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The Mechanics of Spaceborne Warfare: Exploring Anti-Satellite Operations

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  • Independent Researcher

Abstract

This paper delves into the increasingly pivotal domain of spaceborne warfare, with a particular focus on the strategic, technical, and operational dimensions of anti-satellite (ASAT) operations. As space becomes a critical frontier for national security, the need to understand, develop, and deploy effective anti-satellite capabilities has never been more acute. This work provides a comprehensive exploration of the current landscape of spaceborne warfare, emphasizing the centrality of satellite systems to both military and civilian infrastructures and the consequent imperatives for their protection. Through an in-depth analysis, the paper highlights the dual role of satellites as invaluable assets and potential vulnerabilities, drawing attention to the adversarial advancements in spaceborne capabilities. It presents a detailed discussion on the methods and implications of engaging in anti-satellite operations, encompassing both kinetic and non-kinetic approaches, and underlines the importance of precision, continuity, and interoperability in executing ASAT operations. In alignment with the strategic objectives of the United States Space Force, this work advocates for a multilayered defense strategy that ensures the resilience and superiority of U.S. spaceborne capabilities. It calls for an enhanced understanding and readiness among space professionals to navigate the complex dynamics of modern spaceborne conflicts and to safeguard national interests in the face of evolving spaceborne threats. This paper, aims to contribute to the strategic discourse on space security and defense, offering insights that are crucial for advancing U.S. strategic superiority in space. It is a call to action for continuous innovation, strategic foresight, and collaborative efforts to secure the future of spaceborne operations and to maintain the peaceful use and exploration of the final frontier.
The Mechanics of Spaceborne Warfare: Exploring Anti-Satellite Operations
(PUBLIC RELEASE)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Disclaimer
II. The Importance of Satellite Communications
III. Understanding the Role of the Satellites
IV. Understanding EMS and the Modern Electronic Combat
V. Understanding the Spaceborne Warfare
VI. The Importance of Surveilling the Space and the Adversarial Space Capabilities
VII. Understanding the Orbital dynamics and their Use
VIII. Anti-Satellite Operations
IX. Core Concepts of the Anti-Satellite Warfare
X. The Importance of a Redundant Orbital, Suborbital and regional Terrestrial Capabilities
XI. Exploring the Complexities of Space-Based nuclear weapons and Missile Defense
Systems
DISCLAIMER
The contents of this paper are exclusively formulated by the author and do not reflect or utilize the views or data from any United States
government entity, agency, or institution. The objective of this paper is to present the fundamental concepts, limitations, and factual
insights pertaining to its title and the associated subject matter. It is important to clarify that the author has no affiliation with any
governmental military or intelligence agency. Therefore, any attribution of the author's work to such entities is unfounded and without
merit.
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Copyright and Author’s Notice
Author: Adib Enayati, Ph.D. Cyber/Electronic Operations and Warfare
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Date of Publishing: 03/28/202400:00 EST
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//RELTO/P00
This document is devoted to my esteemed friend and mentor, J. Barry Foster. His guidance,
support, and leadership have empowered me to overcome my limitations and realize my potential.
The Importance of Satellite Communications
Satellite communications are the backbone of any modern
military network. Satellite networks can cover almost
every corner of the earth, provide reliable
communications, guidance and navigation, surveillance
along with sensory systems in support of the MASINT
(Measurements and Signature Intelligence) and strategic
systems as well as enabling the high command to be able
to track and manage the battlefield developments with the
spaceborne sensors with high accuracy and in Realtime.
Satellites are an indispensable component of the modern
warfare. The reliability of the satellites in supporting our
military equipment, armament and components are
highly regarded as a key factor in their development in the
past five decades.
Understanding the Role of the Satellites
The importance of satellite networks is not just
understood in the military, the vast majority of our daily
lives is heavily dependent on the satellites. The United
States adversaries have made significant progress in
designing and employing spaceborne communications
and navigation in order to support the components of
their armed forces.
“Mil-Net” which is Short for Military Network, refers to a
backbone which military components, weapon systems
and infrastructure communicate and operate. The United
States adversaries such as Russia, China and Even Iran
have been expanding their space-based capabilities and
they have a clear roadmap towards space warfare.
Satellites provide global reliable and secure
communications, guidance and C6ISR capabilities for the
modern militaries around the world. You cannot find any
advanced nation without them incorporating some sort of
satellite technology for their military infrastructure given
the fact that Satellites provide an exceptional layer of
redundancy for the existing C6ISR networks. While earth
based C6ISR components can be targeted with ease across
a theater, the assets in space seems to be far from the
reach of an adversary which is why they are an
indispensable component to any modern military. The
new world’s threat axis of Russia, China, North Korea and
Iran have all understood the importance of it, especially
the dynamics of its use for the United States. Such
adversarial behavior requires a special attention to the
final frontier and the deployed and in-development
capabilities of the United States adversaries.
Adversaries have understood the importance of the space
and spaceborne capabilities which is why they have been
developing their own navigation and guidance instead of
relying on the existing technologies, Russia has developed
the GLONASS (Глобальная навигационная
спутниковая система) with currently 24 operational
satellites in orbit providing guidance and navigation for
its military and arsenal, China has developed its BeiDou
with 35 satellites in orbit and Iran is working on an active
space program and planning to employ its own guidance
and navigation satellite network (Currently trying to
incorporate GLONASS and Partially BeiDou). While the
United States adversaries may be far behind the
advancements of the United States, they are actively
trying to expand their spaceborne capabilities with a
hardened terrestrial network. It has been their
dependency on the terrestrial networks that has enabled
them to harden their terrestrial capabilities. An active
focus towards the spaceborne and terrestrial theater will
enable the United States to enhance its capabilities in
order to guarantee its absolute superiority. Establishing a
full symmetrical anti-satellite capability in space and on
earth will enable the United States to take a big step
towards the dominance of the Electromagnetic spectrum.
Adversaries are actively trying to maintain the symmetry
in their capacities visa-a-vis the United States’, countries
such as Russia and China are pushing towards the
advancement of their spaceborne capacities in order to be
able to dominate the future theaters. While guidance and
navigation make up a small part of the space-borne
capacities, it is also important to note that the modern-
satellite networks are a core part of the C6ISR.
Spaceborne sensors permit the real-time identification of
the threats as well as monitoring any adversarial
developments. Utilizing the spaceborne systems will
enable the high command to understand the order of
battle as it develops.
Understanding EMS and the Modern Electronic
Combat
Electromagnetic spectrum consists of the full range of the
electromagnetic radiation. Its components stretch from
radio waves to visible light and far beyond the X-ray and
Gamma radiation. It enables everything around us to
function as they are. From your basic analog radio to
cellphones, radar and missile guidance and navigation.
Consider it the most valuable resources that the humanity
has ever owned. However, unlike some strategic
resources, the EMS is available to everyone,
understanding it and developing the tools for its
dominance permits the Unites states to establish its
dominance and maintain its superiority in the
electromagnetic realm. While this always has been the
goal for me; The inhibitors such as lack of general
understanding of the modern electronic warfare and its
importance in any modern theater have been a challenge.
The classical electronic warfare has always been around
since the very development of the first radar, electronic
warfare as it is understood has always been overlooked as
just a force multiplier; its offensive potential has been
suppressed by that approach while the United States
adversaries intended to use its full potential. The modern
electronic combat as I have studied and I would define has
a special emphasis of the understanding of the spectrum
and utilizing every aspect of it. Everything from radar and
radio to lasers and above are all a subject of the modern
electronic warfare with a unique offensive approach.
Modern electronic warfare is implemented in design of
every equipment, component and even the mission
planning for a modern theater. Consider it a sharp blade
that cuts both ways. Every offensive technique that we
develop is followed by the development of a series of
defensive capabilities. This equation must be balanced in
order for it to enable the United States full dominance
over the spectrum. The modern electronic warfare is no
longer just about interference and disruption; it is about
elimination via kinetic and non-kinetic means.
Understanding the Spaceborne Warfare
Since before the release of the “Electromagnetic Spectrum
Superiority Strategy” by the pentagon in 2020; I have
been publicly expressing the significance and importance
of dominating the electromagnetic spectrum in
establishing absolute superiority of the United States and
how it can affect the future battle theaters. Much of my
nightshade advanced polymorphic defensive and warfare
doctrine emphasizing on the importance of the
enhancement of the offensive electromagnetic
capabilities across five domains of the modern warfare.
Spaceborne combat in its essence should be able to secure
the United States’ C6ISR (Command, Control,
Communications, Computers, Cyber and Intelligence
Surveillance and reconnaissance) dominance while being
able to disrupt or eliminate its adversarial capabilities to
maintain the C6ISR. While the core purpose of the
spaceborne warfare remains clear, the execution of such a
task is indeed a challenge. Establishing dominance in the
space requires adaptability and development of a whole
series and concepts of battle with the modern electronic
warfare in its core. This particular document will expand
on the principles of the spaceborne warfare as I have
developed as a part of the nightshade. Space is a
component of modern warfare and much like its five other
domains, it must be dominated to ensure a full battle
supremacy of the United States in any modern theater.
Satellites, as the most important components of the
modern network centric theaters are a key enabler of the
modern adversarial capabilities and therefore this
document will focus on anti-satellite combat as described
in the nightshade advanced polymorphic defense and
warfare doctrine.
Unlike combat operations on earth, space is far more
unforgiving and there are a lot of components that must
be taken into equation for conducting a successful
mission. The three-dimensional property of the space
should be utilized to develop combat systems yet that
would only be a part of the challenge as it has to be placed
into what we call an orbit, an orbit is like an invisible
circular or elliptical path in which the satellite will rotate
at a constant speed relative to its general orbit in order to
achieve a stable orbit, every orbit has its own property and
the difficulty to successfully inject a satellite into a stable
orbit are relevant to the function of the satellite. Taking
this into consideration targeting a satellite is a difficult
task and requires a lot of precision. The general concern
with regards to the kinetic destruction of a satellite is the
fact that the debris created by a kinetic action would
scatter particles of different sizes into orbit which can
cause massive damage to other satellites into and outside
that particular orbit, while most of the debris will burn off
into the earth’s atmosphere, the same cannot be said
about the orbit. We will expand on the kinetic approach
later on but the most favorable approach is a non-kinetic
approach. Albeit understanding every satellite’s
properties operating in the orbit is the key to a successful
operational planning. After all, the goal is to eliminate the
enemy’s capabilities while securing your own.
Warfare is not just about offense and defense; it is about
developing and maintaining the factors which are
contributing to the readiness and effectiveness of the
offensive and defensive capabilities in the interest of
creating an asymmetric theater in your favor and much of
those are dependent on one another. I would like to once
again emphasize on the importance of the force protection
as we are focusing on the offensive capabilities in the final
frontier. Securing the backbone of the C6ISR capabilities
should be of utmost importance as an offensive approach
is planned. The core belief of adversaries such as Iran,
Russia and China are to counter any developments made
by the United States to be able to maintain battle
symmetry. While further; advancing their terrestrial
capabilities, it is also notable to mention that among these
adversaries, the Russian and the Chinese capabilities are
of concern. However, the existence of the private sector in
the United States has enabled it for rapid progress which
demand protection of such advancements against
adversarial campaigns especially espionage.
The Importance of Surveilling the Space and the
Adversarial Space Capabilities
Monitoring the space, satellite launches and the space-
related adversarial capabilities are paramount to the
United States national security and important part of the
United States’ national defense strategy. The final frontier
presents dangers as well as limitless opportunities. It
must be understood that the United States adversaries are
also aiming to dominate the space. Albeit the space
surveillance capacities and capabilities of the United
States must be enhanced to ensure it has all the tools
needed to monitor the threats of the final frontier.
Surveilling the space and its developments is paramount
in planning and execution of anti-satellite operations
especially since the United States’ adversaries have taken
an offensive approach towards the final frontier.
The United States adversaries should not be permitted to
weaponize and establish any form of superiority in space.
While it is the general sentiment that the space should not
be weaponized, there are a lot of legitimate military
targets orbiting the earth, even if the entire world decides
to maintain the status quo it is in the best interest of the
United States to develop none-kinetic advanced anti-
satellite capabilities and position them into the space. (As
Argued in Nightshade) Establishing and maintaining
superiority in the space is indeed directly affecting the
conventional capabilities of the United States armed
forces and therefore, the only rational thing to do is to
enhance and maintain superiority in space in order to
maintain superiority across all domains of the modern
warfare.
While the satellites and space-based sensors provide real-
time and on-demand accurate sensory information for the
United States, it is also important to understand that the
adversaries have been trying to achieve the same and have
developed their technologies and spaceborne capabilities
vis-à-vis the United States while aiming to gain
asymmetric capabilities in the final frontier.
Understanding the Orbital dynamics and their
Use
Satellite developments and launches are still very much
limited to the budget and functionality of the satellites,
which is why the concept of satellite constellations have
gained popularity, the idea to launch multiple satellites in
one launch has enabled the concept of satellite
constellations, a network of small satellites performing
functions. While this has had a more commercial
approach the concept of satellite constellations have been
used for various purposes, take navigation and guidance
satellites for example, to maximize coverage and accuracy
specially for guidance (for example GPS, GLONASS or
BeiDou) all have satellite constellations and therefore are
redundant not to mention the concept jamming is the
most basic concept in classical electronic warfare and as
these constellations developed for the military purposes
they have been hardened against such attacks, however,
understanding their defensive capabilities will give you
the ability to develop an offensive strategy against them
to disrupt their redundancy.
Military communication networks require extreme
redundancy, reliability and security. You must have a
good understanding of the concepts which are used in
hardening and securing a military SATCOM network.
While so, understanding of earth-atmospheric properties
as well as the factors that can affect radio communications
from the temperature, different layers of earths
atmosphere (Exp. Ionosphere) weather conditions and
space weather conditions are important. Note that these
factors are affecting your operational planning. That
aside, understanding your own and the adversarial
strategic protocols in case of a large-scale
communications blackout with their high commands
(Exp. WRA on loss of all communications) are equally
important as such miscalculation could result in
unwanted strategic weapon release. The concept of the
MAD and its components of the nuclear triad are a serious
and important challenge of spaceborne warfare concept
as any large-scale disruption can affect the friendly and
adversarial protocols. This indeed signifying the
importance of having a multilayered high precision
offensive capability rather than a hail marry.
The low earth orbit is the easiest orbit that an artificial
object can achieve. It is occupied by a lot of commercial
satellites owned by different companies from all around
the world (some in the contract of the adversarial forces
as the importance of redundancy is well known). These
satellites are broadcast relays, communications and even
scientific sensory systems to study weather, earth and the
ocean as well as imagery. While space has its general use
for mankind, it is also occupied by military satellites
which are used for imagery, guidance and
communications. The low orbital period intervals are
enabling the rapid imagery capabilities in order to get
rapid updated imagery from the earth. The low earth orbit
is a small circular or elliptical orbit around the earth, you
can define it in terms of altitude relative to earths surface,
which can be between 1001000 Miles/ASL, objects in
this orbit are orbiting the earth, objects in LEO can make
a full orbit around the earth approximately every 90
minutes to two hours given their average speed which can
be 4.8 miles per second. Satellites in this orbit can cover
the entire earth’s surface with enough satellites to form a
constellation. Any kinetic damage to any satellite in this
orbit can cause catastrophic damage to a lot of other
satellites orbiting the earth.
As an example; The suborbital LEO is used by the ICBM
vectors to inject their reentry vehicles in order to deliver
a nuclear payload towards the earth’s surface as well
which is why the current anti-ballistic missile shields are
capable to monitor and target that orbit as needed. The
guidance systems are redundant and onboard the
interceptors as well as the earth as guiding the missile
from the earth is a challenging task and no disruptions
can be tolerated for such a sensitive task. The current
arsenal of the RIM-161 can be used as a unique “hit to kill”
kinetic anti-satellite weapon system as well.
MEO or the Medium Earth Orbit is above the LEO and
below the HEO (High Earth Orbit), the orbital period for
this orbit is less than 24 hours. The altitude for this orbit
is between 1243 Miles and 22,236 Miles Above sea level
(ASL). Satellites in this orbit require special shielding due
to the harsh electromagnetic conditions due to the
presence of two large zones of charged particles as a result
of the Van Allen radiation belt. This orbit is particularly
interesting because in the semi-synchronous orbit the
satellites can have an orbital period of every 12 hours
(12,600 Mi/ASL) and they can pass in the same spot on
the equator.
It is also notable to mention that the Molniya (Молния)
orbit is housing the Russian Molniya (lightning) military
communications and remote sensing satellites. It is also
important to note that the satellites in this orbit are used
for broadcasting, relaying, early warning and military
communications.
This specific orbit is highly elliptical. The Soviet/Russian
remote sensing satellites YC-K Управляемый Спутник
Континентальный (or in English Continental
Controllable Satellite (US-K) constellation, is a part of
the OKO (EYE) system which is responsible for observing
the United States missiles and rocket launches are
stationed in this orbit. These satellites are a part of the
Russian missile defense network. Russia remained
committed to the program even after the dissolution of
the USSR.
The geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular
orbit synchronized to the earth’s equator. The orbit has
the altitude of 22,236 miles above the earth’s equator. An
object in this orbit has an orbital period equivalent to the
earths rotational period and orbiting the earth with the
average velocity of 1.9 Miles Per second. This property
makes them ideal for communications and navigation
satellites. Several classes of military satellites occupy this
orbit such as Space-based infrared systems which are
monitoring for early missile launch detection and very
high frequency satellites that can provide reliable and
secure communications for military components and also
the Wideband Global Satellite communications.
Achieving this orbit requires advanced technology so is
targeting the satellites in this particular orbit. Which is
why disrupting their communications seem to be done
easier on the ground at the endpoints. As you can
understand, different orbits have different properties and
uses in both military and the civilian infrastructures. This
highlights some of the challenges of targeting satellites in
different orbits.
Another important factor for us on earth is the presence
of the ionosphere. This layer is actually positioned
between earths atmosphere and the vacuum. The
ionosphere is also the ionized part of the earths
atmosphere which spans from 30 miles to 60 Miles above
the sea level (ASL). The ionosphere has a property called
the orbital drag, since this layer has a lot of free electrons,
it can change rapidly and unpredictably by the sun’s
activity (Space Weather). The ionosphere shifts with the
earth’s day and night cycle. While the ionosphere
behavior is highly unpredictable, you can get a sense of its
behavior with the correct tools and prediction. This layer
has unique properties and special effects on different
parts of the radio spectrum, the low frequency
transmissions, due to the presence of large concentration
of the free electrons in this layer, when HF or VHF hit this
layer, they tend to bend (this is how the OTH radar utilizes
this property to see past the horizon.); this property also
enables the long rage communications. Satellites have a
higher frequency transmission so that they can penetrate
the ionosphere and communicate with their ground
stations. Natural Change of the density in this layer affects
radio and navigation. Earth’s surface weather conditions
such as hurricanes can affect the ionosphere as well. It is
a very fluid layer.
Another important factor affecting the satellite
communications is the space weather. (Much like the
storms on earth), the space has its own categories of
storms based on the severity of the sun’s activity and
conditions, Space weather monitors the changing of the
magnetic fields, radiation and their effects on earth and
satellite communications. Taking the space weather
conditions into account and monitoring it is important
because it can affect civilian and military infrastructures
the same and affect normal operations on the surface of
the earth so having a good understanding of its changes
and predicting its behavior are equally important.
Tracking orbital objects is a complex task, ground-based
sensors alongside terrestrial radars combined with space-
based sensor systems are needed for this, something that
the United States has been doing very well which is why
advancing and maintaining this capability is paramount
to the success of the concept across the spectrum.
Anti-Satellite Operations
Anti-satellite operations are not a new concept. In fact, it
is a well-studied concept yet lacks developed components.
The concept refers to the disruption or destruction of the
enemy’s satellite capabilities, this can range from
disrupting satellite navigation and guidance to theater or
long-range communications. Much like any battle
planning, the principles of war should prevail.
Understanding and categorizing the adversarial
capabilities alongside an active ISR are they key enablers
of this approach. Categorizing the adversarial inventory
alongside the ISR will permit you to map the Electronic
Order of Battle as the backbone of the adversarial
capabilities with an eye towards your own to ensure that
your offensive capabilities will not disrupt or damage your
own. ASAT (Anti Satellite) Operations as described in
nightshade has two major components Endo-
atmospheric Anti-Satellite Combat (EA-ASAT) and Exo-
atmospheric Anti-Satellite Combat (EXA-ASAT). While
the endo-atmospheric Anti-Satellite Combat (EA-ASAT)
capabilities are somewhat already in place, the EXA-
ASAT capabilities have been neglected and are much are
the dream of the United States adversaries, which is why
the United States must pioneer offensive and defensive
capabilities. However, doing so will most certainly start a
whole new concept of spaceborne arm’s race but the
United States must ensure a continuous development of
its components and tactics to be able to maintain absolute
superiority and dominance.
The Anti-Satellite operations in nightshade introducing a
high precision multilayered and in-depth approach to the
concept. It emphasizes the importance of having a high
precision multilayered offensive capability which enables
you to conduct the anti-satellite operations as the needs
arise without crossing the adversarial threshold. It has
kinetic and non-kinetic components which are both
equally important. As I have said the principles of war
prevail, the anti-satellite operations components should
have enough capabilities to be able to bring the
adversarial mil net to its culmination point.
Satellites add a unique ability to the adversarial ISR,
Guidance, Long-range communication and Navigation.
While the guidance systems are built to be redundant, the
Space-based guidance is still an important part of their
designs incorporated in their capabilities to navigate on
the battlefield or to guide their ordinance to their targets.
As I have established earlier, the modern electronic
warfare is no longer concerned or focused on signal
disruptions and interference. Preserving, Protecting and
enhancing the friendly capabilities while disrupting and
eliminating the adversary is always the objective.
Core Concepts of the Anti-Satellite Warfare
The space itself is considered an active theater. There are
two main approaches, Kinetic and Non-kinetic. However,
each has their own merits and considerations as well as
their consequences. I further did categorize the kinetic
and non-kinetic options into two distinct subcategories of
terrestrial and Spaceborne. There are properties to the
concept of any anti-satellite operations and we will
introduce them first before expanding on the Kinetic and
Non-kinetic options. These properties include Precision,
Guarantee, Continuity, Consistency, Interoperability,
Integration, Independence, Protection and the M2 factor.
Precision: Any kinetic and non-kinetic action has its
own consequences. Precision implies the importance
of targeting what we want while inflicting minimum
unwanted damage to others. Precision is highly
regarded in the modern electronic warfare because as
we aim to target the adversarial capabilities, while
safeguarding our own. So, precision while can be
resource exhaustive, must be implemented unless the
theater requires otherwise.
Guarantee: The operation should guarantee to
achieve the laid-out objectives. Regardless of what we
do or the theater, the principles of war apply. We have
to manage our EOF (economy of force) while ensuring
mission success as prescribed by the mission
objectives.
Continuity: The ability to target the adversarial
capabilities must be continuous and the components
of the mission must be able to operate with
continuity. None-Kinetic options are extremely
important as they have the potential for operational
continuity yet they are dependent and limited by the
energy factor. We must ensure the operational
continuity in our designs and engagements.
Managing the resources are extremely important in
maintaining a steady combat capability.
Consistency: The Components must be able to
achieve results with consistency. This emphasizes the
important of understanding the adversarial defensive
capabilities in a continuous manner in order to be
able to maintain the offensive capabilities.
Interoperability: The abilities, hardware, weapon
systems and human resources should be employable
and operable by all branches of the armed forces. This
will enhance the combat capacities across the armed
forces spectrum and ensures mission success
especially if regulated None-Kinetic options are
authorized for wider use by all the components.
Integration: The existing concepts, strategies,
abilities, hardware and weapon systems must be
integrated into all branches of the armed forces to
maximize their combat readiness and protection.
M2 factor: This refers to the Mass and Mixture, the
weapon systems and the concepts used should have
the power and the effective mixture to be combat
effective against the adversarial capabilities at all
times. The redundancy in the offensive capabilities is
extremely important.
Protection: Regardless of what we do to achieve our
combat objectives, one of our primary goals is force
protection. Our operations, concepts and planning
should consider the survival and continuity of the
friendly capabilities at all times.
Independent Balanced Access: As I have written
about the concept of a resilient and redundant COC
several times in the past, we should understand that
the adversaries are aiming to achieve the same
objectives as ours. While they might achieve some
levels of success, all regional commands must have
the ability to utilize the Anti-satellite warfare
independently while being able to protect the friendly
capabilities. This will enhance the survivability and
combat effectiveness should the necessity arise.
However, strong protocols should be in place and as
we have already established, ensuring that the
friendly and adversarial strategic protocols are not
disrupted should be a fundamental principle.
Terrestrial kinetic options refer to the methods used to
target the satellites from the earth via kinetic means (take
RIM161 as an example). This can consist of nuclear and
non-nuclear payloads targeting an orbit. The damage that
this option can cause to other satellites in orbit is large
due to the fact that this method and especially the nuclear
payload can knock out the satellites in the orbit to force
them off the orbit or cause a mass satellite collision.
Options such as this are not favorable due to the fact that
the nuclear payload can ionize the atmosphere and
disrupt the communications for several hours and
damage the satellites with its secondary HEMP effect and
therefore inflict unwanted damage to the friendly and the
civilian infrastructures and assets in space. We, however,
must understand that the United States adversaries who
have been expanding the redundancies of their C6ISR do
not concern themselves with the consequences of such an
action as they have been aiming to create terrestrial
redundant platforms. This option is not something that
one would consider at the early stages of a conflict but it
is always on the table. High Precision Non-Nuclear
payloads seem to be much more favorable for this type of
attack but the nuclear threat is always present. I should
emphasize that the kinetic option always aims to destroy
its target and the debris generated by this can always
cause secondary damage. Nightshade introduces some
kinetic options but they are well out of the scope of this
paper.
Terrestrial None-Kinetic Refers to the methods used to
target the satellite capabilities on the ground in a localized
theater. This option considers the disruption of the
adversarial capabilities from the earth utilizing the
receiving ends of the terminals or disrupting the satellite
signals via established ground stations in a theater. While
our positions are fixed on the ground the satellites are
rotating the earth (based on their orbit), the adversaries
seek constant and uninterrupted coverage for their assets
on the ground, this method is utilizing advanced jamming
techniques to either disrupt or degrade the satellite
signals or the receiving endpoints in order to degrade the
adversarial capabilities to maintain C6ISR.
Spaceborne Kinetic refers to the method used to target
satellites in space via a prepositioned space platform. I
find targeting satellites from a space platform much more
reliable and effective by this method has its own
challenges and developing such platforms are difficult yet
highly achievable. When I was developing the concepts of
the nightshade for the spaceborne kinetic options I
designed a satellite for both the kinetic and none kinetic
options of this concept, I did argue that positioning a
weaponized satellite in orbit is the most viable method to
take out the adversarial capabilities with minimal friction.
Whereas all the launches towards the orbit is monitored
by almost every advanced nation on the planet,
monitoring the spaceborne launches towards another
space-based target is far more difficult and there are no
active countermeasures against them. I personally do not
favor the kinetic action mainly due to its secondary
damage and the harm it can do to the friendly capabilities
not to mention it is against the core principles of anti-
satellite operations that I have laid out earlier but this is
an effective option that must be available this particular
option is excellent in the event of an adversarial nuclear
launch, a constellation of spaceborne kinetic capable
weapon systems can effectively target such a threat from
outside of the earths orbit in combination with the
terrestrial kinetic options to maximize the effectiveness.
While the focus of this document is on anti-satellite
operations, this does not mean its components cannot
have other strategic uses.
Spaceborne Non-Kinetic Refers to targeting the satellites
via non-kinetic means from prepositioned space-based
platform. Active use of the high-powered microwaves to
target a satellite, high precision jamming or even the use
of high-precision laser systems mounted on spaceborne
constellations can be the most effective anti-satellite
weapon system. A constellation of satellites orbiting the
earth is capable of concentrating several beams of
microwave, radio or laser from different orbital angels to
a single or multiple targets in order to disrupt or
eliminate. It has been a core concept in nightshade’s anti-
satellite operations. If you recall at the beginning of this
document, we have discussed the satellite constellations.
Having a large satellite network with the aforementioned
capabilities can give the United States the ultimate edge
in the dominance of the final frontier.
Hybrid techniques employ both kinetic and none-kinetic
approaches to achieve their objectives. I would emphasize
that hybrid techniques as are described in the nightshade;
are the techniques of the future such as the nightshade’s
“Goblin” hazardless advanced anti-satellite hybrid
weapon system (GHHWS). Several advanced hybrid
techniques and technologies have been introduced in the
nightshade but expanding on this subject is beyond the
scope of this paper and it is not for open publication.
Satellite communications, much like any wireless
communications are prone to interception (sniffing),
while we can intercept (sniff) the encoded satellite
communications decoding them is another major
challenge. There are satellites dedicated to the task of
intercepting the other satellites communications. While
some might consider that with the advancements in
digital communications and encryption systems; the
interception of the adversarial satellite is not as effective
as it used to be, it is in fact quite the opposite. The
interception of the adversarial communications remains
a key technique in the modern electronic warfare and in
the space-borne operations.
The Importance of a Redundant Orbital,
Suborbital and regional Terrestrial Capabilities
While the conventional orbital capabilities are semi-
permanent as we deploy our satellites in a selected orbit
with respect to the function and the dynamics and the
anti-satellite capabilities of the adversaries, it is also
important to understand the importance of redundancy
as a major concept in the force protection and its
dynamics. The high altitude hardened suborbital vehicles
dedicated to the redundancy protocols alongside
emergency satellites as well as localized regional
terrestrial capabilities will ensure the continuous service
in emergency situations even if the adversaries choose to
deploy high altitude orbital or suborbital nuclear payloads
or as a result of any natural or manmade catastrophic
event. Anti-satellite warfare is not just about the
expansion of the ASAT capabilities as the force protection
is a major part of its dynamics.
Exploring the Complexities of Space-Based
nuclear weapons and Missile Defense Systems
I wish to discuss the possibilities of placing a nuclear
weapon system in space. The idea has been thoroughly
explored by the United States' adversaries. Before we get
to the subject, I wish to discuss the conventional
interception of a nuclear payload. A conventional nuclear
weapon system consists of a vector, the reentry vehicle,
and the actual nuclear warheads. The vector is
responsible for carrying the reentry vehicles to suborbital
altitude, and it is essentially a multistage rocket capable
of achieving the necessary speed and altitude in order to
place its payload, which is the reentry vehicle, into
suborbital Low Earth Orbit (LEO) in order for it to release
its warheads towards Earth. The trajectory it follows is
still the ballistic flight path. The warheads are mounted
on the reentry vehicle, and they can be of many varieties,
including glide and maneuvering glide vehicles, which are
capable of performing maneuvers in order to evade
interception or flight path calculation by the defender on
the ground.
There are multiple phases to this: the boost phase, in
which the nuclear weapon system is launched and in flight
to make orbit; the second phase, or mid-course, is when
the weapon system has placed its payload into the
suborbital LEO for release; and the final phase is called
the terminal phase, in which the reentry vehicle has
released the warheads towards the terrestrial target. The
interception of a conventional nuclear missile is a
complex and multilayered approach to ensure its
destruction before the weapon system enters the terminal
phase.
There are several interception concepts. Once the missile
launch is detected, the flight path is calculated by a variety
of terrestrial and spaceborne sensors. Of course, the best
time to intercept the weapon system is during the boost
phase. However, this is hardly the case since the majority
of silo-based weapon systems will spend the boost phase
far from the range of interception. The next rational phase
is while the weapon system is in suborbital LEO. The
current RIM-161 interceptors are designed to target the
hostile weapon system in this phase via a non-nuclear
kinetic payload. In this specific scenario, the interceptor
is boosted towards the orbit in order to intercept the
hostile weapon system. The terrestrial and spaceborne
guidance is key to guiding the kill vehicle so that it can
knock the hostile system off the orbit before it can release
the warheads towards the terrestrial target.
The final, and of course, the hardest phase is the terminal
phase. The reentry vehicle is entering the orbit at MACH
25, making guidance and detection very difficult,
regardless of the presence of pyrotechnically designed
decoys, and if the warhead has maneuvering capabilities,
this indeed makes the interception extremely difficult, if
not impossible. This is where the idea of nuclear ABMs
came in. The nuclear anti-ballistic missiles, or N-ABMs,
use a high yield nuclear payload in order to target the
high-altitude suborbital LEO and the hostile nuclear
weapon system; an example of this type of anti-ballistic
missile is the Russian ABM-4 Gorgon and the American
Spartan Missile. Presently, Russia has active nuclear ABM
silos across Russia and especially Moscow (Part of the A-
135 system). The ones that I have witnessed are fully
operational. Regardless, I would like to note that Moscow
is the most protected city in the world, guarded with
ABM-4 (51T6) Gorgon, ABM-3 (53T6) Gazelle, and other
anti-ballistic missile capabilities. It is also notable to
mention that efforts to upgrade the network to A-235 is
underway.
The downside of the use of N-ABMs is the fact that the
actual nuclear detonation will ionize the atmosphere and
create a blanket of highly ionized particles, which can, in
effect, create a communications blackout across a large
geographic area. The secondary issue is the secondary
HEMP effect generated by the nuclear detonations.
Russia has been modernizing its nuclear weapons systems
arsenal. The current RS-28 Sarmat (Сармат) is capable
of maneuvering in polar orbit in an effort to bypass the
current missile defense shields of NATO and the United
States. The capabilities of the missile and its actual
performance and countermeasures have satisfied the
Russian VKS and resulted in their green light for the
modernization of Russia's nuclear arsenal. The missile
frame has been designed to be extremely rigid to be able
to withstand the violent vibrations and maneuvers at
hypersonic speeds, as I have personally had the
opportunity to see the engineering behind its
development.
Getting back to the issue, if an adversary were to place a
nuclear payload in orbit, it would effectively evade the
current layered interception anti-ballistic missile shield.
Based on the blast configurations of the warheads, we can
understand the challenges it can present. I would like to
once again bring your attention to force protection and
the fact that adversaries, such as Russia, are well aware of
the importance of their own force protection. We
previously have discussed the ramifications of the
detonation of a nuclear warhead in an active orbit. The
adversaries are well aware of the consequences of a
nuclear detonation in an orbit where their own satellites
operate as well. However, a low-yield precision strike is
still possible. Further on this subject, as we have
previously discussed the HEMP effect in the "Arbiter
Framework," we can reduce the risk that an adversarial
nuclear payload can pose, from ionization of the
ionosphere in order to block long-range communications
and cause interference with satellite communications and
their ground stations, to low altitude airbursts for the
HEMP effect in order to knock out civilian and military
communications and infrastructure.
Positioning nuclear weapon systems in space is a very
risky move that violates the Outer Space Treaty of 1967,
as well as posing considerable logistical and safety
challenges. However, positioning advanced
electromagnetic weapon systems such as multi-stage
EPFCG (Explosively Pumped Flux Compression
Generator) Powered Weapon systems is a more viable
approach to achieving superiority in space. The EPFCG
powered weapon systems are capable of creating a high-
powered electromagnetic pulse, resembling the HEMP
effect. The pulse has enough amplitude to damage power
grids, communications, satellites, radar and electronics
(Still depends on Design) Nonetheless, such weapon
systems are still heavy and cannot be scaled down to
smaller sizes, which adds to the complexity of their
deployment. The concept of the EPFCG is well thought
and researched by the United States and the Russians.
The Generator is a key component in developing effective
electromagnetic weapon systems.
References:
1. Nightshade Advanced Polymorphic Defense and Warfare Doctrine, Adib Enayati, Ph.D. (Not
Available for Public Release)
2. Nightshade Advanced Polymorphic Defense and Warfare Doctrine, Adib Enayati, Ph.D. (Not
Available for Public Release)Section 5, Spaceborne warfare and the associated spaceborne
weapon systems and the proposed designs.
3. Nightshade Advanced Polymorphic Defense and Warfare Doctrine, Adib Enayati, Ph.D. (Not
Available for Public Release)Subsection 1. Principles of the spaceborne warfare
4. Arbiter Framework - Electronic deterrence and the adaptive strike chain, Adib Enayati, Ph.D. -
J Def Stud Resour Manage 2023, 11:1 - 01 February, 2023, DOI: 10.417 2/2324-9315.1000162 -
Manuscript No. JDSRM-22-81303 (R);
Method
Full-text available
The rapid advancements in missile technology, particularly hypersonic flight and highly maneuverable ballistic systems, have exposed critical vulnerabilities in traditional missile defense frameworks. These evolving threats—characterized by extreme speed, unpredictable trajectories, and evasive maneuvers—outpace current defense systems that rely on linear predictive models. To address this critical gap, the Convergent Algorithm is introduced as a groundbreaking solution that redefines missile defense and offense paradigms. This system integrates advanced artificial intelligence (AI), multi-layered defense architectures, and dynamic, real-time predictive algorithms, particularly focused on terminal defense operations. Unlike legacy systems such as Patriot and THAAD, which operate within set parameters designed to intercept ballistic trajectories, the Convergent Algorithm offers an adaptive, fully integrated response mechanism. This capability becomes crucial when confronting hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs) and other advanced re-entry vehicles, whose flight paths and evasive capabilities challenge even the most sophisticated intercept systems. The Convergent Algorithm is not simply an enhancement of existing technology—it represents a paradigm shift, fundamentally altering how missile defense and offensive countermeasures are managed. The core of the Convergent Algorithm lies in the convergence of multiple data streams from ground, air, and space sensors to form a unified, real-time threat environment map. This map allows the system to constantly update predictions on missile speed, trajectory, and behavior, adapting responses to evolving situations. Unlike traditional systems with centralized command structures prone to disruption, the Convergent Algorithm operates in a decentralized manner. This architecture ensures that each defensive layer can function autonomously, offering resilience in contested environments where communication networks may be disrupted or jammed by electronic warfare (EW). One of the key innovations is the Pre-Terminal State Engagement concept, which involves engaging threats before they enter their terminal phase of descent. This proactive strategy is facilitated by Smart Reusable Hybrid Terminal Vehicles (SRHTVs), a novel component introduced by the Convergent Algorithm. These vehicles form a multilayered defensive mesh that can engage and neutralize highly maneuverable hypersonic threats, extending the defensive window significantly beyond traditional terminal interception capabilities. The introduction of these SRHTVs enables engagement at earlier stages of the threat’s trajectory, increasing the probability of a successful interception. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are integral to the operational functionality of the Convergent Algorithm. While many modern missile defense systems incorporate basic levels of automation, the Convergent Algorithm goes further by employing a self-learning mechanism. This system refines its predictive models based on real-time data, previous engagements, and simulations. For instance, when a missile employs evasive maneuvers or advanced decoys, the algorithm learns from this behavior and dynamically adjusts its response for future engagements. This self-learning capacity ensures that the system remains effective even as adversaries develop more sophisticated offensive capabilities. The strategic and operational implications of the Convergent Algorithm are profound. By decentralizing command and control, it provides the ability to continue operating autonomously in highly contested environments where communications may be compromised. Furthermore, its multi-layered, autonomous architecture enhances operational resilience, allowing it to counter saturation attack strategies—where adversaries attempt to overwhelm defense systems with a barrage of threats. By providing decentralized layers of engagement, the Convergent Algorithm ensures that no single point of failure can compromise the overall defense structure. From an operational perspective, the Convergent Algorithm seamlessly integrates into existing missile defense systems such as THAAD, Aegis, and Patriot, augmenting their capabilities rather than replacing them. This interoperability allows the Convergent Algorithm to act as a force multiplier within current missile defense architectures, enhancing performance across all phases of engagement, particularly during terminal defense. Its ability to predict and adapt to hypersonic threats makes it a critical tool for maintaining defense superiority. In addition to its defensive applications, the Convergent Algorithm introduces a new offensive dimension through its Counter-Counter Predictive Defense (CCPD) capability. By anticipating the unpredictable behaviors of hypersonic and maneuverable ballistic threats, it provides a multi-dimensional solution, enabling it to conduct offensive countermeasures alongside its primary defensive role. This offensive capability, which is deeply integrated with its real-time learning mechanism, represents a leap forward in how missile systems are addressed on the modern battlefield. The introduction of SRHTVs also transforms the system’s ability to counter hypersonic threats, particularly during their most vulnerable phases. SRHTVs operate in a layered defensive mesh, ensuring that the Convergent Algorithm can engage multiple targets simultaneously, using dynamic engagement strategies to neutralize threats before they reach critical assets. This mesh network also enhances the system’s ability to defend against threats that utilize stealth technologies or decoy deployment, which are designed to confuse traditional missile defense systems. Saturation attacks, designed to overwhelm defense systems with numerous simultaneous threats, present another challenge to traditional missile defense systems. The Convergent Algorithm, with its decentralized structure and autonomous layers of engagement, offers a solution to this problem by handling multiple threats independently. In scenarios where adversaries employ advanced electronic warfare tactics or launch large-scale saturation attacks, the Convergent Algorithm’s ability to autonomously manage each layer of defense ensures that no single system is overwhelmed or incapacitated. As hypersonic missile technology continues to evolve, combining high speeds, unpredictable trajectories, and advanced evasion capabilities, the Convergent Algorithm stands at the forefront of missile defense innovation. By incorporating real-time, adaptive AI-driven responses into its multi-layered architecture, it addresses the most pressing challenges posed by these next-generation threats. Its decentralized approach, combined with its ability to engage in both defense and offense, ensures that the Convergent Algorithm remains a critical asset in maintaining missile defense superiority. In conclusion, the Convergent Algorithm offers a revolutionary solution to the limitations of traditional missile defense systems. By integrating advanced AI, predictive algorithms, and decentralized architectures, it provides a future-proof response mechanism capable of addressing the most advanced missile threats, including hypersonic weapons. Its capacity to engage threats in the pre-terminal phase, combined with its multi-layered defense capabilities, ensures that the Convergent Algorithm is well-positioned to dominate the missile defense landscape in the coming decades. This system not only redefines how missile defense is approached but also paves the way for a new era of strategic and operational superiority.
Method
Full-text available
In an era where technological advancements shape the dynamics of modern warfare, "Revolutionizing Electronic Combat: Mastering Anti-Drone and autonomous Robotics Operations" emerges as a seminal work that addresses the critical need for innovative defense strategies. Authored by Dr. Adib Enayati, a distinguished expert in military strategy, intelligence, and electronic warfare, this paper delves into the rapidly evolving landscape of unmanned systems and their integration with artificial intelligence. This paper also introducing numerous concepts which some are entirely novel and have not been discussed in the existing literature. The paper explores the sophisticated threats posed by adversaries who have weaponized drones and autonomous robotics, necessitating a paradigm shift in defense tactics. It introduces a suite of groundbreaking concepts, including Intelligent Independent Systems (IIS) and Adaptive Intelligent Electronic Protection Plan (AIEPP), designed to counter these threats effectively. Dr. Enayati provides a comprehensive analysis of detection mechanisms, interception constraints, and the complexities of command-and-control hierarchies, offering a holistic view of electronic combat. Building on the foundations laid in "The Mechanics of Spaceborne Warfare" series, this paper emphasizes the importance of leveraging cutting-edge technologies and innovative strategies to maintain U.S. superiority in the face of sophisticated adversarial tactics. By integrating AI and advanced electronic warfare tactics, Dr. Enayati sets the stage for a new era of defense operations that ensure the survivability and operational supremacy of U.S. combat units. This paper is not only a testament to Dr. Enayati's visionary approach but also a critical resource for defense professionals seeking to navigate the complexities of modern electronic warfare. With its forward-looking perspective and detailed strategic insights, "Revolutionizing Electronic Combat" aims to secure the United States' position at the forefront of military prowess, safeguarding national interests in an increasingly unpredictable global landscape.
Not Available for Public Release)-Subsection 1. Principles of the spaceborne warfare 4. Arbiter Framework -Electronic deterrence and the adaptive strike chain
Nightshade Advanced Polymorphic Defense and Warfare Doctrine, Adib Enayati, Ph.D. (Not Available for Public Release)-Subsection 1. Principles of the spaceborne warfare 4. Arbiter Framework -Electronic deterrence and the adaptive strike chain, Adib Enayati, Ph.D. -J Def Stud Resour Manage 2023, 11:1 -01 February, 2023, DOI: 10.4172/2324-9315.1000162 -Manuscript No. JDSRM-22-81303 (R);