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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Individual quality, insecure organizational
attachment, and formalistic task completion:
Social cognitive perspective
Wenjun Wu
1
, Huan Xiao
2
, Dengke YuID
1
*
1School of Public Policy and Administration, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China, 2Postdoctoral
Research Station of Management Science and Engineering, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
*yudengke@ncu.edu.cn
Abstract
Formalistic tasks are widely utilized in modern companies due to their ability to increase pro-
ductivity and contribute to the achievement of corporate goals at a lower cost. However,
these tasks are often meet with resistance from individuals because they do not provide
direct short-term rewards for their efforts. Drawing on social cognitive theory, this study
examined the influence of individual quality and organizational attachment on the comple-
tion of formalistic tasks. To address this, the study conducted a questionnaire survey to col-
lect data from 602 Chinese respondents and built a structural equation model for data
analysis. Through empirical research, the study confirmed the positive role of individual
quality, including knowledge and personality, in the completion of formalistic tasks. Further-
more, the study proved that avoidant attachment could significantly weaken the effect of
some components of individual quality on formalistic task completion. This paper is the first
to reveal the influence of individual and environmental factors on individuals’ completion of
formalistic tasks, progressing from bottom to top. The implications of these results are
discussed.
Introduction
The formalistic tasks investigated in this study encompass normative, mandatory, and bureau-
cratic tasks that are hierarchically mandated, executed by subordinates, and aligned with the
formal directives prescribed by their superiors. These tasks, as perceived by subordinates, typi-
cally possess the following characteristics. Firstly, they are assigned by superiors rather than
being undertaken voluntarily. Finally, their superiors are more likely to require to "sound
good" than "do good" when they come to formalistic task completion [1]. Secondly, these tasks
typically bear no relevance to their job requirements, and the successful completion thereof
holds no sway over their recent work performance. Thirdly, individuals engaging in these
tasks often exhibit a lack of awareness or concern regarding their organizational significance;
however, they do recognize that such tasks do not directly contribute to their career develop-
ment or personal progress. Lastly, it is noteworthy that superiors are more inclined to priori-
tize the appearance of competence ("sound good") over substantive effectiveness ("do good")
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Citation: Wu W, Xiao H, Yu D (2024) Individual
quality, insecure organizational attachment, and
formalistic task completion: Social cognitive
perspective. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0301256. https://
doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301256
Editor: Chunyu Zhang, Guangxi Normal University,
CHINA
Received: October 24, 2023
Accepted: March 13, 2024
Published: April 1, 2024
Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the
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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301256
Copyright: ©2024 Wu et al. This is an open access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original author and
source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are
within the manuscript and its Supporting
information files.
when overseeing the formalistic completion of tasks [1]. Driven by negative cognitions, for-
malistic tasks often pose challenges in achieving high effectiveness and efficiency. The resis-
tance and excessive energy consumption not only diminishes their satisfaction with the
organization but also undermines operational efficiency [2]. This detrimental impact is associ-
ated not only with the nature of the formalistic tasks themselves but also with the manner in
which they are structured. Specifically, the hierarchical power disparity between superiors and
subordinates, who are compelled by individual superiors to undertake formalistic tasks, inten-
sifies pressure on the subordinates. This heightened pressure can potentially provoke counter-
productive behaviors among subordinates, particularly in contexts characterized by elevated
formalism.
Despite the problems inherent in formalistic tasks, they are deemed essential, rational, and
valuable within collectivist cultures [3]. However, their value tends to be more collective than
individual, more indirect than direct, and more spiritual than material. The execution of for-
malistic tasks contributes to the cultivation of organizational culture, the establishment of
organizational order, and the pursuit of organizational interests [4]. Through participation in
formalistic tasks, subordinates gradually develop a sense of support for superior directives and
identification with the organization. This fosters a consensus among individuals that their per-
sonal interests should align with collective interests [5].
While it might be perceived as encroaching on individual rights and freedom within an
individualistic organization, the collectivist perspective views the individual not as an isolated,
rational, and competitive entity separate from the group, but as an integral part of the collec-
tive whole [6]. Upholding the collective and realizing collective interests indirectly safeguards
and enhances individuals’ rights and interests in the long run.
Formalistic tasks exhibit pros and cons. This paper endeavors to affirm their value rather
than magnify their flaws, marking a departure from previous research approaches. The dis-
tinctive element of this study lies in proposing a new concept. The management of formalis-
tic tasks differs from similar proposals found in prior literature, such as illegitimate tasks [7],
symbolic management [8], performative governance [1], and bureaucratic management [9].
Past research on these concepts has predominantly focused on their negative implications,
seldom delving into their positive value. This study suggests that mitigating the negative
effects of formalistic tasks is achievable through some measures. Improvement lies not only
in optimizing the form and content of tasks issued by superiors but also in enhancing subor-
dinates’ cognitive and support for these tasks. This enhancement, in turn, relies on improv-
ing subordinates’ quality and reducing their insecure attachment to the organization.
Consequently, we propose that exploring the mechanism through which subordinates’ indi-
vidual quality and organizational attachment influence formalistic task completion is crucial.
This exploration guides us towards enhancing the approval rate and completion effectiveness
of formalistic tasks by improving the interaction between individuals and their organiza-
tional environments.
The study focused on addressing two key research questions. Firstly, it examined how the
components of individual quality impact the completion of formalistic tasks. Secondly, it
delved into the role of organizational attachment in the mechanism of completing formalistic
tasks. The Theories section introduces the basic theories, while the Literature Review section
provides a review of prior literature. In the Hypotheses section, the development of hypotheses
was presented. The methodology, encompassing sample selection, data collection, measure-
ment, and statistical techniques, was detailed in the Methodology section. The Results section
displayed the results, followed by a discussion of implications, limitations, and future research
in the Discussion section. Finally, the Conclusion Remark section summarized the
conclusions.
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Funding: This work was funded by National Natural
Science Foundation of China, grant number
71962021 and 72362028.
Competing interests: The authors declare that they
have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the
present study.
Theories
Social cognitive theory posits that an individual’s behavior is driven by their cognition, shaped
through the reciprocal interaction between the individual and their living environment [10].
The individual functions as both the sculptor and the product of this environment. When indi-
viduals perceive increasing incentives from their surroundings, they show a willingness to
exert more effort and provide more positive, high-quality feedback towards a particular behav-
ior [11]. In the realm of formalistic task completion, subordinates, upon recognizing the task’s
value to both the organization and themselves, demonstrate support and cooperation in com-
pleting the task [12]. Contrarily, those who resist will opt to complete tasks at the lowest cost
while precisely meeting their superiors’ requirements. Additionally, their support levels and
completion rates for formalistic tasks will fluctuate in tandem with changes in their insecure
organizational attachment [13]. Building on this, Malik et al. [14] proposed that prolonged
fear and panic can diminish employees’ passion for their work, eroding individual motivation
to pursue excellence and efficiency. This can lead to heightened job insecurity among individ-
uals, further compromising performance as it weakens their commitment to organizational
goals. Consequently, we have distilled the critical influencing factors of formalistic task com-
pletion into two clusters: individual quality from an individual perspective and insecure orga-
nizational attachment from an environmental perception perspective.
The variations in individual quality contribute to diverse cognitive styles, abilities, percep-
tions of the environment, and societal learning, ultimately resulting in distinct behaviors [15].
According to the three-layered onion model developed by Curry [16], individual differences in
quality manifest across three levels, akin to the layers of an onion: an inner ‘cognitive personal-
ity’ layer, a middle ‘information processing’ layer, and an outer ‘instructional preference’ layer.
The inner layer encapsulates deep and enduring personalities, influencing how individuals
assimilate and adapt information to comprehend reality. The middle and outer layers include
information, knowledge, and skills [16]. This onion model, underscoring the significance of
personality and knowledge in representing individual differences, has evolved into a widely
cited integrated model in the field of cognitive styles [17,18]. Numerous studies have stated
and substantiated the impact of individuals’ knowledge and personalities on the completion
and performance of work tasks [19,20]. As a result, this study posited that the combined influ-
ence of individuals’ personalities and knowledge would shape their perception of the value,
cost, and risks associated with formalistic tasks, subsequently influencing their decisions,
behaviors, and task performance.
Attachment theory, as a component of cognitive theory, focuses on the cognitive-affective
processes related to "attachment." This term is defined as the human inclination to seek and
foster emotional connections with specific individuals [13]. Currently, this theory offers a
unique relational perspective that contributes to the exploration of organizational behavior.
Organizational attachment is categorized into secure and insecure types. High levels of secure
attachment, along with low levels of insecure attachment, yield positive organizational out-
comes, such as proactive work behavior and high-quality leader—member exchange [21,22].
Scholars have directed their attention towards understanding and managing insecure attach-
ment, characterized by negative emotions such as anxiety or distrust towards the organization.
Insecure attachment is further divided into two dimensions: anxious attachment and avoidant
attachment [23]. The former pertains to the extent to which an individual worries about the
availability of others in times of need, seeking their love and care anxiously. The latter refers to
the extent to which an individual distrusts the goodwill of others, defensively striving to main-
tain behavioral and emotional independence [24]. Formalistic tasks are frequently completed
within a group context. The evaluation of the value and risk associated with these tasks is
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inevitably influenced by both the organization and its members. When an individual shows a
higher degree of insecure attachment to others, their cognition and decision-making are more
likely to be intervened by negative emotions in the context. Consequently, insecure attachment
weakens an individual’s engagement and completion of tasks.
We then constructed the study framework as follows, shown in Fig 1.
Literature review
Research on individual quality
This paper defines individual quality as a collection of styles and abilities embedded in an indi-
vidual’s body, distinguishing one person from another and influencing positive outcomes. It is
distinct from individual cognitive style, which relies on both individual reserve and the pro-
cesses of information acquisition, processing, and exploitation [25]. Nonetheless, the study
employs the onion model, a theory of cognitive style, to analyze the components of individual
quality. This construct focuses on the individual’s reserve, directing the study to the field of
one’s knowledge and personality. The focus is concerned by psychologists who have explored
the intertwined dynamics of knowledge and personality in the research on human creativity
and behavior [19,26].
Knowledge plays a pivotal role in shaping individual behavior through three mechanisms.
First, it functions as a determinant in the decision-making process. Strang et al. [27] stated that
an individual’s cognitive ability and knowledge about a task significantly impacted group deci-
sion-making performance. Second, knowledge acts as an input for generating innovative
ideas. According to Santangelo and Phene [28], the diversity in individual knowledge is crucial
for enhancing organizational creativity performance. Enterprises could bolster their perfor-
mance generation capabilities by encouraging the sourcing and sharing of knowledge. Third,
knowledge serves as a process of knowledge transfer. Many scholars have examined the posi-
tive effects of the entire knowledge transfer process, including aspects such as knowledge
learning [29], sharing [30], and creation [31], on individual or organizational outcomes.
Personality refers to the totality of an individual’s relatively stable psychological characteris-
tics, behavioral patterns, and emotional responses [32], spanning features in cognition, emo-
tion, and behavior. It is distinguished by stability, consistency, and predictability [33,34]. One
of the most well-known personality theories is the Big Five model, which categorizes personal-
ity into five dimensions: extroversion, openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neurot-
icism [35]. In previous studies, extroversion and openness personalities had demonstrated
Fig 1. The framework of this study.
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positive associations with individual motivation and behaviors, as they fostered the establish-
ment of social relationships and the development of social capital, helping individuals get sup-
port from society [36]. The effects of conscientiousness and agreeableness are two-fold. On
one hand, they contribute positively to the performance of tasks in stable environments [37].
On the other hand, these traits may impede individuals and organizations from engaging in
creative activities and negatively affect their responses to dynamic and evolving environments
[38,39]. Considering neuroticism as a negative personality trait, scholars often examine the
positive effects of its reverse counterpart, namely emotional stability. For instance, Eichel and
Stahl [40] proposed that the positive relationship between emotional stability and mindfulness
enhance individuals’ performance in error detection tasks.
Research on insecure organizational attachment
Organizational attachment is classified into secure attachment and insecure attachment [41].
Individuals with secure attachment feature positive self-evaluations and positive evaluations of
others. In contrast, insecure attachment involves negative evaluations and stressful relation-
ships with others [42]. Insecure attachment further includes anxious attachment (negative self-
evaluation and positive other-evaluation), avoidant attachment (positive self-evaluation and
negative other-evaluation), and a mixed type combining negative self-evaluation and negative
other-evaluation [43]. In the organizational context, employees with secure organizational
attachment show high levels of self-confidence and trust in the organization, their leaders, and
colleagues [22]. while employees with insecure organizational attachment manifest anxiety
concerning working relationships and performance, and encounter conflicts with colleagues
[43–45].
Individuals with high levels of anxious organizational attachment tend to remain silent
when their opinions differ from those of the group, superiors, or even peers. Instead, they
choose to conform to the decisions of the majority [46]. Conversely, those with high levels of
avoidant organizational attachment, who predominantly trust their own judgments, show a
lack of team spirit. They engage in minimal communication with others and are unwilling to
prioritize collective interests over individual ones [47]. Hence, both anxious and avoidant
attachments lead to interpersonal deviance behaviors, ultimately harming task performance.
Vı
ˆrgăet al. [44] proposed that individuals with insecure attachments tend to be sensitive to
interpersonal relationships, potentially engaging in interpersonal transgressions. Empirical
evidence supported the notion that insecure attachment was positively associated with job
burnout and negatively associated with job performance. Kirrane et al. [48] stated that insecure
attachment significantly impairs employees’ perceptions of the quality of "leader-member
exchange" and "team-member exchange" relationships, resulting in diminished creative out-
puts. Previous research has consistently highlighted the role of insecure organizational attach-
ment as a moderating factor, indirectly predicting workplace deviance behaviors [43,49].
Research on formalistic task and its completion
Following an extensive literature review, scant scholarly works were identified that offer a clear
definition of formalistic tasks (or work) and formalism (or formalism). It is a local phenome-
non that observed in the context of eastern collectivist culture and system [3,4]. Formalistic
tasks can be characterized by a combination of features, including extra-role elements, unex-
pected demands, momentary requirements, mandatory aspects, bureaucratic procedures, and
tasks considered illegitimate [50–52]. From a comprehensive perspective, these tasks can be
understood in three dimensions. First, in terms of form, they are contingently generated from
top to bottom, catching subordinates off guard. Second, in terms of content, they are loosely
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associated with the duties of subordinates, thereby establishing a vague and indirect causal
relationship with their performance. Lastly, concerning completion, a significant portion of
subordinates tends to mentally resist and provides minimal support in participating and com-
pleting these tasks. Due to these characteristics, the majority of employees show reluctance to
take the initiative in completing formalistic tasks most of the time [53].
While most of studies have focused on task performance [e.g., 54–56], this study suggests a
shift in focus towards the completion of formalistic tasks. The rationale lies in the often long-
term, indirect, and collective impact of such tasks, making their assessment generally difficult.
The key to improving the completion of formalistic tasks lies in task transformation, and two
approaches can be employed: the procedural way and the affective way. The procedural way
entails refining the assignment process to render formalistic tasks more legally sound, reason-
able, valuable, and intriguingly, even leisure-oriented. This transformation aims to ensure that
such tasks are embraced by the majority of subordinates [57]. The affective way recommends
enhancing subordinates’ perception of formalistic tasks through improved supervisor-subordi-
nate communication and emotional support from coworkers. This approach is intended to
foster a better understanding of the value and necessity of these tasks, encouraging subordi-
nates to complete them voluntarily [57].
Hypotheses
The relationship between individual quality and formalistic task
completion
Individual knowledge has positive effect on the completion of formalistic tasks through three
mechanisms. Firstly, the knowledge about the task shapes individuals’ perception and evalua-
tion of its value, cost, and associated risks during participation and completion. Greater infor-
mation and knowledge empower individuals to make more accurate decisions, directly
influencing their behavior [58]. Secondly, the level and structure of individual knowledge play
a pivotal role in shaping their self-confidence and self-efficacy throughout the task completion
process. A diverse range of task-related knowledge facilitates better organization, promotion,
and successful completion of formalistic tasks by teams [59]. Lastly, knowledge-related behav-
iors, such as learning and sharing, contribute to improving connections and trust among indi-
viduals. This enhancement proves beneficial for creating emotional incentives within the
group, thereby fostering collaborative efforts toward the completion of formalistic tasks [60].
Individual personalities make a positive effect on the completion of formalistic tasks.
Firstly, as indicated by the research of Yu et al. [61] and Zhang et al. [62], employees with high
levels of proactive personality are more inclined to recognize the collective value and underes-
timate their ego depletion when completing formalistic tasks. This tendency contributes to the
emergence of organizational citizenship behavior and an enhancement in task performance.
Similarly, Fila and Eatough [63] proposed that engagement in illegitimate tasks can increase
stress, anxiety, and emotional exhaustion, with individuals’ perception of these stressors linked
to their psychological characteristics. Consequently, individuals with positive personalities are
more likely to accept and complete formalistic tasks. Secondly, the specific personality compo-
sitions within teams, such as conscientiousness and emotional stability, had been shown to fos-
ter individual work motivation and emotional regulation, respectively, aligning with positive
performance [64]. Finally, individuals possessing higher levels of the Big Five personalities
exhibit greater inclusivity and adaptability, leading to heightened performance in citizenship
behaviors and general tasks [36]. This adaptability renders them more confident, altruistic,
and proficient in transferring their skills from a general task to another momentary task [51].
Consequently, their satisfaction with formalistic tasks sees an increase.
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We therefore proposed the following hypothesis. H1: Individual quality (a. knowledge and
b. personalities) has a positive effect on formalistic task completion.
The moderating role of insecure organizational attachment
A limited number of individuals display active willingness to complete formalistic tasks due to
the aforementioned characteristics. A task that is actively accepted and completed deviates
from the definition of a formalistic task. Therefore, external incentives, such as social support
and leadership encouragement, play a crucial role in motivating subordinates to complete for-
malistic tasks [63]. Specifically, leaders and colleagues within organizations exert influence on
the decisions and behaviors of individuals engaged in formalistic tasks. The extent of this influ-
ence is contingent upon an individual’s level of insecure organizational attachment.
Individuals with high levels of avoidant attachment tend to place trust in themselves while
harboring a distrust towards others. Hence, they are inclined to question the long-term and
indirect benefits of formalistic tasks assigned by the organization, especially when lacking a
clear perception of these advantages. In such instances, they remain impervious to persuasion
from the organization and their superiors, opting instead for avoidance or engaging in self-
protective behavior [65]. On the contrary, individuals characterized by high anxious attach-
ment tend to trust others but lack confidence in themselves. As a result, they often emulate the
behaviors of their colleagues and conform to the decisions made by their superiors, revealing a
mechanism of facades of conformity [66]. However, in the specific context of completing for-
malistic tasks, the behaviors of colleagues and decisions of superiors may potentially diverge.
Consequently, the impact of anxious attachment on individuals’ inclination to either support
or resist formalistic tasks remains uncertain, contingent upon the prevailing decision within
the organizational majority.
The effects of individual quality and insecure organizational attachment on the completion
of formalistic tasks is interactive. Individual quality serves as an internal impetus, and insecure
organizational attachment acts as a stimulus from an environmental perspective. Therefore, it
can propose that insecure organizational attachment functions as a moderator. Whether char-
acterized by avoidant or anxious attachment, both reveal an abnormal relationship between
the individual and the organization, as well as with other members. This abnormality results in
heightened mental and energy consumption for the individual, leading to an increased psycho-
logical burden [47]. As a consequence, this dynamic weakens the otherwise positive effect of
individual quality.
The following hypothesis was proposed. H2: Insecure organizational attachments (a. avoi-
dant attachment and b. anxious attachment) negatively moderate the relationship between
individual quality and formalistic task completion. Among the moderating mechanism, the
direct effect of avoidant attachment is significantly negative, but the direct effect of anxious
attachment is not significant.
Methodology
Data
The data was collected for student respondents gathered through the following three channels.
Firstly, the questionnaire was launched on the Sojump website (http://www.sojump.com), a
professional Chinese institution specializing in online questionnaire surveys. The targeted
respondents comprised college students registered nationwide as members of the institution,
and 219 respondents were randomly selected from its database between June 27th and July
4th, 2022. A monetary incentive of 7 yuan (approximately 0.75 dollars) was provided to the
participants. Secondly, the survey was published on various media outlets in China from May
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18th to July 10th, 2022. Invited respondents voluntarily and freely responded to the question-
naires, and these individuals included the schoolmates and friends of the authors, as well as
their schoolmates, aligning with the principles of snowball sampling. Thirdly, the question-
naire was distributed offline to college students at Nanchang University on May 17th and 18th,
2022. Researchers encountered these students in locations such as study rooms or the library.
In total, 602 respondents were invited; however, 162 questionnaires were incomplete or
invalid. Therefore, 465 valid questionnaires were collected, resulting in a 77.24% effectiveness
rate. Following Hair et al.’s [67] recommendation that a minimum of 300 samples is necessary
for estimating a structural equation model with seven constructs or fewer, the sample size in
this study satisfied the stipulated requirement.
The demographic characteristics of our sample were as follows. Males comprised 38.7%,
while females constituted 61.3% of the respondents. Regarding age distribution, 95.1% of par-
ticipants fell in the 15 to 26 age range, 4.8% were aged between 27 and 31, and only 0.2%
belonged to other age groups.
Regarding educational level, 76.10% were undergraduates, 13.10% were master’s students,
1.30% were doctoral students, and the remaining 9.5% were students at other academic levels.
In terms of political status, 17.80% of respondents were members of the Communist Party of
China (CPC), 32.30% identified as part of the masses, and the remaining 49.9% held other
political status.
The means and standard deviations (SD) of the constructs, along with the correlations
among them, were calculated and are presented in Table 1. The mean values indicate that indi-
vidual personalities and formalistic task completion are relatively high, while individual
knowledge and organizational attachments are comparatively low. The deviations, when com-
pares to the means, are not substantial. The data basically complied with the requirements of
homogeneity and normality. Additionally, both knowledge and personalities show positive
correlations with formalistic task completion, whereas insecure organizational attachments
display a negative correlation with formalistic task completion. Notably, the correlation
between anxious attachment and task completion is not statistically significant. The identified
correlations substantiate the relationships among the core variables in this study and provide
Table 1. Means, standard deviations and correlations.
Variables Mean SD Correlations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 Knowledge 3.296 0.729 0.727
2 Extroversion 3.487 0.797 0.276** 0.722
3 Openness 3.645 0.665 0.334** 0.534** 0.688
4 Conscientiousness 3.930 0.698 0.264** 0.393** 0.460** 0.697
5 Agreeableness 3.930 0.613 0.211** 0.498** 0.525** 0.519** 0.692
6 Emotional stability 3.359 0.737 0.254** 0.510** 0.517** 0.404** 0.382** 0.684
7 Avoidant attachment 2.997 0.750 -0.129** -0.120** 0.021 -0.073 -0.021 -0.030 0.656
8 Anxious attachment 3.182 0.837 -0.144** -0.087 0.040 0.004 0.146** -0.080 0.482** 0.754
9 Formalistic task completion 3.786 0.657 0.252** 0.339** 0.364** 0.424** 0.462** 0.251** -0.133** -0.013 0.773
n = 465,
***p<0.001,
**p<0.010,
*p<0.050.
The diagonal values are the square root of AVEs.
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support for subsequent hypothesis testing. Furthermore, the square roots of Average Variance
Extracted (AVEs) surpass the correlations between the constructs, indicating that the study’s
data meet the discriminant validity criterion as suggested by Fornell and Larcker [68].
Measures
The questionnaire involved the measurement of five variables: knowledge, personalities, avoi-
dant attachment, anxious attachment, and formalistic task completion. Among these, individ-
ual knowledge and personalities served as independent variables, avoidant and anxious
attachments functioned as moderating variables, and formalistic task completion represented
the dependent variable. All variables were measured by the 5-point Likert scale, ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Individual knowledge was measured by 4 items that were developed by Yu and Wu [69]. A
sample item was, "In the past six months, I had frequently read various books." The scale
yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.816. Evaluating individual personalities involved a simplified
“Big Five” personality test, incorporating 15 items developed by Meng et al. [70]. These items
measured Chinese individuals’ extroversion, openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and
emotional stability. A sample item measuring conscientiousness was, "In work and study, I
will complete tasks promptly." This personality scale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.882. Anx-
ious and avoidant attachments were measured by four and three items, respectively, which
were developed by Feeney et al. [23]. Sample items included, "I worry that my organization
doesn’t care for me," and "I find it difficult to allow myself to depend on my organization."
These two scales yielded Cronbach’s alpha of 0.837 and 0.693 respectively. The measurement
of formalistic task completion occurred in a pretest university context, commonly regarded as
a formalistic task by most students. In this scenario, respondents were compelled to engage in
a tedious and worthless lecture activity unrelated to their professional development. The items
were adapted from the scale developed by Van Dyne and LePine [71], focusing on the con-
struct of extra-role task performance. A sample item was, " I can complete it at the level
expected by my superiors" The scale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.854.
Reliability, validity, and common method bias. The study conducted a confirmatory
factor analysis to assess the discriminant and convergent validity of the scale, as shown in
Table 2. The guidelines outlined by Podsakoff et al. [72] were extended for assessing model fit.
A single-factor model was applied, resulting in a poor fit for the data. And the hypothesized
Table 2. The result of confirmatory factor analysis.
Models χ
2
df χ
2
/df RMSEA CFI TLI SRMR
Hypothetical model with nine factors 557.004 369 1.509 0.033 0.964 0.957 0.040
Eight factor model (Knowledge, Extroversion, Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Emotional
stability, Avoidant attachment + Anxious attachment, Formalistic task completion)
686.549 377 1.821 0.042 0.941 0.931 0.046
Seven factor model (Knowledge, Extroversion + Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Emotional
stability, Avoidant attachment + Anxious attachment, Formalistic task completion)
787.465 384 2.051 0.048 0.923 0.912 0.050
Six factor model (Knowledge, Extroversion + Openness, Conscientiousness + Agreeableness, Emotional
stability, Avoidant attachment + Anxious attachment, Formalistic task completion)
897.799 390 2.302 0.053 0.903 0.891 0.053
Five factor model (Knowledge, Extroversion + Openness + Conscientiousness + Agreeableness, Emotional
stability, Avoidant attachment + Anxious attachment, Formalistic task completion)
1046.707 395 2.650 0.060 0.875 0.862 0.058
Four factor model (Knowledge, Personality, Avoidant attachment + Anxious attachment, Formalistic task
completion)
1154.942 399 2.895 0.064 0.855 0.842 0.062
Three factor model (Individual quality, Insecure organizational attachments, Formalistic task completion) 1643.462 402 4.088 0.081 0.762 0.742 0.078
Two factor model (Individual quality + Insecure organizational attachments, Formalistic task completion) 2601.52 404 6.439 0.108 0.578 0.546 0.113
Single factor model 3080.328 405 7.606 0.119 0.487 0.449 0.119
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nine-factor model was tested, revealing a good fit with the data. The Chi-square difference test
established that the nine-factor model outperformed competing models with fewer factors
(p<0.001). The study therefore decided to explore the influencing mechanism of the five fac-
tors of the Big Five personality, rather than treating individual personality as a singular variable
to test the model. Furthermore, based on the confirmatory factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin (KMO = 0.887) and the significance of the Bartlett test of sphericity (approximate chi-
square = 5504.823, and p= 0.000) indicated the suitability of the factor analysis.
To assess the internal consistency and convergent validity of the adopted measures, this
study computed composite reliability (CR), AVEs, and factor loading, as shown in Table 3.
The majority of CRs exceeded 0.70, meeting the requirement of Hair et al. [67]. The AVEs
ranges between 0.430 and 0.597, and there are some AVEs below the recommended level of
0.5, but all CR are higher than 0.6, the convergent validity of the construct is still adequate [68,
73–76]. The standardized factor loading of the items ranged from 0.607 to 0.834, all surpassing
the threshold value of 0.500. Additionally, the KMOs were higher than 0.600, and the pvalues
of the Bartlett test of sphericity were less than 0.001. In summary, the construct validity of this
study was confirmed. Table 3 also showed that the most of Cronbach’s αvalues were above
0.700, in line with the recommendation by Hair et al. [67]. Furthermore, following the guid-
ance of Hatcher and Stepanski [77], the alpha value of 0.693 for avoidant attachment was
deemed acceptable.
To mitigate common method bias, survey data were collected at two time points with a
one-and-a-half-month interval. Additionally, the order of items in the questionnaire was
deliberately randomized to minimize the effect of respondents’ self-attribution. The study also
ensured the anonymity and confidentiality of participants. Finally, Harman’s single factor was
used to measure common method bias. The results indicated that the first factor extracted
24.271% (less than 40%) of the variance, and when all factors were combined, they accounted
for 67.830% of the variance, which suggested that the issue of common method bias was effec-
tively controlled in this research.
Ethics statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and received
approval from the Ethics Committee of School of Public Policy and Administration, Nanchang
University, China. All participants were provided informed consent with written type. This
written informed consent was placed at the beginning of each questionnaire.
Table 3. Reliability and validity.
Variables Factor loading KMO Cronbach’s αAVE CR
Knowledge 0.755, 0.795, 0.705, 0.646 0.788 0.816 0.529 0.817
Extroversion 0.713, 0.682, 0.770 0.694 0.764 0.522 0.766
Openness 0.701, 0.719, 0.641 0.683 0.724 0.473 0.729
Conscientiousness 0.748, 0.698, 0.699 0.694 0.759 0.486 0.739
Agreeableness 0.739, 0.718, 0.613 0.678 0.728 0.479 0.732
Emotional stability 0.718, 0.722, 0.607 0.682 0.726 0.468 0.724
Avoidant attachment 0.674, 0.650, 0.643 0.670 0.693 0.430 0.694
Anxious attachment 0.645, 0.705, 0.834, 0.817 0.772 0.837 0.569 0.839
Formalistic task completion 0.778, 0.774, 0.804, 0.732 0.819 0.854 0.597 0.855
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Techniques
The researchers constructed a structural equation model for data analysis, testing the hypothe-
ses developed in the study. This method was chosen due to its suitability for globally measuring
the relationships between multiple latent variables. Additionally, a two-way analysis of vari-
ance was used to graphically depict the interaction between individual quality and insecure
organizational attachment. The tool for data analysis was MPlus 8.3.
Results
The study aimed to measure both direct and moderating effects in a structural equation model
using MPlus 8.3. The theoretical model produced a satisfactory fit for the data (χ2 /df = 1.507,
RMSEA = 0.033, CFI = 0.964, TLI = 0.957, SRMR = 0.040). However, the estimation results
revealed that the components of individual quality exerted significant effects on formalistic
task completion, with only a few moderating effects proving significant. The insignificant
paths decrease the fitness of this model. Hence, the theoretical model was bifurcated into two
sub-models: the first one for testing direct effects (H1) and the other for testing moderating
effects (H2). The model-fitting results are presented in Figs 2and 3.
As depicted in Fig 2, individual knowledge makes significantly positive effect on formalistic
task completion, thus supporting hypothesis H1a. Additionally, all Big Five personalities
exhibit significant and positive associations with formalistic task completion, supporting
hypothesis H1b. Consequently, H1 was supported totally. A comparative analysis of the effect
coefficients reveals that the effects of individual personalities on formalistic task completion
surpass those of individual knowledge. Among the personalities, conscientiousness and agree-
ableness have the strongest effects, followed by extroversion and openness, with emotional sta-
bility demonstrating the weakest effect.
Following numerous endeavors, it was discerned that both anxious and avoidant attach-
ment styles exerted a pronounced moderating influence on the interplay between individual
knowledge and the completion of formalistic tasks. Specifically, anxious attachment signifi-
cantly moderated the impact of extraversion on task completion, while avoidant attachment
demonstrated a marked moderating effect on the influence of conscientiousness on task com-
pletion. That is, insecure organizational attachment could not significantly moderate the
Fig 2. The estimated direct effects. ***p<0.001.
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positive effects of personalities such as openness, agreeableness, and emotional stability on
task completion. Additionally, the interactive effects between avoidant attachment and extro-
version, as well as anxious attachment and individual knowledge, were found to be insignifi-
cant. Therefore, the insignificant pathways were excluded, and the significant effects were
shown in Fig 3. Two results can be gleaned from the Fig 3. The Fig 3 elucidates two key find-
ings. Firstly, it is evident that individual knowledge makes a substantial and positive contribu-
tion to the completion of formalistic tasks. Concurrently, both anxious and avoidant
attachment styles exert an insignificant and adverse influence on task completion. Further-
more, these attachment styles notably mitigate the positive impact of individual knowledge,
thereby providing partial support for Hypothesis H2a. Secondly, the extroverted personality
trait of an individual was found to have a substantial and positive influence on the completion
of formalistic tasks. In contrast, anxious attachment did not significantly affect the execution
of these tasks and, more notably, it was observed to significantly attenuate the positive impact
of extroversion. Analogously, a conscientious personality was identified as a robust and posi-
tive predictor of formalistic task completion. However, avoidant attachment showed no signif-
icant independent effect on task completion. Intriguingly, avoidant attachment was also found
to markedly reduce the positive influence of conscientiousness on task execution. Partially
supporting hypothesis H2b. In conclusion, hypothesis H2 was partially supported.
The results of the two-way analysis of variance are presented in Fig 4. As shown in the Fig
4, the significant interaction effects between extroversion and anxious attachment, conscien-
tiousness and avoidant attachment, knowledge and avoidant attachment, as well as knowledge
and anxious attachment, were once again validated, supporting the hypothesis H2. In Fig 4a–
4d, the slopes of the dotted lines, representing low-level moderators, are observed to exceed
those of the solid lines, which indicate high-level moderators.. This observation implies that
the moderating variables diminish the ability of explanatory variables to predict the explained
variables.
Discussion
Formalistic tasks, serving as a more effective and cost-efficient management tool, are prevalent
in modern enterprises and play an important role in maintaining order and advancing the
realization of organizational goals in production activities. However, the absence of feedback
to employees, involuntary participation, and a lack of recognition for the value of formalistic
Fig 3. The estimated moderating effects. ***p<0.001, **p<0.010, *p<0.050.
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tasks contribute to negative employee perceptions and may trigger negative coping behaviors,
such as job burnout. Therefore, it is crucial, based on recognizing the positive value of formal-
istic tasks, to comprehend how individuals cope with formalistic tasks and appreciate their
value. The purpose of the present research is to address this issue by exploring how individuals’
quality make effects on formalistic tasks and investigating the role of the organizational envi-
ronment, specifically organizational attachment, in the mechanisms employed to complete
these tasks.
Theoretical implications
The study extends the application of social cognitive theory to explain the completion mecha-
nism of formalistic tasks. Existing theories on social cognition emphasize that individuals
form beliefs about their abilities based on their knowledge, enabling them to effectively utilize
this knowledge to improve work performance. In the absence of continuous positive reinforce-
ment, individuals may resist completing tasks. However, formalistic tasks are predominantly
perceived by individuals as meaningless, worthless, and subject to bureaucratic negative rein-
forcement. Therefore, completing formalistic tasks will require not only material and emo-
tional inputs from organizations to employees but will also be influenced by employees’
cognitive understanding of the tasks. In this context, whether social cognitive theory can
explain the response mechanism of formalistic tasks becomes a challenge. This study confirms
that individuals affected by a collectivist culture can participate in tasks even if they do not
endorse them, with their completion determined by the individuals’ quality, a collection of
knowledge, and personalities. Furthermore, while rational thinking affects individuals influ-
enced by environmental factors such as organizational systems and culture, it also underscores
Fig 4. The interactive effects. Notes: Fig 4 encompasses four subfigures (Fig 4a-4d) to demonstrate the interactive
effects. Fig 4a: Interaction between extroversion and anxious attachment; Fig 4b: Interaction between
conscientiousness and avoidant attachment; Fig 4c: Interaction between knowledge and avoidant attachment; Fig 4d:
Interaction between knowledge and anxious attachment.
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the importance and necessity of an emotional connection with the organization. All in all,
social cognitive theory remains applicable to predicting individual responses to formalistic
tasks.
The study enhances the comprehension of individual quality theory, attachment theory,
and the cognitive-affective system. It introduces the construct of individual quality based on
the three-layered onion model, a form of cognitive theory. According to this model, the study
posits that individual quality comprises knowledge and personality, utilizing these elements to
effectively predict the completion of formalistic tasks. Furthermore, the cognitive-affective sys-
tem argues that individuals’ emotions in an organizational context influence their cognition
and behaviors related to tasks and organizations. Attachment theory emphasizes the impor-
tance of individuals seeking emotional feedback from the organization or superiors to moti-
vate their engagement in various tasks. This study not only confirms the explanatory power of
these theories but also establishes a link between them.
The findings suggest that individuals’ behaviors in completing formalistic tasks in organiza-
tions are weakened by insecure organizational attachments, indicating that these behaviors are
susceptible to the influence of individuals’ emotional connections to the organizations. This
phenomenon is prevalent in collective cultures. Collectivism, a part of Oriental culture, signifi-
cantly shapes individual norms and organizational systems. In a collectivist culture, individuals
tend to identify themselves as organizational members, paying attention to their relationships
with others in the same organization. When individual interests clash with organizational
interests, individuals willingly make concessions for the collective good [78]. Organizational
attachment theory emphasizes that individuals’ different attachment styles affect how they
approach work and their willingness and ability to exert effort [79,80]. The formalistic task
concerned in this study is one of the derivatives of this cultural phenomenon. That is, individ-
uals need to establish a positive relationship with the organization so that, even when faced
with tasks they may dislike, they can still be done through an intimate emotional and psycho-
logical connection to the organization. This perspective aligns with Akroyd and Kober’s work
[81], where they proposed that people are reluctant to implement informal controls unrelated
to organizational culture because it would have a negative effect. However, organizations can
overcome this reluctance by fostering a workplace where employees develop strong emotional
attachments to each other.
Practical implications
Firstly, the study of social cognitive theory focuses on the dynamic interaction between indi-
viduals’ internal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors. It holds that individuals are not
just reactive organisms shaped by the external environment but are also self-organized and
self-adjusted learners. It is crucial for understanding the dynamic competitiveness and work
performance in modern organizations, offering a unique psychological and developmental
perspective on work-related abilities. For example, Wu and Parker [21] noted that secure-base
support from leaders can predict positive work behaviors in employees. This prediction occurs
by increasing their role span self-efficacy and autonomous motivation, explaining these behav-
iors by satisfying individual needs associated with insecure attachment. Therefore, for manag-
ers, comprehending the secure attachment between employees and organizations is vital for
understanding how to motivate proactive behaviors in individuals.
Secondly, the positive effect of individual personalities on the completion of formalistic
tasks indicates the importance of individuals acquiring more knowledge and cultivating posi-
tive personalities. This is crucial for enhancing their sense of self-efficacy, thus instilling greater
confidence in the completion of work tasks. This observation implies that managers should
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pay attention to individual knowledge management, actively contributing to its improvement
when evaluating employees’ work performance.
Finally, organizational attachment has practical significance for individuals’ traits and work
performance. The negative effect of insecure organizational attachment in moderating the
relationship between individual quality and the completion of formalistic tasks suggests that
avoidant attachment hampers individuals from using their knowledge and the strength of con-
scientiousness to improve work performance, while anxious attachment impedes perfor-
mance, for those with extroverted personality and well-educated individuals. To foster
employees’ completion of formalistic tasks, individuals with limited knowledge can cultivate a
sense of security and belonging in the organization by strengthening their connection to it.
This approach can create a more relaxed and secure working environment, consequently
improving their cognitive abilities and enhancing work performance. Moreover, introverted
individuals may benefit from a harmonious organizational atmosphere, relying on it to foster a
sense of relaxation and tranquility, ultimately improving their task performance at work.
Limitations and future directions
The research is not without limitations. First, despite the attempt to collect survey data at two
different time points, the difficulty lies in supporting statistical inferences regarding causal
relationships. Future research suggested to use a longitudinal study design to replicate the find-
ings of the current study. Second, the scales measuring knowledge and formalistic task com-
pletion warrant further testing in subsequent studies. Third, the study’s limitation to a sample
of university students diminishes the generalizability of the findings. Future research should
aim to include more diverse samples to bolster the robustness of these findings. Finally, the
study solely engages in an exploration of the relationship between individual quality and for-
malistic task completion. In subsequent research, the authors plan to deepen their research by
introducing intermediate conditions (such as working competence and organizational satisfac-
tion) to establish a more comprehensive framework. This involves refining measurement tools
and expanding the sample size.
Conclusion remark
Formalistic tasks represent rational and collective actions crucial for hierarchical bureaucratic
organizations, facilitating the realization of coordinated efforts, fostering organizational order,
and achieving defined organizational objectives. This study aimed to explore the influential
factors shaping the completion of formalistic tasks and the effect of the psychological bond
between individuals and organizations on work performance. Results highlighted the signifi-
cance of both individual knowledge and personalities in significantly influencing task comple-
tion, with insecure organizational attachments moderating this relationship. This study
contributed to enriching social cognitive theory. In the future, the authors intend to conduct
further extensive research on formalistic task management, delving deeper into revealing the
mechanisms underlying their generation and completion.
Supporting information
S1 File. The questionnaire of the study.
(DOCX)
S2 File. Data.
(XLSX)
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Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful comments and suggestions of the editor and
the reviewers, which have improved the presentation.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Dengke Yu.
Data curation: Wenjun Wu.
Formal analysis: Wenjun Wu, Huan Xiao, Dengke Yu.
Funding acquisition: Dengke Yu.
Investigation: Wenjun Wu.
Methodology: Wenjun Wu, Dengke Yu.
Project administration: Dengke Yu.
Resources: Huan Xiao.
Software: Wenjun Wu.
Supervision: Dengke Yu.
Validation: Wenjun Wu, Huan Xiao, Dengke Yu.
Visualization: Huan Xiao.
Writing – original draft: Wenjun Wu.
Writing – review & editing: Huan Xiao, Dengke Yu.
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