Position and ranking influence in padel: somatic anxiety and self-confidence increase in competition for left-side and higher-ranked players when compared to pressure training

Abstract

This study aimed to analyze the differences in the precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence according to the side of play, the ranking and the match outcome, under different competitive scenarios, in high level men’s padel players from Finland who trained under pressure prior to the competition. 10 men’s padel players (28.60 (4.17) years old) from the highest category participated in the research. The CSAI-2R (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised) and STAI-S (State–Trait Anxiety Inventory – State) questionnaires were used and descriptive and inferential analyzes were performed, including Mann–Whitney’s U tests. The findings illuminate that, across the player spectrum, somatic anxiety and self-confidence levels are higher before competition compared to training matches. This trend holds true for left-side, higher-ranked and match winning players. Even lower-ranked players exhibit heightened self-confidence preceding competitions. These insights offer valuable considerations for players, coaches, and sports psychologists, fostering a deeper understanding of the intricate interplay between pressure training, competition, and the athlete’s psychological landscape.

Full text

Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org
Position and ranking influence in
padel: somatic anxiety and
self-confidence increase in
competition for left-side and
higher-ranked players when
compared to pressure training
RafaelConde-Ripoll
†, AdriánEscudero-Tena
† and
ÁlvaroBustamante-Sánchez *†
Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
This study aimed to analyze the dierences in the precompetitive anxiety
and self-confidence according to the side of play, the ranking and the match
outcome, under dierent competitive scenarios, in high level men’s padel players
from Finland who trained under pressure prior to the competition. 10 men’s
padel players (28.60 (4.17) years old) from the highest category participated
in the research. The CSAI-2R (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised)
and STAI-S (State–Trait Anxiety Inventory – State) questionnaires were used and
descriptive and inferential analyzes were performed, including Mann–Whitney’s
U tests. The findings illuminate that, across the player spectrum, somatic
anxiety and self-confidence levels are higher before competition compared to
training matches. This trend holds true for left-side, higher-ranked and match
winning players. Even lower-ranked players exhibit heightened self-confidence
preceding competitions. These insights oer valuable considerations for
players, coaches, and sports psychologists, fostering a deeper understanding of
the intricate interplay between pressure training, competition, and the athlete’s
psychological landscape.
KEYWORDS
psychology, confidence, anxiety, competition, practice, padel, CSAI-2R, STAI-S
Introduction
e global surge of padel, a doubles racket sport, has attracted participants from over 60
nations aliated with the International Padel Federation (2024). is growth has triggered a
notable rise in scholarly research focused on psychophysiology (Conde-Ripoll etal., 2023;
Díaz-García et al., 2023a; Bustamante-Sánchez et al., 2024), although technical-tactical
performance remains a dominant area of study (Lupo etal., 2018; Escudero-Tena etal., 2021;
Martín-Miguel etal., 2023; Conde-Ripoll etal., 2024; Ungureanu etal., 2024).
Participating in sports may involve rigorous physical exertion and signicant psychological
burdens, posing challenges for certain athletes to handle and potentially resulting in adverse
outcomes (Balaguer etal., 2012). is phenomenon becomes more pronounced when high-
level padel players are required to compete in two consecutive matches within a single day,
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Pierpaolo Sansone,
Foro Italico University of Rome, Italy
REVIEWED BY
Juan Pedro Fuentes,
University of Extremadura, Spain
Corrado Lupo,
University of Turin, Italy
*CORRESPONDENCE
Álvaro Bustamante-Sánchez
alvaro.bustamante@universidadeuropea.es
†These authors have contributed equally to
this work
RECEIVED 29 February 2024
ACCEPTED 15 March 2024
PUBLISHED 04 April 2024
CITATION
Conde-Ripoll R, Escudero-Tena A and
Bustamante-Sánchez Á (2024) Position and
ranking influence in padel: somatic anxiety
and self-confidence increase in competition
for left-side and higher-ranked players when
compared to pressure training.
Front. Psychol. 15:1393963.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963
COPYRIGHT
© 2024 Conde-Ripoll, Escudero-Tena and
Bustamante-Sánchez. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction
in other forums is permitted, provided the
original author(s) and the copyright owner(s)
are credited and that the original publication
in this journal is cited, in accordance with
accepted academic practice. No use,
distribution or reproduction is permitted
which does not comply with these terms.
TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 04 April 2024
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963

Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963
Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org
leading to a notable build-up of cognitive exhaustion which intensies
perceived mental fatigue (Díaz-García etal., 2023b). On its part,
anxiety encompasses a negative emotional state characterized by
nervousness, worry, and apprehension, typically accompanied by
heightened physiological arousal (Weinberg and Gould, 2010). is
state leads to an individual’s diminished adaptability across
physiological, behavioral, and cognitive realms, thereby obstructing
athletic performance (Tamorri, 2004). Anxiety oen escalates
immediately before competition and subsides shortly
aerward (Gould etal., 1984). Numerous studies have conrmed that
heightened pre-competitive anxiety can hinder athletic performance
(Burton, 1988).
To comprehend this anxious state, the multidimensional theory
(Martens etal., 1990) suggests that subjective expressions of anxiety
involve cognitive and somatic components, along with self-condence.
e somatic aspect encompasses the physiological and emotional
facets of anxiety, originating directly from organismic activation
(Martens etal., 1990). It encompasses a range of physical symptoms
(elevated levels of physiological function activation) triggered
automatically by the demands of competition (Dosil, 2004), oen
accompanied by nervousness and tension. Conversely, cognitive
anxiety pertains to the mental dimension of anxiety, arising from
negative expectations or low self-condence levels in oneself and one’s
abilities (Martens etal., 1990). A third aspect, self-condence, while
not a direct measure of anxiety, can inuence athletes’ experience of
cognitive anxiety. Self-condence reects an individual’s belief in their
capacity to manage their surroundings and themselves (Woodman
and Hardy, 2001). Prior to Spanish competitions, high-level (rst
category) padel players exhibit higher levels of self-condence and
lower levels of somatic-anxiety when compared to players from third
category (Castillo-Rodriguez etal., 2022).
Training should betailored to prepare players for competition in
the best possible way. A comparison between the demands of
competition and training suggests that the former typically imposes
higher physiological demands, coupled with psychological factors
such as the allure of victory, competition prestige, and the challenge
posed by rival athletes. Souza etal. (2019) observed elevated somatic
anxiety, LH/HF ratio, and cortisol levels preceding competitions in
contrast to training, what suggest an excitement of the autonomous
nervous system on its sympathetic division. As relevant competitions
approach, as exemplied in our study with training occurring 2 weeks
prior to a key event, research suggests an increase in stress and
anxiety levels among athletes (Loupos etal., 2008; Morales etal.,
2014; Bustamante-Sánchez et al., 2024). In racket sports,
contemporary methodologies advocate for competitive training
scenarios mirroring match-play conditions to enhance decision-
making prociency in authentic settings (Mecheri etal., 2019; Navia
etal., 2022). It is important to highlight that in racket sports like
padel, where rapid decision-making is constant (Castillo-Rodríguez
et al., 2014), eectively managing pressure situations directly
inuences performance (González-Díaz etal., 2012; Knight etal.,
2016; Martínez-Gallego etal., 2022). Since mental strength plays a
pivotal role in sports success (Crust and Keegan, 2010) and in
upholding or boosting competitive performance (Gucciardi etal.,
2015), players need to develop their mental skills (Mamassis and
Doganis, 2004) as well as pressure should bepresent during training
sessions (Low etal., 2021). Although replicating competition can
bedicult, training under mild levels of pressure can still benet
future performance under higher levels of pressure (Oudejans and
Pijpers, 2010). Pressure training is an intervention that applies
pressure on athletes while they practice their sport with the aim of
helping them improve their performance under pressure (Low etal.,
2021). In other words, it attempts to increase pressure above the level
that athletes feel in a typical training session. In this regard, Stoker
etal. (2016) examined stressors that elite-level coaches, among a wide
spectrum of sports like badminton and table tennis, used to
intentionally create pressure during training sessions. e ensuring
framework categorized stressors into demands and consequences.
e former increased the diculty to perform (for example, adding
distractions to the environment or changing the rules of a drill),
whereas the latter included rewards (e.g., the change to choose the
next tournament abroad), forfeits (e.g., having to miss a training
session), or judgment (e.g., being watched by the professional team’s
performance director). Subsequent research found that
consequences increase pressure more than demands do (Stoker etal.,
2017, 2019).
Despite the growing interest in padel, a notable gap exists in the
scientic literature regarding the consideration of pressure training,
the comparison of precompetitive anxiety levels between training
and competition contexts, and between players based on their side
of play. Our study aims to address this gap by investigating these
aspects within the padel domain, providing valuable insights into
the psychological dynamics of player performance. By examining
the eects of pressure training and elucidating dierences in anxiety
levels between training and competition, and between right- and
le-side players, weaim to oer a novel contribution to the eld.
ese ndings hold signicant practical implications for players,
coaches, and sports psychologists, as they can inform tailored
strategies for optimizing player performance and well-being.
Players may benet from lifestyle modications and adjustments to
playing style, while coaches and psychologists can tailor training
sessions and feedback to better support players in managing anxiety
and enhancing self-condence.
erefore, the aim of the present investigation was to analyze the
dierences in the pre-competitive anxiety and self-condence between
training and competition in high-level men’s padel players from
Finland who trained under pressure, according to the side of play, the
ranking, and the match outcome. e following hypotheses were put
forward: (1) prior to competition, athletes will show higher levels of
anxiety and lower levels of self-condence than prior to training
matches, (2) le-side players, as well as right-side players, will show
higher levels of self-condence and less anxiety before competition
than prior to training matches, (3) both prior to training and
competitive matches, le-side players will present lower levels of
anxiety and higher levels of self-condence when compared to right-
side players, (4) higher ranked players will show similar levels of
anxiety and self-condence between competition and training
matches while lower ranked players will show lower levels of self-
condence and higher levels of anxiety before competition than
training matches, (5) match winning players will show similar levels
of anxiety and self-condence between competition and training
matches while match losing players will show lower levels of self-
condence and higher levels of anxiety before competition than
training matches.

Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963
Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org
Materials and methods
Sample and participants
A total of 10 men’s high level padel players (28.60 (4.17) years old)
from Finland voluntarily participated in the present study. All
participants were ranked top25in Finland. None of the athletes had
physical injuries, nor were they using any medication. In addition,
none of the participants had any reason that prevented them from
participating in the study. e sample consisted of 20 matches
(training: 11, competition: 9). e training matches took place at Padel
Tampere Linnakallio New during the 2 weeks prior to the 2023
Finnish national championship by pairs. e obtained points of this
competition counted for the ranking of the Finnish Federation. e
study was in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration (Wor ld
Medical Association, 2013). Participants were treated ethically under
the American Psychological Association code of ethics regarding
consent, anonymity and responses. Previously, the current
investigation had been approved by the Ethics Committee of the
European University of Madrid with the code CIPI/22.303. So as to
respect the principles of voluntariness and condentiality, each player
was required to sign an informed consent form that clearly explained
the objectives of the research and their voluntary participation in it.
To obtain permission to administer the questionnaires to the players
before the competition, the researchers rst contacted the Finnish
Padel Federation and the championship organizer.
Instruments
Competitive anxiety
CSAI-2R was used to measure precompetitive anxiety and self-
condence of players (Cox etal., 2003) and STAI-S was used to
measure their state anxiety (Spielberger et al., 1970). ese
questionnaires have been used in previous research in padel (Conde-
Ripoll et al., 2023). In the analysis of the CSAI-2R instrument,
Cronbach’s alpha coecients were obtained, showing reliability scores
of 0.515 for cognitive anxiety, 0.808 for somatic anxiety, 0.758 for self-
condence, all but the former meeting acceptable standards (Nunnally
and Bernstein, 1994; DeVellis, 2003; Vaske, 2008).
Procedure
e players were informed by the coach that they would undergo
pressure training. Pressure training refers to an intervention designed
to assist athletes in performing under pressure by deliberately
exposing them to stressors during training sessions (Bell etal., 2013;
Driskell etal., 2014; Stoker etal., 2016). In our study, players were
recorded during the training matches while their technical-tactical
performance was exhaustively evaluated by the head coach of the rst-
ever professional padel team in Finland. Players were informed about
this process before the training match began.
e questionnaires were administered to the players between 30
and 45 min prior to the start of each match, following the same criteria
to that used by Andrade-Fernández etal. (2007) and Conde-Ripoll
etal. (2023). All questionnaires were completed in a quiet room with
controlled temperature of 20°C. Participants completed the
questionnaires in English, as it is the only language that both
researchers and athletes are uent in. Participants were not allowed to
speak during the assessments.
Statistical analysis
A Kolgomorov-Smirnov test was used to test the normality of the
distribution of the data and it indicated that it is non-parametric.
en, results were shown as median and interquartile range.
Next, inferential analyzes were conducted, including Mann–
Whitney’s U tests. Additionally, eect sizes (Cohen’s d) were calculated
and can beinterpreted as small (0.20 to 0.49), moderate (0.50 to 0.79)
and large (d ≥ 0.80) (Cohen, 1988).
All data were analyzed using the statistical package SPSS for
Macintosh v.25.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, UnitedStates). A p value of
less than 0.05 was considered to bestatistically signicant.
Results
Results are shown as mean and interquartile range.
Table 1 presents the level of precompetitive anxiety and self-
condence between players at training and at competition matches.
Players signicantly present higher levels of somatic anxiety (p = 0.025;
d = 0.602) and self-condence (p = 0.002; d = 0.848) in competition
when compared to training matches.
Table2 further examines the level of precompetitive anxiety and
self-condence between players at training and at competition
matches as a function of the side of play. Le-side players signicantly
present higher levels of somatic anxiety (p = 0.045; d = 0.708) and self-
condence (p = 0.002; d = 1.265) in competition when compared to
training matches.
Table3 depicts the level of precompetitive anxiety and self-
condence between right- and le-side players at training and at
competition matches. Before training matches, right-side players
TABLE1 Precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence between players at training and at competition matches.
Training Competition
Variable Median (IQR) Median (IQR) p d
CA 1.40 (0.40) 1.20 (0.40) 0.371 0.228
SA 1.43 (0.71) 1.71 (0.57) 0.025*0.602
SC 3.10 (0.60) 3.40 (0.60) 0.002*0.848
STA 7.00 (5.00) 6.00 (2.00) 0.900 0.032
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-condence; STA, state anxiety; n, number; IQR, interquartile range; p, p-value; *p < 0.05; d, Cohen’s d.

Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963
Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org
present signicantly higher levels of somatic anxiety (p = 0.016;
d = 0.873) and state anxiety (p < 0.001; d = 1.480) than le-
side players.
Table4 delves into the variation of the levels of precompetitive
anxiety and self-condence between players at training and at
competition matches as a function of the ranking. Higher-ranked
players present signicantly higher levels of somatic anxiety
(p = 0.005; d = 1.075) and self-condence (p = 0.046; d = 0.717) at
competition when compared to training matches. Lower-ranked
players present signicantly higher levels of self-condence
(p = 0.019; d = 1.053) at competition when compared to training
matches.
Table 5 shows the level of precompetitive anxiety and self-
condence between players at training and at competition matches as
a function of the match outcome. Winning players present signicantly
higher levels of somatic anxiety (p = 0.026; d = 0.824) and self-
condence (p = 0.014; d = 0.922) at competition when compared to
training matches.
Discussion
e aim of the present study was to evaluate anxiety and self-
condence prior to training matches and sports competition in high
level men’s padel players from Finland. e initial hypothesis positing
higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-condence before
competitive matches compared to training matches was only partially
supported by the ndings. Our ndings revealed signicant
dierences in self-condence and somatic anxiety. Specically, higher
levels were reported prior to competition than before training
matches. ese observed dierences may beattributed to several key
factors. Firstly, the heightened excitement and importance associated
with ocial matches might inspire top players to exhibit their utmost
self-assurance. e challenges inherent in an ocial game may lead
athletes to rely on their skills and positive beliefs, thereby boosting
their self-condence and somatic anxiety levels. Additionally, the
structured and organized nature of competitive play, coupled with the
presence of spectators and the pursuit of tangible outcomes, may
TABLE4 Precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence between players at training and at competition matches according to the ranking.
Higher-ranked Lower-ranked
Training Competition Training Competition
Variable Median
(IQR)
Median (IQR) p d Median
(IQR)
Median (IQR) p d
CA 1.30 (0.40) 1.20 (0.20) 0.397 0.281 1.40 (0.50) 1.20 (0.80) 0.806 0.097
SA 1.29 (0.61) 1.71 (0.50) 0.005*1.075 1.50 (0.61) 1.71 (0.57) 0.582 0.219
SC 3.20 (0.30) 3.40 (0.80) 0.046*0.717 3.00 (0.60) 3.40 (0.80) 0.019*1.053
STA 6.50 (4.00) 6.00 (2.00) 0.767 0.101 8.00 (6.00) 7.00 (5.00) 0.927 0.036
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-condence; STA, state anxiety; n, number; IQR, interquartile range; p, p-value; *p < 0.05; d, Cohen’s d.
TABLE2 Precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence between players at training and at competition matches according to the side of play.
Left-side player Right-side player
Training Competition Training Competition
Variable Median
(IQR)
Median (IQR) p d Median
(IQR)
Median (IQR) p d
CA 1.40 (0.40) 1.20 (0.10) 0.231 0.404 1.50 (0.70) 1.20 (0.40) 0.801 0.099
SA 1.14 (0.61) 1.57 (0.43) 0.045*0.708 1.57 (0.57) 1.86 (0.14) 0.201 0.520
SC 3.20 (0.40) 3.40 (0.60) 0.002*1.265 3.00 (0.70) 3.20 (0.80) 0.175 0.557
STA 5.00 (4.00) 6.00 (2.00) 0.413 0.281 9.50 (3.00) 7.00 (5.00) 0.167 0.569
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-condence; STA, state anxiety; n, number; IQR, interquartile range; p, p-value; *p < 0.05; d, Cohen’s d.
TABLE3 Precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence between right- and left-side players at training and at competition matches.
Training Competition
Left Right Left Right
Variable Median (IQR) Median (IQR) p d Median (IQR) Median (IQR) p d
CA 1.40 (0.40) 1.50 (0.70) 0.619 0.168 1.20 (0.10) 1.20 (0.40) 0.525 0.285
SA 1.14 (0.61) 1.57 (0.57) 0.016*0.873 1.57 (0.43) 1.86 (0.14) 0.091 0.754
SC 3.20 (0.40) 3.00 (0.70) 0.281 0.374 3.40 (0.60) 3.20 (0.80) 0.134 0.662
STA 5.00 (4.00) 9.50 (3.00) < 0.001*1.480 6.00 (2.00) 7.00 (5.00) 0.260 0.489
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-condence; STA, state anxiety; n, number; IQR, interquartile range; p, p-value; *p < 0.05; d, Cohen’s d.

Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963
Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org
foster a heightened sense of readiness and physiological arousal in
players. In comparison to previous research, our ndings align with
certain patterns observed by Cervantes Blásquez et al. (2009) in
swimmers, where similar dierences in somatic anxiety were noted
between training and competition. Likewise, Souza etal. (2019) found
that somatic anxiety remained stable in canoe athletes, street runners
and jiu-jitsu ghters a few days prior to the event but show a sudden
rise and reach a peak at the onset of the competition. Interestingly,
Mateo etal. (2012) also showed that somatic anxiety was lower 3 days
before the rst day of competition in BMX riders, although the
opposite happened to self-condence.
Another hypothesis was that le-side players, as well as right-side
players, will show higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-
condence before competition than prior to training matches. is
hypothesis was partially accepted. Weobserved that le-side players
presented higher levels of somatic anxiety and self-condence before
competition than before training matches. However, it is crucial to
note that no signicant dierences were found among right-side
players in the same comparison, indicating unique psychological
responses based on player positions. ese results may beindicative
of the distinctive responsibilities and pressures experienced by players
during critical moments in a match. e higher involvement of the
le-side player in the penultimate and last shots of the points (Ramón-
Llín et al., 2022) aligns with the idea that their perceived role in
shaping match outcomes could contribute to heightened somatic
anxiety and self-condence before competition.
In addition, it was hypothesized that both prior to training and
competitive matches, le-side players will present lower levels of
anxiety and higher levels of self-condence when compared to right-
side players. is was partially accepted, since le-side players only
presented lower levels of somatic anxiety and state anxiety prior to
training matches. As mentioned before, it is common in a padel pair
consisting of right-handed players to position the best player on the
le-side. is strategic choice is oen made because it increases the
likelihood of the player hitting more shots, especially overheads. It is
worth highlighting that this is a pioneer study and future research
should keep evaluating these trends.
It was also hypothesized that higher ranked players will show
similar levels of anxiety and self-condence between competition and
training matches while lower ranked players will show lower levels of
self-condence and higher levels of anxiety before competition than
training matches. e ndings showed that among higher ranked
players, somatic anxiety and self-condence was higher prior to
competition than before training matches. And, among lower ranked
players, self-condence was higher prior to competition than before
training matches. e higher somatic anxiety observed among higher-
ranked players before competition may bedue to the fact that their
performance is closely scrutinized, the stakes are higher, and there is
an increased pressure to maintain their reputation and rankings, all of
which contribute to a heightened arousal. is is consistent with
ndings from Cervantes Blásquez etal. (2009), who similarly observed
higher somatic anxiety levels among athletes prior to competition
compared to a simulated competition during training, as evidenced in
their research with swimmers. For both the higher-and the lower-
ranked players, the higher self-condence before competition may
be a result of the positive eects of pressure training. is is in
accordance with Low et al. (2023), in which some international
athletes were interviewed and admitted that their self-condence was
boosted due to the pressure training.
Additionally, it was hypothesized that match winning players will
show similar levels of anxiety and self-condence between competition
and training while match losing players will show lower levels of self-
condence and higher levels of anxiety before competition than
training matches. e results showed that there were signicant
dierences only among winning players, in somatic anxiety and self-
condence. Specically, these players presented higher values before
competitive matches than before training matches. e pressure
training conducted during the weeks leading up to the competition
may have played a pivotal role in shaping the psychological
preparedness of winning players (Gröpel and Mesagno, 2017; Kent
etal., 2018). It is also worth noting that the positive eect of self-
condence on competitive success has been conrmed by several
studies (Vealey and Greenleaf, 2001; Hassmén etal., 2004; Jekauc
etal., 2023).
In a practical context, coaches are urged to engage in pressure
training to enhance the readiness of their athletes for competitive
situations (Stoker et al., 2016; Low et al., 2023). Similarly, it is
recommended that athletes participate in psychological training to
cultivate mental skills and eectively apply them under pressure
(Lange-Smith et al., 2023). Moreover, coaches should consider
psychological training to facilitate eective communication (Mora
etal., 2009) with their players, conduct productive training sessions,
and provide constructive feedback in both training and
competitive environments.
is study possesses several notable strengths. Firstly, it marks
the pioneering implementation of pressure training in the eld of
padel. Secondly, it stands as the inaugural research endeavor to
examine precompetitive anxiety and self-condence levels based on
the side of play, as well as to compare precompetitive anxiety and
self-condence levels between players of the same side at the same
TABLE5 Precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence between players at training and at competition matches according to the match outcome.
Winning players Losing players
Training Competition Training Competition
Variable Median
(IQR)
Median (IQR) p d Median
(IQR)
Median (IQR) p d
CA 1.20 (0.50) 1.20 (0.20) 0.638 0.158 1.40 (0.50) 1.20 (0.80) 0.865 0.065
SA 1.36 (0.61) 1.71 (0.57) 0.026*0.824 1.43 (0.61) 1.79 (0.36) 0.169 0.554
SC 3.20 (0.40) 3.40 (0.60) 0.014*0.922 3.00 (0.50) 3.20 (1.00) 0.101 0.666
STA 7.00 (4.00) 6.00 (1.00) 0.927 0.031 8.00 (6.00) 8.00 (9.00) 0.889 0.054
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-condence; STA, state anxiety; n, number; IQR, interquartile range; p, p-value; *p < 0.05; d, Cohen’s d.

Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963
Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org
moment (pre-training and pre-match, respectively). irdly, the
implications drawn from these ndings hold substantial practical
value for coaches and sport psychologists. It is imperative to
consider these results in designing eective pressure training
programs for athletes.
It is essential to underscore certain limitations inherent in this
investigation. For future investigations, the implementation of
randomized controlled trials in both genders is recommended to more
accurately assess the impact of pressure training. Additionally,
incorporating alternative tools like pulsometers, which measure heart
rate variability, alongside traditional questionnaires would provide a
more comprehensive understanding of precompetitive anxiety and
self-condence. Furthermore, expanding the participant pool to
include both elite and amateur-level players is advisable for a more
nuanced exploration of the psychological eects of pressure training
in dierent players. Moreover, exploring the eects of pressure
training on padel performance could provide a holistic understanding
of the impact of this intervention on actual gameplay. In addition, it
would benecessary to include the inuence of le-handed players in
this analysis in future studies.
Conclusion
e levels of anxiety and self-condence before training matches
and competitive matches have been described in high-level men’s
padel players from Finland who underwent pressure training in the
two leading weeks to a competition. e analysis, accounting for
variables such as side of play, ranking and match outcome, reveals
distinctive patterns.
Pressure training exerts a discernible impact on players,
manifesting in lower self-condence and similar levels of cognitive
and state anxiety, juxtaposed with elevated somatic anxiety before
training matches when compared to competitive matches. is trend
persists across le-side, higher-ranked and match winning players.
Intriguingly, even lower-ranked players display heightened self-
condence ahead of competitions.
ese ndings oer valuable insights for players, coaches, and
sports psychologists, enriching their understanding of the intricate
interplay between pressure training, competition, and the athlete’s
psychological landscape. In practical terms, the results suggest that
players can benet from honing their mental skills and engaging in
pressure training to optimize performance. Consequently, padel coaches
are encouraged to consider psychological training, fostering eective
support for their athletes. Hence, the incorporation of a sport
psychologist within teams could prove instrumental in maximizing the
psychological well-being and performance potential of padel players.
Data availability statement
e raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will
bemade available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics statement
e studies involving humans were approved by Ethics committee
of the Universidad Europea de Madrid (CIPI/22.303). e studies
were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and
institutional requirements. e participants provided their written
informed consent to participate in this study.
Author contributions
RC-R: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – original
dra, Writing – review & editing. AE-T: Supervision, Validation,
Writing – original dra. ÁB-S: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition,
Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision,
Validation, Writing – original dra, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
e author(s) declare that nancial support was received for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. is study has
been nanced by the Universidad Europea de Madrid, through an
internal competitive project with code CIPI/22.303.
Conflict of interest
e authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or nancial relationships that could
beconstrued as a potential conict of interest.
Publisher’s note
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that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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