavy alcohol consumption, excess body
weight, type 2 diabetes, and smoking,
120
although the key de-
terminants vary across regions. In most high‐risk HCC areas (e.g.,
China and Eastern Africa), chronic HBV infection and aflatoxin expo-
sure predominate as risk factors, whereas HCV infection is the pre-
dominant cause in a diverse set of countries (e.g., Egypt, Italy, and
Japan). In Mongolia, HBV and HCV, co‐infections of HBV carriers with
HCV or hepatitis D virus, as well as alcohol consumption all contribute
to the highest ranking national rates in men and women, respectively,
seen worldwide. Major risk factors for cholangiocarcinoma also vary
by region and include liver flukes (e.g., in the northeast region of
Thailand, where Opisthorchis viverrini, is endemic)
121
and metabolic
conditions (including obesity, diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver
disease), alongside heavy alcohol consumption and HBV and HCV
infections.
122–124
With declines in the population seroprevalence of HBV and
HCV, as well as a reduction in aflatoxin exposure, liver cancer rates
have been declining steadily in many high‐risk countries in East and
South‐Eastern Asia since the late 1970s and in Japan and China
since the 1990s.
63,125,126
Vaccination against HBV has markedly
reduced the prevalence of HBV infection and the incidence of HCC
in high‐risk countries in East Asia, where it was first introduced in
the early 1980s.
127
In contrast, in countries like Thailand, where
HCC represents less than 30% of liver cancer, liver cancer incidence
rates continue to rise despite the decline in HCC rates.
125
Likewise,
incidence rates in formerly low‐risk countries, most countries across
Europe, North America, Australia/New Zealand, and South America
have increased or stabilized at a higher level in recent years,
125,128
possibly in part because of increasing prevalence of metabolic risk
factors, such as excess body weight, diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty
liver disease, and alcohol consumption.
The WHO's global hepatitis strategy aims to reduce new hepa-
titis infections by 90% and deaths by 65% by 2030. By the end of
2022, the HBV vaccine had been introduced nationally in 190
member states, with global coverage of 84% for three doses of
hepatitis B vaccine administration.
129
Yet vaccination schedules
differ between countries, with the first dose often given at 6 weeks
BRAY ET AL.
-
253
instead of within 24 hours after birth, failing to protect infants
against mother‐to‐child transmission.
130
One hundred thirteen
member states have introduced nationwide a single dose of hepatitis
B vaccine to newborns within the first 24 hours of life, with global
coverage at 45% but varying from 80% in the WHO Western Pacific
Region to 18% in the WHO African Region.
129
Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in terms of both
incidence and mortality in women (Figure 3C), with an estimated
660,000 new cases and 350,000 deaths worldwide in 2022 (Table 1).
The disease is the most common cancer type in 25 countries (Figure 4B)
and the leading cause of cancer death in 37 countries (Figure 5B),
mainly in sub‐Saharan Africa as well as South America and South‐
Eastern Asia. Incidence and mortality rates vary at least 10‐fold, with
the highest regional incidence and mortality rates found in sub‐
Saharan Africa and Melanesia (Figure 14) and the lowest rates found
in Northern America, Australia/New Zealand, and Western Asia.
HPV is a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of cervical cancer,
131
with 12 of the 448 known HPV types classified as group 1 carcino-
gens by the IARC Monographs.
132
Other important cofactors include
some sexually transmittable infections (human deficiency virus [HIV]
and Chlamydia trachomatis), smoking, a higher number of childbirths,
and long‐term use of oral contraceptives.
133
Rates remain dispro-
portionately high in transitioning versus transitioned countries (19.3
vs. 12.1 per 100,000 for incidence, respectively; 12.4 vs. 4.8 per
100,000 for mortality, respectively; Figure 7B), in part reflecting the
higher prevalence of chronic HPV infection also with limited access
to screening and vaccination in transitioning countries.
The observation of a broad decline in cervical cancer incidence
rates in most areas of the world over the last few decades has been
attributed to continuous rises in human development levels, possibly
as a marker of diminishing risk of persistent infection with high‐risk
HPV resulting from factors such as improving genital hygiene, parity
declines, and a downturn in the prevalence of sexually transmitted
diseases.
134
Cervical cancer screening programs hastened the de-
clines in the incidence and mortality rates in many countries in Europe,
Oceania, and Northern America, despite the observations of
increasing risk among younger generations of women in some of these
countries,
135–137
which in part may reflect changing sexual behavior
and increased transmission of HPV that is insufficiently compensated
by uptake in screening.
138,139
A recent analysis of incidence trends
from 1988 to 2017 indicated continuous declines in rates in Oceania
(Australia and New Zealand), Northern America (Canada and the
United States), and Western Europe up to the mid‐2000s, with inci-
dence tending to stabilize thereafter.
140
Major declines in incidence
were also observed in Latin American countries (e.g., Brazil, Colombia,
and Costa Rica) and in Asia (e.g., India, Thailand, and South Korea),
with small increases in incidence rates in Japan and China from 2007
to 2017. In Europe, incidence rates increased in the Baltic countries of
Latvia, Lithuania, and Bulgaria, whereas they decreased in Eastern
Europe (in Poland, Slovenia, and Czechia). In contrast, a recent African
study pointed to increasing incidence trends over 10–25 years in eight
countries in Eastern and Southern regions, including Malawi, South
Africa, and Kenya.
141
The global strategy of the WHO's Cervical Cancer Elimination
Initiative is to reduce incidence rates to a threshold of below 4 per
100,000 women‐years in this century, thereby eliminating the dis-
ease as a public health problem.
142
According to our estimates, only
10 countries—all in the Eastern Mediterranean—have incidence rates
in 2022 below the threshold. Given the relatively high incidence rates
and unfavorable trends in many transitioning countries, modeling
studies indicate that the elimination goal may not be achieved before
the end of the century in these countries without significantly
scaling‐up preventive and curative interventions, including HPV
screening and vaccination.
143
The Cervical Cancer Elimination
Initiative has set national 90–70–90 targets for countries to be on
the path toward cervical cancer elimination by 2030. The targets
require that 90% of girls are fully vaccinated with HPV vaccine by the
age of 15 years, 70% of women are screened with a high‐
performance test at ages 35 and 45 years, and 90% of women with
precancerous lesions or invasive cancer receive treatment.
142
Encouragingly, there is promising evidence supporting the potential
of a self‐sampling approach to increase screening participation in
under‐screened and never‐screened women and the efficacy of a
single‐dose vaccine to facilitate straightforward implementation of
the programs.
144–146
Other common cancer types
With over 821,000 cases worldwide in 2022, thyroid cancer ranks as
the seventh most common cancer in terms of incidence overall and
fifth in women. The incidence rate is three times higher in women
than in men (Tables 1and 3). Mortality from the disease is much
lower than incidence, with an estimated 44,000 deaths for both sexes
combined in 2022 and ranking 24th. Incidence rates are about seven
times higher in transitioned versus transitioning countries, whereas
the difference in mortality rates by comparison is much smaller
(Figure 7). The highest incidence rates in both sexes are found in
Eastern Asia, where the rate is two times higher than that seen in
second‐ranking Northern America (Figure 15). With 466,000 new
cases, China alone accounts for over one half of the incidence burden
worldwide. The rapid rises in incidence rates in many countries in
recent years are mainly attributed to the increasing use of imaging,
ultrasonography, and biopsy.
147,148
In a study of 25 countries, the
increases were mainly confined to papillary carcinomas commonly
detected by intense scrutiny of the thyroid gland.
147
The vast ma-
jority of new cancers detected have been subclinical papillary tumors
that otherwise would not go on to cause symptoms or death; this has
been estimated at 90% in South Korea; 70%–80% in the United
States, Italy, France, and Australia; and 50% in Japan, the Nordic
countries, and England and Scotland for the period 2003–2007.
148
Overdiagnosis and corresponding associated treatments have a sig-
nificant impact on the total costs of thyroid cancer management, as
recently measured in France.
149
In recent years, there have been
modifications of national and international clinical practice guide-
lines,
11,150,151
which recommend against screening for thyroid cancer
254
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
and advocate active surveillance for microcarcinoma.
152,153
This has
likely led to declines in thyroid cancer incidence rates in the Republic
of Korea since 2010 as well as in the United States.
154,155
Although
ionizing radiation is the only well established risk factor,
156
a recent
study estimated that 16% of the cancers overall and 63% of large
tumors in the United States were attributable to obesity,
157
sug-
gesting that obesity control might reduce the thyroid cancer burden.
According to the recent IARC Handbook of Cancer Prevention Working
Group on Body Fatness and Cancer, there is sufficient evidence that
the absence of excess body fatness lowers thyroid cancer risk.
158
Worldwide, bladder cancer is the ninth most frequently diag-
nosed cancer, with approximately 614,000 new cases and 220,000
deaths occurring in 2022 (Table 1). The burden and rates are
considerably higher in men than in women, in whom the disease
ranks as the sixth most common cancer and the ninth leading cause
of cancer death (Figure 3). Incidence rates in both men and women
are highest in Southern Europe (Spain has the highest incidence rate
in men globally) as well as other regions of Europe (the Netherlands
has the highest rate in women) and Northern Europe (Figure 16). The
epidemiology of bladder cancer varies by region, with tobacco
smoking, occupational exposures (e.g., aromatic amines), and arsenic
contamination of drinking water among the putative causes in
industrialized countries.
159,160
Infection with Schistosoma haema-
tobium has an important role in some countries in sub‐Saharan Af-
rica, where it is estimated to account for over 50% of bladder cancer
cases in the region.
161
Diverging bladder cancer incidence trends
have been observed by sex since the 1990s, with rates tending to
decrease or stabilize in men but increase among women in certain
European countries (e.g., in Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and
Belarus).
160,162,163
Almost two fifths of bladder cancer cases among
women were estimated to be attributable to smoking in 2014 in the
United States, compared with about one half of new cases in men.
164
Mortality rates have been in decline in higher HDI countries in part
because of reductions in smoking prevalence and improvements in
treatment
165
, although increases in mortality rates have also been
reported among men in Thailand, Israel, and Slovakia and among
women in Thailand, Japan, Croatia, and Poland.
160
Of note, there
may be artifactual changes in incidence because of differences in
coding and registration practice concerning inclusion or otherwise of
noninvasive carcinomas.
160,166,167
Because these cancers often
represent a large proportion of all bladder cancers
168
and are
commonly associated with reasonably favorable survival, comparing
trends in bladder cancer mortality rates may be more suitable for
assessing progress in disease control.
160,166
There were 553,000 new cases of non‐Hodgkin lymphoma and
250,000 deaths in 2022 (Table 1). It is the 10th most commonly
diagnosed and the 11th leading cause of cancer death, but it is the
most common hematologic malignancy. Incidence rates are approxi-
mately two times higher in transitioned versus transitioning coun-
tries, although corresponding mortality rates are close to parity
(Figure 7). The highest incidence is seen across Europe, Northern
America, and Australia/New Zealand, with the highest rates in men
and women worldwide seen in Malta and Denmark, respectively
(Figure 17). In many high‐incidence countries, rates have plateaued
recently after rises in incidence during the 1980s and 1990s.
169
In
the United States, the incidence trend has been declining in both
HIV‐infected and HIV‐uninfected individuals, and reasons for the
temporal patterns remain elusive.
170
A recent study linked the
respective mortality declines in the United States and Japan in 1997
and 2000 to the introduction of rituximab, a targeted cancer drug for
the treatment of B‐cell non‐Hodgkin lymphoma.
171
There were 511,000 new cases of pancreatic cancer and 467,000
deaths in 2022. The disease is among the poorest in terms of prog-
nosis and hence the disease ranks as the sixth leading cause of cancer
mortality in both sexes combined (Figure 4), responsible for almost
5% of all cancer deaths worldwide. Rates are around four times
greater in higher versus lower HDI countries (Figure 7), with inci-
dence rates highest in Europe, North America, and Australia/New
Zealand, although the rates are highest globally in Armenia in West-
ern Asia among men and Uruguay in South America among women
(Figure 18). With mortality rates reasonably stable in many countries
(such as in the European Union countries
172
) over the last decades,
the disease has increased in its public health importance because of
concomitant declines in mortality rates of other common cancers (e.g.,
lung, colorectal, prostate, breast, and stomach cancers). Pancreatic
cancer incidence or mortality trends partially reflect the known risk
factors: smoking, obesity, diabetes, and heavy alcohol consump-
tion.
173
Preventative strategies to reduce exposure to some of these
risk factors are key to tackling the rising importance of the disease.
174
Esophageal cancer is the 11th most commonly diagnosed cancer
and the seventh leading cause of cancer death worldwide, with an
estimated 511,000 new cases and 445,000 deaths in 2022 (Figure 3,
Table 1). There remains a two‐fold to three‐fold difference in inci-
dence and mortality rates between the sexes (Table 2), with rates
somewhat greater in transitioned versus transitioning countries
among men, but the inverse among women (Figure 7). The highest
rates are seen in Eastern Asia and Eastern Africa, where Malawi has
the highest incidence rates worldwide in both men and women
(Figure 19). The disease is the leading cause of cancer death among
men and women in Bangladesh and among men in Malawi and
Botswana (Figure 5B). The geographic variations in esophageal can-
cer incidence substantially vary between the two most common
histologic subtypes (squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma),
which have quite different etiologies. In higher HDI settings, smoking
and alcohol are major risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma;
whereas, in lower HDI settings, the risk factors are yet to be un-
covered.
175
Adenocarcinoma represents around two thirds of cases
in higher HDI settings and is associated with excess body weight,
gastroesophageal reflux disease, and Barrett esophagus.
176
With
incidence rates of adenocarcinoma rising
177,178
in many of these
countries, excess body weight is likely to be a key contributor to the
future burden of esophageal cancer.
177
Leukemia is the 13th and 10th most frequently diagnosed cancer
and the leading cause of cancer death worldwide, respectively, with
more than 487,000 new leukemia cases and 305,000 deaths esti-
mated in 2022 (Table 1, Figure 3). The highest incidence rates are
BRAY ET AL.
-
255
seen in Australia/New Zealand (Australia has the highest incidence
rates worldwide in men), Northern America, and the four regions of
Europe in both sexes (Belgium has the highest rate in women;
Figure 20). There is a two‐fold to three‐fold higher incidence in
transitioned versus transitioning countries in both men and women,
although mortality is similar, particularly among women (Figure 7).
The disease comprises a heterogeneous group of hematopoietic
cancers with biologically distinct subgroups, commonly categorized
into four major subtypes that have heterogenous causes, including
genetics, infection, as well as increased access to diagnostic tech-
nologies. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia occurs at greater frequency
among children and conveys a bimodal pattern, with higher inci-
dence seen in countries from Latin America and Asia.
179
Acute
myeloid leukemia is more frequent in adults but is also common in
children, with higher incidence rates in higher HDI settings.
179
Chronic lymphoid leukemia incidence rates are higher among the
elderly and males and are elevated in North America, Oceania, and
some European countries, whereas higher proportions of chronic
myeloid leukemia are observed among adult males in higher HDI
countries.
179
The future cancer incidence burden in 2050
Based on the projected changes in population growth and aging, and
assuming overall cancer rates remain unchanged, we predict over 35
million new cancer cases (including NMSC, except basal cell carci-
noma) will occur in the year 2050, a 77% increase from the 20 million
cases estimated in 2022 (Figure 21). The demographic transition is a
key driver of the size of the cancer burden, with the global population
of approximately 8 billion in 2022 reaching 9.7 billion by 2050.
180
Although the absolute differences in cancer incidence burden
predicted in 2050 are greatest in high HDI countries (including
China) and very high HDI countries (with an additional 4.8 and 3.9
million cases, respectively, predicted by 2050 compared with 2022),
the greatest relative increases will take place in lower HDI settings.
The magnitude of the increase is most striking in low HDI countries,
where a 142% predicted increase will result in a more than doubling
of the burden to 2 million new cases by 2050 from 0.8 million in
2022. A close to 100% rise is predicted in medium HDI countries
(including India), signifying that there will be two times as many cases
(4.8 million) in 2050 compared with those currently estimated (2.4
million) in 2022.
Strengths and weaknesses
It is important to note that the country‐level incidence and mor-
tality estimates, although offering a valuable global exposition of
the scale and profile of cancer every 2 years, are not intended as a
substitute for the continuous approaches to data collection pro-
vided by high‐quality, population‐based cancer registries and vital
registration systems. Population‐based cancer registries are key
providers of statistics on cancer incidence and survival and thus
are a critical resource for policymakers (as well as the compilers of
global cancer estimates), providing the evidence base from which
to plan, monitor, and evaluate the impact of national cancer con-
trol programs and some of the 2030 national targets of the WHO
cancer initiatives. Yet incidence and mortality data of high quality
remain sparse in many transitioning countries. Given the critical
importance of building capacity for local data production, analysis,
and dissemination within the countries themselves, the Global
Initiative for Cancer Registry Development was launched by the
IARC in 2012. The Initiative provides the necessary regional
FIGURE 21 Projected number of new cases for all cancers combined (both sexes combined) in 2050 according to the four‐tier Human
Development Index (HDI). Source: GLOBOCAN 2022.
256
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
infrastructure through IARC hubs and designated centers of
expertise to assist registries using a broad set of knowledge
transfer and capacity‐building activities.
181
The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic caused over 6 million
deaths in 2020–2022 and severely affected health systems world-
wide. Cancer services across the cancer continuum were signifi-
cantly affected, resulting in major delays in diagnosis and treatment.
Many cancer registries worldwide reported disruptions to their
operations during the first wave of the pandemic,
182,183
and
monthly cancer registrations were clearly reduced for common
cancers as a result in many countries. The estimates provided for
2022, however, do not reflect the impact of the pandemic because
they are largely based on extrapolations of cancer data collected
before 2020. In any case, it is difficult to develop estimates adjusted
for the pandemic while the final conclusions are still to be drawn.
The subsequent impact on cancer incidence counts may turn out to
be rather moderate and short‐term; for example, several registries
have reported that, having received relatively fewer pathology re-
ports during earlier months was offset by increased diagnostic ac-
tivity in later months.
184–186
Nevertheless, the long‐term impact on
cancer survival and mortality remains to be assessed, whereas
modeling studies have predicted that a transient increase in di-
agnoses at more advanced stages could lead to future excess cancer
mortality.
There were advances in compiling the 2022 cancer incidence
estimates. First, the development of the estimates was coupled with
the availability of incidence data from the latest published volume
(Volume XII) of Cancer Incidence in Five Continents (CI5).
187
The CI5
series is an exposition of comparable cancer incidence data from all
parts of the globe based on the high‐quality data made available by
population‐based cancer registries. For CI5 Volume XII, 671 popu-
lation‐based cancer registries, covering 813 populations in 104
countries, responded to the call for data, submitting cancer inci-
dence data sets that covered the period of diagnosis from 2013 to
2017. After a careful evaluation of the comparability, completeness,
and accuracy of each data set, Volume XII compiles cancer incidence
data from 456 cancer registries, covering 589 populations in 70
countries.
Second, we were able to use recent cancer registry data in
collaboration with registry networks and programs worldwide. As
examples, in China, our collaboration with the National Cancer
Registry Office meant that 700 cancer registries were used in
developing trend‐based estimates in 2022. The estimates from the
40 countries that comprise the European Union‐27 and greater
Europe were developed in collaboration with the European Com-
mission’s Joint Research Center and the European Network of
Cancer Registries. Finally, we were able to use the results of the
SurvCan‐3 project, which benchmarks recent survival probabilities
in more than 30 transitioning countries
37
to improve the mortality
estimates in some regions, where actual data on mortality from
cancer were largely absent, notably in sub‐Saharan Africa.
Conclusions
The current global statistics for the year 2022 indicate that there
were almost 20 million new cases of cancer and close to 10 million
cancer deaths. Demographics‐based predictions indicate that the
annual number of new cases of cancer will reach 35 million by 2050,
a 77% increase from the 2022 level. The overall scale of cancer and
the diversity of cancer profiles by world region and human devel-
opment level reemphasize the need for a global escalation of tar-
geted cancer control measures. Investments in prevention, including
the targeting of key risk factors for cancer (including smoking,
overweight and obesity, and infections), can avert millions of future
cancer diagnoses and save many lives worldwide,
188
bringing huge
economic as well as societal dividends to countries over the forth-
coming decades.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank cancer registries worldwide for their continued
collaboration; without their efforts, there would be no global cancer
estimates. This work was supported by the International Agency for
Research on Cancer/World Health Organization.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors disclosed no conflicts of interest. Hyuna Sung, Rebecca L.
Siegel, and Ahmedin Jemal are employed by the American Cancer
Society, which receives grants from private and corporate founda-
tions, including foundations associated with companies in the health
sector, for research outside of the submitted work. The authors are
not funded by or key personnel for any of these grants, and their
salary is solely funded through American Cancer Society funds.
Where authors are identified as personnel of the International
Agency for Research on Cancer/World Health Organization, the au-
thors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this article,
and they do not necessarily represent the decisions, policy, or views
of the International Agency for Research on Cancer/World Health
Organization.
ORCID
Freddie Bray
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3248-7787
Hyuna Sung https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8021-5997
Rebecca L. Siegel https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5247-8522
REFERENCES
1. Bray F, Laversanne M, Weiderpass E, Soerjomataram I. The ever‐
increasing importance of cancer as a leading cause of premature
death worldwide. Cancer. 2021;127(16):3029‐3030. doi:10.1002/
cncr.33587
2. Chen S, Cao Z, Prettner K, et al. Estimates and projections of the
global economic cost of 29 cancers in 204 countries and territories
from 2020 to 2050. JAMA Oncol. 2023;9(4):465‐472. doi:10.1001/
jamaoncol.2022.7826
BRAY ET AL.
-
257
3. Guida F, Kidman R, Ferlay J, et al. Global and regional estimates of
orphans attributed to maternal cancer mortality in 2020. Nat Med.
2022;28(12):2563‐2572. doi:10.1038/s41591‐022‐02109‐2
4. Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. eds, Global Cancer Observatory:
Cancer Today (Version 1.0). International Agency for Research on
Cancer; 2024. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://gco.iarc.who.int/
today
5. Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. Global cancer statistics, 2002.
CA Cancer J Clin. 2005;55(2):74‐108. doi:10.3322/canjclin.55.2.74
6. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global
cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin. 2011;61(2):69‐90. doi:10.3322/
caac.20107
7. Torre LA, Bray F, Siegel RL, Ferlay J, Lortet‐Tieulent J, Jemal A.
Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2015;65(2):87‐108.
doi:10.3322/caac.21262
8. Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A.
Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence
and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer
J Clin. 2018;68(6):394‐424. doi:10.3322/caac.21492
9. Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, et al. Cancer statistics for
the year 2020: an overview. Int J Cancer. 2021;149(4):778‐789.
doi:10.1002/ijc.33588
10. Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, et al. Estimating the global
cancer incidence and mortality in 2018: GLOBOCAN sources and
methods. Int J Cancer. 2019;144(8):1941‐1953. doi:10.1002/ijc.
31937
11. Doll R, Payne P, Waterhouse J, eds. Cancer Incidence in Five Con-
tinents: A Technical Report. Springer; 1966.
12. United Nations Development Programme. Human Development
Report 2021–22. Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future
in a Transforming World. United Nations; 2022. Accessed January
26, 2024. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human‐development‐
report‐2021‐22
13. Thun M, Peto R, Boreham J, Lopez AD. Stages of the cigarette
epidemic on entering its second century. Tob Control. 2012;21(2):
96‐101. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol‐2011‐050294
14. Weber A, Morgan E, Vignat J, et al. Lung cancer mortality in the
wake of the changing smoking epidemic: a descriptive study of the
global burden in 2020 and 2040. BMJ Open. 2023;13(5):e065303.
doi:10.1136/bmjopen‐2022‐065303
15. Parkin DM, Bray FI, Devesa SS. Cancer burden in the year 2000.
The global picture. Eur J Cancer. 2001;37(suppl 8):S4‐S66. doi:10.
1016/s0959‐8049(01)00267‐2
16. Alonso R, Pineros M, Laversanne M, et al. Lung cancer incidence
trends in Uruguay 1990–2014: an age‐period‐cohort analysis.
Cancer Epidemiol. 2018;55:17‐22. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2018.04.012
17. Miranda‐Filho A, Pineros M, Bray F. The descriptive epidemiology
of lung cancer and tobacco control: a global overview 2018. Salud
Publica Mex. 2019;61(3):219‐229. doi:10.21149/10140
18. Lortet‐Tieulent J, Renteria E, Sharp L, et al. Convergence of
decreasing male and increasing female incidence rates in major
tobacco‐related cancers in Europe in 1988–2010. Eur J Cancer.
2015;51(9):1144‐1163. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2013.10.014
19. Thun MJ, Henley SJ, Travis WD. Lung cancer. In: Thun MJ, Linet MS,
Cerhan JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology and
Prevention. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:519‐542.
20. Jemal A, Schafer EJ, Sung H, et al. The burden of lung cancer in
women compared with men in the US. JAMA Oncol. 2023;9(12):
1727‐1728. doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2023.4415
21. Jemal A, Miller KD, Ma J, et al. Higher lung cancer incidence in
young women than young men in the United States. N Engl J Med.
2018;378(21):1999‐2009. doi:10.1056/nejmoa1715907
22. Jha P. Avoidable global cancer deaths and total deaths from
smoking. Nat Rev Cancer. 2009;9:655‐664. doi:10.1038/nrc2703
23. World Health Organization (WHO). WHO report on the global to-
bacco epidemic, 2023: protect people from tobacco smoke: execu-
tive summary. WHO; 2023. Accessed December 29, 2023. https://
www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240077485
24. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
Health at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators. Smoking among adults.
OECD; 2021. Accessed January 27, 2024. https://www.oecd‐
ilibrary.org/sites/611b5b35‐en/index.html?itemId=/content/
component/611b5b35‐en
25. Sansone N, Yong HH, Li L, Jiang Y, Fong GT. Perceived acceptability
of female smoking in China. Tob Control. 2015;24(suppl 4):iv48‐iv54.
doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol‐2015‐052380
26. Leiter A, Veluswamy RR, Wisnivesky JP. The global burden of lung
cancer: current status and future trends. Nat Rev Clin Oncol.
2023;20(9):624‐639. doi:10.1038/s41571‐023‐00798‐3
27. Mu L, Liu L, Niu R, et al. Indoor air pollution and risk of lung cancer
among Chinese female non‐smokers. Cancer Causes Control.
2013;24(3):439‐450. doi:10.1007/s10552‐012‐0130‐8
28. Fidler‐Benaoudia MM, Torre LA, Bray F, Ferlay J, Jemal A. Lung
cancer incidence in young women vs. young men: a systematic
analysis in 40 countries. Int J Cancer. 2020;147(3):811‐819. doi:10.
1002/ijc.32809
29. Zhang Y, Vaccarella S, Morgan E, et al. Global variations in lung
cancer incidence by histological subtype in 2020: a population‐
based study. Lancet Oncol. 2023;24(11):1206‐1218. doi:10.1016/
s1470‐2045(23)00444‐8
30. Vineis P, Hoek G, Krzyzanowski M, et al. Air pollution and risk of
lung cancer in a prospective study in Europe. Int J Cancer. 2006;
119(1):169‐174. doi:10.1002/ijc.21801
31. Raaschou‐Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Beelen R, et al. Air pollution and
lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts: prospective ana-
lyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects
(ESCAPE). Lancet Oncol. 2013;14(9):813‐822. doi:10.1016/s1470‐
2045(13)70279‐1
32. Chen F, Cole P, Bina WF. Time trend and geographic patterns of
lung adenocarcinoma in the United States, 1973–2002. Cancer
Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16(12):2724‐2729. doi:10.1158/
1055‐9965.epi‐07‐0455
33. Hill W, Lim EL, Weeden CE, et al. Lung adenocarcinoma promotion
by air pollutants. Nature. 2023;616:159‐167.
34. World Health Organization (WHO). 2023 Global Progress Report on
Implementation of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco
Control. WHO; 2024. Accessed January 16, 2024. https://fctc.who.
int/publications/m/item/2023‐global‐progress‐report
35. Gredner T, Mons U, Niedermaier T, Brenner H, Soerjomataram I.
Impact of tobacco control policies implementation on future lung
cancer incidence in Europe: an international, population‐based
modeling study. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2021;4:100074. doi:10.
1016/j.lanepe.2021.100074
36. Allemani C, Matsuda T, Di Carlo V, et al. Global surveillance of
trends in cancer survival 2000–14 (CONCORD‐3): analysis of in-
dividual records for 37,513,025 patients diagnosed with one of 18
cancers from 322 population‐based registries in 71 countries.
Lancet. 2018;391(10125):1023‐1075. doi:10.1016/s0140‐6736
(17)33326‐3
37. Soerjomataram I, Cabasag C, Bardot A, et al. Cancer survival
in Africa, Central and South America, and Asia (SURVCAN‐3):
a population‐based benchmarking study in 32 countries. Lan-
cet Oncol. 2023;24(1):22‐32. doi:10.1016/s1470‐2045(22)
00704‐5
38. Araghi M, Fidler‐Benaoudia M, Arnold M, et al. International dif-
ferences in lung cancer survival by sex, histological type and stage at
diagnosis: an ICBP SURVMARK‐2 study. Thorax. 2022;77(4):
378‐390. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl‐2020‐216555
258
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
39. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team. Lung cancer inci-
dence and mortality with extended follow‐up in the National Lung
Screening Trial. J Thorac Oncol. 2019;14:1732‐1742.
40. de Koning HJ, van der Aalst CM, de Jong PA, et al. Reduced lung‐
cancer mortality with volume CT screening in a randomized trial.
N Engl J Med. 2020;382(6):503‐513. doi:10.1056/nejmoa1911793
41. Patz EF Jr, Pinsky P, Gatsonis C, et al. Overdiagnosis in low‐dose
computed tomography screening for lung cancer. JAMA Intern
Med. 2014;174(2):269‐274. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.
12738
42. American Cancer Society. Lung Cancer Screening Guidelines.
American Cancer Society; 2023. Accessed February 1, 2024.
https://www.cancer.org/health‐care‐professionals/american‐
cancer‐society‐prevention‐early‐detection‐guidelines/lung‐cancer‐
screening‐guidelines.html
43. Cancer Australia. Lung Cancer Screening. Cancer Australia,
Australian Government; 2023. Accessed January 16, 2024.
https://www.canceraustralia.gov.au/about‐us/lung‐cancer‐
screening
44. European Commission (EU). Questions and answers: A new EU
approach to cancer screening. EU; 2022. Accessed February 4, 2024.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_22_
5584
45. Brinton LA, Gaudet MM, Gierach GL. Breast cancer. In: Thun MJ,
Linet MS, Cerhan JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemi-
ology and Prevention. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:
861‐888.
46. Torre LA, Islami F, Siegel RL, Ward EM, Jemal A. Global cancer in
women: burden and trends. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev.
2017;26(4):444‐457. doi:10.1158/1055‐9965.epi‐16‐0858
47. Breen N, Gentleman JF, Schiller JS. Update on mammography
trends: comparisons of rates in 2000, 2005, and 2008. Cancer. 2011;
117(10):2209‐2218. doi:10.1002/cncr.25679
48. Breen N, Cribub JA, Meissner HI, et al. Reported drop in
mammography: is this cause for concern? Cancer. 2007;109(12):
2405‐2409. doi:10.1002/cncr.22723
49. Wojtyla C, Bertuccio P, Wojtyla A, La Vecchia C. European trends
in breast cancer mortality, 1980–2017 and predictions to 2025.
Eur J Cancer. 2021;152:4‐17. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2021.04.026
50. Joko‐Fru WY, Jedy‐Agba E, Korir A, et al. The evolving epidemic of
breast cancer in sub‐Saharan Africa: results from the African
Cancer Registry Network. Int J Cancer. 2020;147(8):2131‐2141.
doi:10.1002/ijc.33014
51. Bray F, McCarron P, Parkin DM. The changing global patterns of
female breast cancer incidence and mortality. Breast Cancer Res.
2004;6:229‐239. doi:10.1186/bcr932
52. Ghasemi‐Kebria F, Fazel A, Semnani S, et al. Breast cancer incidence
trends in Golestan, Iran: an age‐period‐cohort analysis by ethnic
region, 2004‐2018. Cancer Epidemiol. 2024;89:102525. doi:10.
1016/j.canep.2024.102525
53. Sathishkumar K, Vinodh N, Badwe RA, et al. Trends in breast and
cervical cancer in India under National Cancer Registry Programme:
an age‐period‐cohort analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. 2021;74:101982.
doi:10.1016/j.canep.2021.101982
54. Sun K, Lei L, Zheng R, et al. Trends in incidence rates, mortality
rates, and age‐period‐cohort effects of female breast cancer—
China, 2003–2017. China CDC Wkly. 2023;5(15):340‐346. doi:10.
46234/ccdcw2023.065
55. Heer E, Harper A, Escandor N, Sung H, McCormack V, Fidler‐
Benaoudia MM. Global burden and trends in premenopausal and
postmenopausal breast cancer: a population‐based study. Lancet
Glob Health. 2020;8:e1027‐e1037. doi:10.1016/s2214‐109x(20)
30215‐1
56. Torres‐Román JS, Ybaseta‐Medina J, Loli‐Guevara S, et al. Dispar-
ities in breast cancer mortality among Latin American women:
trends and predictions for 2030. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1):
1449. doi:10.1186/s12889‐023‐16328‐w
57. Duggan C, Trapani D, Ilbawi AM, et al. National health system
characteristics, breast cancer stage at diagnosis, and breast cancer
mortality: a population‐based analysis. Lancet Oncol. 2021;22(11):
1632‐1642. doi:10.1016/s1470‐2045(21)00462‐9
58. Arnold M, Morgan E, Rumgay H, et al. Current and future burden of
breast cancer: global statistics for 2020 and 2040. Breast. 2022;66:
15‐23. doi:10.1016/j.breast.2022.08.010
59. World Health Organization (WHO). WHO position paper on
mammography screening. WHO; 2014. Accessed February 16, 2024.
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/who‐position‐paper‐on‐
mammography‐screening
60. World Health Organization (WHO). The Global Breast Cancer
Initiative. WHO; 2014. Accessed December 12, 2023. https://www.
who.int/initiatives/global‐breast‐cancer‐initiative
61. Bray F. Transitions in human development and the global cancer
burden. In: Stewart BW, Wild CP, eds. World Cancer Report 2014.
WHO Press; 2014:42‐55.
62. Fidler MM, Soerjomataram I, Bray F. A global view on cancer
incidence and national levels of the human development index. Int J
Cancer. 2016;139(11):2436‐2446. doi:10.1002/ijc.30382
63. Arnold M, Abnet CC, Neale RE, et al. Global burden of 5 major types
of gastrointestinal cancer. Gastroenterology. 2020;159(1):335‐349.
e15. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.02.068
64. Arnold M, Sierra MS, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A,
Bray F. Global patterns and trends in colorectal cancer incidence
and mortality. Gut. 2017;66(4):683‐691. doi:10.1136/gutjnl‐2015‐
310912
65. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer
Research. The Continuous Update Project Expert Report 2018. Diet,
Nutrition, Physical Activity and Cancer: colorectal cancer. World Can-
cer Research Fund Network; 2018. Accessed October 23, 2020.
https://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Colorectal‐cancer‐
report.pdf
66. Schliemann D, Ramanathan K, Matovu N, et al. The implementation
of colorectal cancer screening interventions in low‐and middle‐
income countries: a scoping review. BMC Cancer. 2021;21(1):1125.
doi:10.1186/s12885‐021‐08809‐1
67. Sullivan T, Sullivan R, Ginsburg OM. Screening for cancer: consid-
erations for low‐and middle‐income countries. In: Gelband H, Jha
P, Sankaranarayanan R, Horton S, eds. Cancer: Disease Control Pri-
orities. 3rd ed. Vol. 3. The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/The World Bank; 2015:211‐222.
68. Navarro M, Nicolas A, Ferrandez A, Lanas A. Colorectal cancer
population screening programs worldwide in 2016: an update.
World J Gastroenterol. 2017;23(20):3632‐3642. doi:10.3748/wjg.
v23.i20.3632
69. Shaukat A, Levin TR. Current and future colorectal cancer screening
strategies. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;19(8):521‐531.
doi:10.1038/s41575‐022‐00612‐y
70. Edwards BK, Ward E, Kohler BA, et al. Annual report to the nation
on the status of cancer, 1975–2006, featuring colorectal cancer
trends and impact of interventions (risk factors, screening, and
treatment) to reduce future rates. Cancer. 2010;116(3):544‐573.
doi:10.1002/cncr.24760
71. Schreuders EH, Ruco A, Rabeneck L, et al. Colorectal cancer
screening: a global overview of existing programmes. Gut. 2015;
64(10):1637‐1649. doi:10.1136/gutjnl‐2014‐309086
72. Siegel RL, Ward EM, Jemal A. Trends in colorectal cancer incidence
rates in the United States by tumor location and stage, 1992–2008.
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2012;21(3):411‐416. doi:10.
1158/1055‐9965.epi‐11‐1020
73. Cardoso R, Guo F, Heisser T, et al. Colorectal cancer incidence,
mortality, and stage distribution in European countries in the
BRAY ET AL.
-
259
colorectal cancer screening era: an international population‐based
study. Lancet Oncol. 2021;22(7):1002‐1013. doi:10.1016/s1470‐
2045(21)00199‐6
74. Siegel RL, Torre LA, Soerjomataram I, et al. Global patterns and
trends in colorectal cancer incidence in young adults. Gut. 2019;
68(12):2179‐2185. doi:10.1136/gutjnl‐2019‐319511
75. Araghi M, Soerjomataram I, Bardot A, et al. Changes in colorectal
cancer incidence in seven high‐income countries: a population‐
based study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;4(7):511‐518.
doi:10.1016/s2468‐1253(19)30147‐5
76. Vuik FE, Nieuwenburg SA, Bardou M, et al. Increasing incidence of
colorectal cancer in young adults in Europe over the last 25 years.
Gut. 2019;68(10):1820‐1826. doi:10.1136/gutjnl‐2018‐317592
77. O'Sullivan DE, Ruan Y, Cheung WY, et al. Early‐onset colorectal
cancer incidence, staging, and mortality in Canada: implications for
population‐based screening. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022;117(9):
1502‐1507. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000001884
78. Howren A, Sayre EC, Loree JM, et al. Trends in the incidence of
young‐onset colorectal cancer with a focus on years approaching
screening age: a population‐based longitudinal study. J Natl Cancer
Inst. 2021;113:863‐868. doi:10.1093/jnci/djaa220
79. Musetti C, Garau M, Alonso R, Piñeros M, Soerjomataram I, Barrios
E. Colorectal cancer in young and older adults in Uruguay: changes
in recent incidence and mortality trends. Int J Environ Res Public
Health. 2021;18(15):8232. doi:10.3390/ijerph18158232
80. Khil H, Kim SM, Hong S, et al. Time trends of colorectal cancer
incidence and associated lifestyle factors in South Korea. Sci Rep.
2021;11(1):2413. doi:10.1038/s41598‐021‐81877‐2
81. Chambers AC, Dixon SW, White P, Williams AC, Thomas MG,
Messenger DE. Demographic trends in the incidence of young‐onset
colorectal cancer: a population‐based study. Br J Surg. 2020;107(5):
595‐605. doi:10.1002/bjs.11486
82. Spaander MCW, Zauber AG, Syngal S, et al. Young‐onset colorectal
cancer. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2023;9(1):21. doi:10.1038/s41572‐
023‐00432‐7
83. US Preventive Services Task Force; Davidson KW, Barry MJ, et al.
Screening for colorectal cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force
recommendation statement. JAMA. 2021;325(19):1965‐1977.
doi:10.1001/jama.2021.6238
84. World Cancer Research Fund International. Prostate cancer. World
Cancer Research Fund International; 2024. Accessed January 16,
2024. https://www.wcrf.org/diet‐activity‐and‐cancer/cancer‐
types/prostate‐cancer/
85. Rebbeck TR, Devesa SS, Chang BL, et al. Global patterns of pros-
tate cancer incidence, aggressiveness, and mortality in men of Af-
rican descent. Prostate Cancer. 2013;2013:560857‐560912. doi:10.
1155/2013/560857
86. Culp MB, Soerjomataram I, Efstathiou JA, Bray F, Jemal A. Recent
global patterns in prostate cancer incidence and mortality rates.
Eur Urol. 2020;77(1):38‐52. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2019.08.005
87. Zhou CK, Check DP, Lortet‐Tieulent J, et al. Prostate cancer inci-
dence in 43 populations worldwide: an analysis of time trends
overall and by age group. Int J Cancer. 2016;138(6):1388‐1400.
doi:10.1002/ijc.29894
88. Center MM, Jemal A, Lortet‐Tieulent J, et al. International variation
in prostate cancer incidence and mortality rates. Eur Urol. 2012;
61(6):1079‐1092. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2012.02.054
89. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. Risks and benefits of
estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: prin-
cipal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized
controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288(3):321‐333. doi:10.1001/jama.
288.3.321
90. Kvale R, Auvinen A, Adami HO, et al. Interpreting trends in pros-
tate cancer incidence and mortality in the five Nordic countries. J
Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99(24):1881‐1887. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm249
91. Pathirana T, Sequeira R, Del Mar C, et al. Trends in prostate specific
antigen (PSA) testing and prostate cancer incidence and mortality in
Australia: a critical analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. 2022;77:102093.
doi:10.1016/j.canep.2021.102093
92. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer:
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement.
Ann Intern Med. 2008;149(3):185‐191. doi:10.7326/0003‐4819‐
149‐3‐200808050‐00008
93. Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for
prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommen-
dation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157(2):120‐134. doi:10.
7326/0003‐4819‐157‐2‐201207170‐00459
94. Tikkinen KAO, Dahm P, Lytvyn L, et al. Prostate cancer screening
with prostate‐specific antigen (PSA) test: a clinical practice guide-
line. BMJ. 2018;362:k3581. doi:10.1136/bmj.k3581
95. Zargar H, van den Bergh R, Moon D, Lawrentschuk N, Costello A,
Murphy D. The impact of the United States Preventive Services
Task Force (USPSTF) recommendations against prostate‐specific
antigen (PSA) testing on PSA testing in Australia. BJU Int. 2017;
119(1):110‐115. doi:10.1111/bju.13602
96. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Wagle NS, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2023.
CA Cancer J Clin. 2023;73(1):17‐48. doi:10.3322/caac.21763
97. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Final Recommenda-
tion Statement. Prostate Cancer: Screening. USPSTF; 2018. Accessed
February 1, 2024. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/
uspstf/recommendation/prostate‐cancer‐screening
98. Bray F, Pineros M. Cancer patterns, trends and projections in Latin
America and the Caribbean: a global context. Salud Publica Mex.
2016;58(2):104‐117. doi:10.21149/spm.v58i2.7779
99. Seraphin TP, Joko‐Fru WY, Kamate B, et al. Rising prostate
cancer incidence in sub‐Saharan Africa: a trend analysis of data
from the African Cancer Registry Network. Cancer Epidemiol Bio-
markers Prev. 2020;30(1):158‐165. doi:10.1158/1055‐9965.EPI‐20‐
1005
100. Wong MC, Goggins WB, Wang HH, et al. Global incidence and
mortality for prostate cancer: analysis of temporal patterns and
trends in 36 countries. Eur Urol. 2016;70(5):862‐874. doi:10.1016/
j.eururo.2016.05.043
101. Tsodikov A, Gulati R, Heijnsdijk EAM, et al. Reconciling the effects
of screening on prostate cancer mortality in the ERSPC and PLCO
trials. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167:449‐455.
102. Etzioni R, Tsodikov A, Mariotto A, et al. Quantifying the role of PSA
screening in the US prostate cancer mortality decline. Cancer
Causes Control. 2008;19(2):175‐181. doi:10.1007/s10552‐007‐
9083‐8
103. Fedewa SA, Ma J, Jemal A. Response to Lehrer and Rheinstein. J Natl
Cancer Inst. 2020;112(10):1069‐1070. doi:10.1093/jnci/djaa093
104. Schafer EJ, Jemal A, Wiese D, et al. Disparities and trends in
genitourinary cancer incidence and mortality in the USA. Eur Urol.
2023;84(1):117‐126. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2022.11.023
105. de Martel C, Georges D, Bray F, Ferlay J, Clifford GM. Global burden
of cancer attributable to infections in 2018: a worldwide incidence
analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2020;8(2):e180‐e190. doi:10.1016/
s2214‐109x(19)30488‐7
106. Thrift AP, Wenker TN, El‐Serag HB. Global burden of gastric can-
cer: epidemiological trends, risk factors, screening and prevention.
Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2023;20(5):338‐349. doi:10.1038/s41571‐023‐
00747‐0
107. Kidd M, Lastovica AJ, Atherton JC, Louw JA. Heterogeneity in the
Helicobacter pylori vacA and cagA genes: association with
gastroduodenal disease in South Africa? Gut. 1999;45(4):499‐502.
doi:10.1136/gut.45.4.499
108. Yang L, Kartsonaki C, Yao P, et al. The relative and attributable
risks of cardia and non‐cardia gastric cancer associated with Hel-
icobacter pylori infection in China: a case‐cohort study. Lancet
260
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
Public Health. 2021;6(12):e888‐e896. doi:10.1016/s2468‐2667(21)
00164‐x
109. Martel C, Parsonnet J. Stomach cancer. In: Thun MJ, Linet MS, Cerhan
JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology and Preven-
tion. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:593‐610.
110. Howson CP, Hiyama T, Wynder EL. The decline in gastric cancer:
epidemiology of an unplanned triumph. Epidemiol Rev. 1986;8:1‐27.
doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036288
111. Anderson WF, Rabkin CS, Turner N, Fraumeni JF Jr, Rosenberg PS,
Camargo MC. The changing face of noncardia gastric cancer incidence
among US non‐Hispanic Whites. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2018;110(6):
608‐615. doi:10.1093/jnci/djx262
112. Arnold M, Park JY, Camargo MC, Lunet N, Forman D, Soerjoma-
taram I. Is gastric cancer becoming a rare disease? A global
assessment of predicted incidence trends to 2035. Gut.
2020;69(5):823‐829. doi:10.1136/gutjnl‐2019‐320234
113. Morgan E, Arnold M, Camargo MC, et al. The current and future
incidence and mortality of gastric cancer in 185 countries, 2020–40:
a population‐based modelling study. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;47:
101404. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101404
114. Powell J, McConkey CC. Increasing incidence of adenocarcinoma
of the gastric cardia and adjacent sites. Br J Cancer. 1990;62(3):
440‐443. doi:10.1038/bjc.1990.314
115. Devesa SS, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Changing patterns in the
incidence of esophageal and gastric carcinoma in the United States.
Cancer. 1998;83(10):2049‐2053. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097‐0142
(19981115)83:10<2049::aid‐cncr1>3.3.co;2‐u
116. Sung H, Siegel RL, Rosenberg PS, Jemal A. Emerging cancer trends
among young adults in the USA: analysis of a population‐based
cancer registry. Lancet Public Health. 2019;4(3):e137‐e147. doi:10.
1016/s2468‐2667(18)30267‐6
117. Abdulkarim D, Mattsson F, Lagergren J. Recent incidence trends of
oesophago‐gastric cancer in Sweden. Acta Oncol. 2022;61(12):
1490‐1498. doi:10.1080/0284186x.2022.2163592
118. Dikken JL, Lemmens VE, Wouters MW, et al. Increased incidence
and survival for oesophageal cancer but not for gastric cardia
cancer in the Netherlands. Eur J Cancer. 2012;48(11):1624‐1632.
doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2012.01.009
119. Rumgay H, Ferlay J, de Martel C, et al. Global, regional and national
burden of primary liver cancer by subtype. Eur J Cancer. 2022;
161:108‐118. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2021.11.023
120. London WT, Petrick JL, McGlynn KA. Liver cancer. In: Thun MJ, Linet
MS, Cerhan JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology
and Prevention. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:635‐660.
121. Prueksapanich P, Piyachaturawat P, Aumpansub P, Ridtitid W,
Chaiteerakij R, Rerknimitr R. Liver fluke‐associated biliary tract
cancer. Gut Liver. 2018;12(3):236‐245. doi:10.5009/gnl17102
122. Petrick JL, Yang B, Altekruse SF, et al. Risk factors for intrahepatic
and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in the United States: a
population‐based study in SEER‐Medicare. PLoS One. 2017;12(10):
e0186643. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186643
123. Welzel TM, Mellemkjaer L, Gloria G, et al. Risk factors for intra-
hepatic cholangiocarcinoma in a low‐risk population: a nationwide
case‐control study. Int J Cancer. 2007;120(3):638‐641. doi:10.
1002/ijc.22283
124. Donato F, Gelatti U, Tagger A, et al. Intrahepatic chol-
angiocarcinoma and hepatitis C and B virus infection, alcohol intake,
and hepatolithiasis: a case‐control study in Italy. Cancer Causes
Control. 2001;12(10):959‐964. doi:10.1023/a:1013747228572
125. Petrick JL, Florio AA, Znaor A, et al. International trends in hepa-
tocellular carcinoma incidence, 1978–2012. Int J Cancer. 2020;
147(2):317‐330. doi:10.1002/ijc.32723
126. Chen T, Zhang Y, Liu J, et al. Trends in liver cancer mortality in
China from 1990 to 2019: a systematic analysis based on the
Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. BMJ Open. 2023;13(12):
e074348. doi:10.1136/bmjopen‐2023‐074348
127. Chang MH, Chen CJ, Lai MS, et al. Universal hepatitis B vaccination
in Taiwan and the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chil-
dren. Taiwan Childhood Hepatoma Study Group. N Engl J Med.
1997;336(26):1855‐1859. doi:10.1056/nejm199706263362602
128. Florio AA, Ferlay J, Znaor A, et al. Global trends in intrahepatic and
extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma incidence from 1993 to 2012.
Cancer. 2020;126(11):2666‐2678. doi:10.1002/cncr.32803
129. World Health Organization (WHO). Immunization coverage. WHO;
2023. Accessed February 4, 2024. https://www.who.int/news‐
room/fact‐sheets/detail/immunization‐coverage
130. Global Vaccine Alliance (GAVI). Why a birth dose of hepatitis B
vaccine could be life‐changing. GAVI; 2023. Accessed January 4,
2024. https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/why‐birth‐dose‐
hepatitis‐b‐vaccine‐could‐be‐life‐changing
131. Walboomers JMM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, et al. Human papillo-
mavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide.
J Pathol. 1999;189(1):12‐19. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096‐9896(199909)
189:1<12::aid‐path431>3.0.co;2‐f
132. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to
Humans. Human papillomaviruses. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks
Hum. 2007;90:1‐636.
133. Herrero R, Murillo R. Cervical cancer. In: Thun MJ, Linet MS, Cerhan
JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology and Preven-
tion. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:925‐946.
134. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). IARC
Handbooks of Cancer Prevention. Volume 10. Cervix Cancer
Screening. IARC Press; 2005. Accessed November 23, 2020.
http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/pdfs‐online/prev/handbook10/
HANDBOOK10.pdf
135. Bray F, Carstensen B, Moller H, et al. Incidence trends of adeno-
carcinoma of the cervix in 13 European countries. Cancer Epidemiol
Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14(9):2191‐2199. doi:10.1158/1055‐9965.
epi‐05‐0231
136. Bray F, Loos AH, McCarron P, et al. Trends in cervical squamous
cell carcinoma incidence in 13 European countries: changing risk
and the effects of screening. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev.
2005;14(3):677‐686. doi:10.1158/1055‐9965.epi‐04‐0569
137. Utada M, Chernyavskiy P, Lee WJ, et al. Increasing risk of uterine
cervical cancer among young Japanese women: comparison of
incidence trends in Japan, South Korea and Japanese‐Americans
between 1985 and 2012. Int J Cancer. 2019;144(9):2144‐2152.
doi:10.1002/ijc.32014
138. Castanon A, Sasieni P. Is the recent increase in cervical cancer in
women aged 20–24 years in England a cause for concern? Prev
Med. 2018;107:21‐28. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.12.002
139. McDonald SA, Qendri V, Berkhof J, de Melker HE, Bogaards JA.
Disease burden of human papillomavirus infection in the
Netherlands, 1989–2014: the gap between females and males is
diminishing. Cancer Causes Control. 2017;28(3):203‐214. doi:10.
1007/s10552‐017‐0870‐6
140. Singh D, Vignat J, Lorenzoni V, et al. Global estimates of incidence
and mortality of cervical cancer in 2020: a baseline analysis of the
WHO Global Cervical Cancer Elimination Initiative. Lancet Glob
Health. 2023;11(2):e197‐e206. doi:10.1016/s2214‐109x(22)
00501‐0
141. Jedy‐Agba E, Joko WY, Liu B, et al. Trends in cervical cancer
incidence in sub‐Saharan Africa. Br J Cancer. 2020;123(1):148‐154.
doi:10.1038/s41416‐020‐0831‐9
142. World Health Organization (WHO). Global strategy to accelerate the
elimination of cervical cancer as a public health problem. WHO; 2020.
Accessed December 18, 2023. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/
handle/10665/336583/9789240014107‐eng.pdf?sequence=1
BRAY ET AL.
-
261
143. Brisson M, Kim JJ, Canfell K, et al. Impact of HPV vaccination and
cervical screening on cervical cancer elimination: a comparative
modelling analysis in 78 low‐income and lower‐middle‐income
countries. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):575‐590. doi:10.1016/s0140‐
6736(20)30068‐4
144. World Health Organization (WHO). Self‐care interventions: human
papillomavirus (HPV) self‐sampling as part of cervical cancer screening
and treatment, 2022 update. WHO; 2023. Accessed January 21,
2023. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO‐SRH‐23.1
145. Arbyn M, Smith SB, Temin S, Sultana F, Castle P. Detecting cervical
precancer and reaching underscreened women by using HPV
testing on self samples: updated meta‐analyses. BMJ. 2018;363:
k4823. doi:10.1136/bmj.k4823
146. World Health Organization (WHO). One‐dose human papillomavirus
(HPV) vaccine offers solid protection against cervical cancer. WHO;
2022. Accessed December 5, 2023. https://www.who.int/news/
item/11‐04‐2022‐one‐dose‐human‐papillomavirus‐(hpv)‐vaccine‐
offers‐solid‐protection‐against‐cervical‐cancer
147. Miranda‐Filho A, Lortet‐Tieulent J, Bray F, et al. Thyroid cancer
incidence trends by histology in 25 countries: a population‐based
study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021;9(4):225‐234. doi:10.
1016/s2213‐8587(21)00027‐9
148. Vaccarella S, Franceschi S, Bray F, Wild CP, Plummer M, Dal Maso
L. Worldwide thyroid‐cancer epidemic? The increasing impact of
overdiagnosis. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(7):614‐617. doi:10.1056/
nejmp1604412
149. Li M, Meheus F, Polazzi S, et al. The economic cost of thyroid cancer
in France and the corresponding share associated with treatment of
overdiagnosed cases. Value Health. 2023;26(8):1175‐1182. doi:10.
1016/j.jval.2023.02.016
150. Panato C, Vaccarella S, Dal Maso L, et al. Thyroid cancer incidence
in India between 2006 and 2014 and impact of overdiagnosis. J Clin
Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(8):2507‐2514. doi:10.1210/clinem/
dgaa192
151. Togawa K, Ahn HS, Auvinen A, et al. Long‐term strategies for
thyroid health monitoring after nuclear accidents: recommenda-
tions from an expert group convened by IARC. Lancet Oncol.
2018;19(10):1280‐1283. doi:10.1016/s1470‐2045(18)30680‐6
152. US Preventive Services Task Force; Bibbins‐Domingo K, Grossman
DC, et al. Screening for thyroid cancer: US Preventive Services
Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA. 2017;317(18):
1882‐1887. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.4011
153. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, et al. 2015 American Thyroid
Association management guidelines for adult patients with
thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer: the American
Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force on Thyroid Nodules and
Differentiated Thyroid Cancer. Thyroid. 2016;26:1‐133. doi:10.
1089/thy.2015.0020
154. Jung KW, Won YJ, Kong HJ, Lee ES. Cancer statistics in Korea:
incidence, mortality, survival, and prevalence in 2016. Cancer Res
Treat. 2019;51(2):417‐430. doi:10.4143/crt.2019.138
155. Ahn HS, Welch HG. South Korea's thyroid‐cancer “epidemic”—
turning the tide. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(24):2389‐2390. doi:10.
1056/nejmc1507622
156. Kitahara CM, Schneider AB, Brenner AV. Thyroid cancer. In: Thun MJ,
Linet MS, Cerhan JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology
and Prevention. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:839‐860.
157. Kitahara CM, Pfeiffer RM, Sosa JA, Shiels MS. Impact of overweight
and obesity on US papillary thyroid cancer incidence trends (1995–
2015). J Natl Cancer Inst. 2020;112(8):810‐817. doi:10.1093/jnci/
djz202
158. Lauby‐Secretan B, Scoccianti C, Loomis D, Grosse Y, Bianchini F,
Straif K. Body fatness and cancer—viewpoint of the IARC Working
Group. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(8):794‐798. doi:10.1056/
nejmsr1606602
159. Silverman DT, Koutros S, Figueroa JD, Prokunina‐Olsson L, Roth-
man N. Bladder cancer. In: Thun MJ, Linet MS, Cerhan JR, Haiman C,
Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 4th ed.
Oxford University Press; 2017:977‐996.
160. Antoni S, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Znaor A, Jemal A, Bray F.
Bladder cancer incidence and mortality: a global overview and
recent trends. Eur Urol. 2017;71(1):96‐108. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.
2016.06.010
161. Parkin DM, Hämmerl L, Ferlay J, Kantelhardt EJ. Cancer in Africa
2018: the role of infections. Int J Cancer. 2020;146(8):2089‐2103.
doi:10.1002/ijc.32538
162. Teoh JYC, Huang J, Ko WYK, et al. Global trends of bladder cancer
incidence and mortality, and their associations with tobacco use and
gross domestic product per capita. Eur Urol. 2020;78(6):893‐906.
doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2020.09.006
163. van Hoogstraten LMC, Vrieling A, van der Heijden AG, Kogevinas
M, Richters A, Kiemeney LA. Global trends in the epidemiology of
bladder cancer: challenges for public health and clinical practice.
Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2023;20(5):287‐304. doi:10.1038/s41571‐023‐
00744‐3
164. Islami F, Goding Sauer A, Miller KD, et al. Proportion and number of
cancer cases and deaths attributable to potentially modifiable risk
factors in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68(1):31‐54.
doi:10.3322/caac.21440
165. Babjuk M, Burger M, Zigeuner R, et al. EAU guidelines on non‐
muscle‐invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder: update 2013.
Eur Urol. 2013;64(4):639‐653. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2013.06.003
166. Parkin DM. The global burden of urinary bladder cancer. Scand J Urol
Nephrol Suppl. 2008;42(218):12‐20. doi:10.1080/
03008880802285032
167. Public Health Scotland Scottish Cancer Registry. Data and intelli-
gence. Accessed December 9, 2020. https://www.isdscotland.org/
Health‐Topics/Cancer/Scottish‐Cancer‐Registry.asp
168. Nielsen ME, Smith AB, Meyer AM, et al. Trends in stage‐specific
incidence rates for urothelial carcinoma of the bladder in the
United States: 1988 to 2006. Cancer. 2014;120(1):86‐95. doi:10.
1002/cncr.28397
169. Miranda‐Filho A, Pineros M, Znaor A, Marcos‐Gragera R,
Steliarova‐Foucher E, Bray F. Global patterns and trends in the
incidence of non‐Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Causes Control. 2019;
30(5):489‐499. doi:10.1007/s10552‐019‐01155‐5
170. Shiels MS, Engels EA, Linet MS, et al. The epidemic of non‐Hodgkin
lymphoma in the United States: disentangling the effect of HIV,
1992–2009. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2013;22(6):
1069‐1078. doi:10.1158/1055‐9965.epi‐13‐0040
171. Usui Y, Ito H, Katanoda K, Matsuda T, Maeda Y, Matsuo K. Trends
in non‐Hodgkin lymphoma mortality rate in Japan and the United
States: a population‐based study. Cancer Sci. 2023;114(10):
4073‐4080. doi:10.1111/cas.15926
172. Carioli G, Malvezzi M, Bertuccio P, et al. European cancer mortality
predictions for the year 2021 with focus on pancreatic and female
lung cancer. Ann Oncol. 2021;32(4):478‐487. doi:10.1016/j.annonc.
2021.01.006
173. Klein AP. Pancreatic cancer epidemiology: understanding the role
of lifestyle and inherited risk factors. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol.
2021;18(7):493‐502. doi:10.1038/s41575‐021‐00457‐x
174. Cabasag CJ, Ferlay J, Laversanne M, et al. Pancreatic cancer: an
increasing global public health concern. Gut. 2022;71:1686‐1687.
175. McCormack VA, Menya D, Munishi MO, et al. Informing etiologic
research priorities for squamous cell esophageal cancer in Africa: a
review of setting‐specific exposures to known and putative
262
-
GLOBAL CANCER STATISTICS 2022
risk factors. Int J Cancer. 2017;140(2):259‐271. doi:10.1002/ijc.
30292
176. Blot WJ, Tarone RE. Esophageal cancer. In: Thun MJ, Linet MS, Cerhan
JR, Haiman C, Schottenfeld D, eds. Cancer Epidemiology and Preven-
tion. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2017:579‐592.
177. Arnold M, Laversanne M, Brown LM, Devesa SS, Bray F. Predicting
the future burden of esophageal cancer by histological subtype:
international trends in incidence up to 2030. Am J Gastroenterol.
2017;112(8):1247‐1255. doi:10.1038/ajg.2017.155
178. Santucci C, Mignozzi S, Malvezzi M, et al. Global trends in esoph-
ageal cancer mortality with predictions to 2025, and in incidence
by histotype. Cancer Epidemiol. 2023;87:102486. doi:10.1016/j.
canep.2023.102486
179. Miranda‐Filho A, Pineros M, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Monnereau
A, Bray F. Epidemiological patterns of leukaemia in 184 countries:
a population‐based study. Lancet Haematol. 2018;5(1):e14‐e24.
doi:10.1016/s2352‐3026(17)30232‐6
180. United Nations. Our growing population. United Nations; 2024.
Accessed February 3, 2024. https://www.un.org/en/global‐issues/
population#:~:text=The%20world%20population%20is%
20projected,surrounding%20these%20latest%20population%
20projections
181. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The Global
Initiative for Cancer Registry Development. IARC; 2023. Accessed
January 28, 2024. https://gicr.iarc.who.int/
182. Soerjomataram I, Bardot A, Aitken J, et al. Impact of the COVID‐19
pandemic on population‐based cancer registry. Int J Cancer. 2022;
150(2):273‐278. doi:10.1002/ijc.33792
183. Neamţiu L, Martos C, Giusti F, et al. Impact of the first wave of the
COVID‐19 pandemic on cancer registration and cancer care: a
European survey. Eur J Public Health. 2022;32(2):311‐315. doi:10.
1093/eurpub/ckab214
184. Han X, Yang NN, Nogueira L, et al. Changes in cancer diagnoses and
stage distribution during the first year of the COVID‐19 pandemic in
the USA: a cross‐sectional nationwide assessment. Lancet Oncol.
2023;24(8):855‐867. doi:10.1016/s1470‐2045(23)00293‐0
185. Cancer Registry of Norway. Cancer in Norway 2020—Cancer inci-
dence, mortality, survival and prevalence in Norway. Cancer Registry
of Norway; 2021.
186. Johansson ALV, Larønningen S, Skovlund CW, et al. The impact of
the COVID‐19 pandemic on cancer diagnosis based on pathology
notifications: a comparison across the Nordic countries during
2020. Int J Cancer. 2022;151(3):381‐395. doi:10.1002/ijc.34029
187. Bray F, Colombet M, Aitken J, et al., eds. Cancer Incidence in Five
Continents. Vol. XII. IARC CancerBase No. 19. International Agency
for Research on Cancer; 2023. Accessed January 26, 2024. https://
ci5.iarc.who.int
188. Soerjomataram I, Bray F. Planning for tomorrow: global cancer
incidence and the role of prevention 2020–2070. Nat Rev Clin
Oncol. 2021;18(10):663‐672. doi:10.1038/s41571‐021‐00514‐z
How to cite this article: Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, et al.
Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of
incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185
countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2024;74(3):229‐263. doi:10.3322/
caac.21834
BRAY ET AL.
-
263
