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Development and Characterization of Tension-Hardening Quarry Waste-Based Geopolymer Concrete
Abstract
In light of the effort for decarbonization of the energy sector, it is believed that common geopolymer binding materials such as fly ash may eventually become scarce, and new geological aluminosilicate materials should be explored as alternative binders in geopolymer concrete. A novel, tension-hardening geopolymer concrete (THGC) that incorporates high amounts of semi-reactive quarry wastes (Metagabbro) as a precursor and coarse quarry sand (granite) was developed in this study using geopolymer formulations. The material was optimized based on the particle packing theory and was characterized in terms of mechanical, physical, and durability properties (i.e., compressive, tensile, flexural resistance, Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s ratio; absorption, drying shrinkage, abrasion, and coefficient of thermal expansion; chloride ion penetration, sulfate, and salt-scaling resistance). The developed THGC with an air-dry density of 1,940 kg/m3 [121 lb/ft3], incorporates short steel fibers at a volume ratio of 2% and is highly ductile in both uniaxial tension and compression (uniaxial tensile strain capacity of 0.6% at an 80% post-peak residual tensile strength). Using DIC, multiple crack formation was observed in the strain-hardening phase of the tension response. In compression the material maintained its integrity beyond the peak load, having attained 1.8% compressive strain at 80% post-peak residual strength whereas upon further reduction to 50% residual strength, the sustained axial and lateral strains were 2.5% and 3.5%, respectively. The material exhibited low permeability to chloride ions and significant abrasion resistance due to the high contents of Metagabbro powder and granite sand. The enhanced properties of the material, combined with the complete elimination of ordinary Portland cement from the mix, hold promise for the development of sustainable and resilient structural materials with low CO2, emissions while also enabling the innovative disposal of wastes as active binding components.
... Namun demikian, terdapat masalah lingkungan terkait dengan beton, seperti banyaknya limbah yang tidak didaur ulang, seperti fly ash. Untuk mengatasi hal ini dan mengurangi penggunaan semen, fly ash digunakan sebagai pengganti sebagian semen dalam campuran beton (Li, 2024;Ralli, 2024). Fly ash dipilih karena memiliki sifat mirip semen sebagai filler dan pozzolan, serta penggunaannya dalam beton dapat membentuk CSH baru seiring berjalannya waktu, yang berkontribusi pada peningkatan kekuatan tekan beton (Gu, 2024;Yu, 2024). ...
Infrastruktur memiliki peran penting dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi dan kemakmuran suatu negara, sehingga diperlukan konstruksi yang aman, kuat, kaku, dan stabil. Penggunaan bahan material dalam konstruksi sangat penting, terutama bahan seperti beton. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengkaji dampak variasi kadar fly ash terhadap kekuatan lekat beton bubuk reaktif. Metode eksperimental digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Campuran beton dirancang dengan menggunakan 30% pasir kuarsa dan variasi kadar fly ash 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, dan 25% dari berat semen. Benda uji yang digunakan adalah beton kubus dengan panjang sisi 20 cm. Kekuatan lekat beton diuji menggunakan Universal Testing Machine (UTM) dan dial gauge. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa nilai kekuatan lekat maksimum terjadi pada kadar fly ash 0%. Penambahan fly ash menyebabkan penurunan nilai kekuatan lekat. Nilai kekuatan lekat beton saat terjadi slip 0,25 mm pada kadar fly ash 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, dan 25% berturut-turut adalah 14,35 MPa, 13,54 MPa, 12,10 MPa, 10,58 MPa, 8,60 MPa, dan 7,38 MPa. Sedangkan nilai kekuatan lekat beton pada beban maksimum pada kadar fly ash yang sama berturut-turut adalah 23,94 MPa, 23,79 MPa, 23,49 MPa, 23,31 MPa, 23,05 MPa, dan 22,92 MPa.
The negative effects of CO2-e, which are apparent on a global scale, should be monitored and controlled by responsible governmental authorities. This responsibility should be assumed because CO2 emissions (CO2-e) result from human activities, particularly the usage of fossil fuels which contribute to the phenomenon of global warming. This study will analyse the methods employed for CO2-e and energy calculation in the affected location of a quarry. One of the ways to optimise energy usage and minimise the effects of CO2-e is to ascertain the most detailed and comprehensive degree of planning and design for the mine location to be studied. In order to achieve this, essential, aggregate material properties should be defined then analysed by a related authority. Within the scope of this study, CO2-e unit value released during aggregate production in distinct formations was defined. The distribution of CO2-e values which are dependent on the energy consumption which occurs during aggregate production was also examined. In conclusion, it was found that the diesel fuel consumption had been the most significant CO2-e factor by a rate of 88%.
High-performance concrete (HPC) is characterized by high content of cement and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Using high binder content, low water-to-cementitious material ratio (w/cm), and various chemical admixtures in the HPC can result in higher material cost and greater risk of thermal and shrinkage cracking, thus reducing service life of the structure. This project seeks to investigate the feasibility of producing crack-free and environmentally friendly concrete (crack-free and Eco-Crete) for building and transportation infrastructure applications. Two types of concrete materials, including Eco-super workable concrete (Eco-SWC) and Eco-self-consolidating concrete (Eco-SCC) are of special interest in this project. Eco-Crete mixtures are developed with a binder content lower than 315 kg/m3 (530 lb/yd3). The concrete should develop 56-day compressive strength greater than 30 MPa (>4350 psi). Given the low binder content compared to the targeted performance level, binder composition and aggregate proportion are optimized based on the packing density to reduce the voids between particles. The optimized concretes exhibit low shrinkage given the low paste content and use of shrinkage mitigation approach, such as the use of a shrinkage reducing admixture (SRA), a Type G or K expansive agent (EX), and a lightweight sand (LWS), as well as using fibers to reduce cracking. A factorial design approach was also employed to quantify the effect of such materials on mechanical and shrinkage properties. The results indicate that, the combined use of 10% silica fume with either 40% fly ash or 40% slag exhibited the highest packing density of 0.66 compared to 0.52 for cement paste. The modified Andreasen packing model with distribution modulus (q) of about 0.29 fits reasonable well to express the particle size distribution (PSD) of aggregate for SCC with low binder content. Binary shrinkage reducing materials containing 7.5% Type G EX and 20% LWS or ternary system including 12.5% Type K EX, 2% SRA, and 20% LWS can be quite effective for developing Eco-Crete mixtures to exhibit crack-free properties.
In this study, sidewalk sections were made in the field using seven concrete mixtures, applying a finishing and curing practice that is commonly used in Montreal, Canada. For each of the sidewalk sections, large slabs (1.2 m x 1.2 m) were cast from which specimens were cored and tested in the laboratory for determining their basic mechanical properties and deicing salt scaling resistance following ASTM C672 test procedures. Also, during the casting of the sidewalk, companion specimens were cast on site, using concrete from the same batch, and were subjected to the same tests as the "cored'' specimens. The resistance to deicing salt scaling of these "laboratory specimens'' was evaluated according to ASTM C672 and to BNQ NQ 2621-900 (2002 standard of the province of Quebec, Canada) test procedures. The results were compared with the performance of the sidewalk sections after four winters of outdoor exposure. The visual evaluation of the sidewalks after four winters has confirmed the severity of the ASTM C672 procedure and the adequateness of the BNQ procedure to better evaluate the deicing salt scaling resistance of concrete made with supplementary cementing materials (SCMs). The field evaluation should, however, continue for a longer period of time to increase the confidence in the BNQ test or to allow for changes as needed.
To enhance sustainability, two major slag based industrial wastes viz., Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GGBS) and copper slag were adopted in this study to develop Engineered Geopolymer Composites (EGC) replacing commonly used fly ash and silica sand. A small fraction of agricultural waste viz., Rice Husk Ash (RHA) was also used as a part of the binder which proved to improve the efficiency of GGBS in geopolymer composites. Higher volume of industrial wastes were intended to reduce the impacts of CO2 and land degradation due to cement production and dumping of industrial wastes respectively. PolyVinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibres and sodium-based activators were considered from the literatures to impart the strain-hardening and geo-polymerization reaction respectively. Dosages of activator, superplasticizer and extra water contents were optimized based on the workability test. Keeping the other mix-design factors as constant, the effect of the content of copper slag in proportion with Manufactured Sand (M Sand) in the proposed EGC mixtures were studied in this research with respect to mechanical, durability and microstructural parameters. Content of copper slag anything above 60% resulted in poor bonding and segregation. Replacement of copper slag upto 40% produced the maximum compressive strength of 39.6 MPa after 90 days of ambient curing conditions. The best among the mixes was M60C40 (40% copper slag) which recorded about 1.98 MPa and 12.75 MPa of tensile and flexural strength respectively with a maximum tensile strain capacity of about 6.12%. The specimens were excellent in resisting the seawater attack which did not show any significant weight or strength loss whereas sulphate attack showed considerable strength loss upto 5%. During the microstructural investigations with Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX), the effects caused by the aggressive environments could be clearly visualized with the observations towards the internal physical structure and intensity of chemical elements respectively.
The extraction of raw materials in many productive sectors has become problematic for the environment because of the negative impacts of the process and the inappropriate destination of the generated waste. Stone waste (SW) from the dimension stone industry has physical and chemical characteristics with great potential for use as an alternative raw material in several industrial activities. Its main constituents include silica, alumina, alkaline, and alkaline earth oxides, usually combined as calcite and dolomite in the crystalline phases. In this work, a case study was conducted with SW from a processing plant of dimension stones (also known as ornamental rocks) located in Viana do Castelo, Portugal. In this new methodology, the SW powder samples were characterised by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis, and thermogravimetry. Physical features, such as moisture content, specific surface area, particle size distribution, and true density were also determined. The pH and electrical conductivity of the SW as a suspension were also evaluated. The specific SW was analysed against the literature considering aspects related to environmental legislation and standards (waste classification), physical and chemical characteristics (potential), production data (quantity), recycling availability (viability), and market opportunities (applicability). This novel way in terms of the form and content of a paper is an intermediate approach between an original article and a state-of-art review. SW is normally considered inert but, owing to its high fineness (<200 μm), some potentially hazardous compounds can been leached. The state-of-the-art of SW applications suggests that this waste is promising raw materials for ceramics and cement, which eventually encapsulate contaminants in their structure. A critical discussion of the literature was conducted to reduce the knowledge gap about the most promising valorisation strategies for SW. New recycling proposals are also suggested.
The recent advent in the field of cementitious composites with the emergence of high and ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concretes (HPFRC and UHPFRC) is considered a great opportunity in infrastructure accelerated construction, strengthening and repair. These materials draw their exceptional mechanical performance from two characteristics: the densely packed microstructure, and the ability of the materials to sustain their tensile resistance after cracking and to strain-harden over a significant range of tensile strain when the appropriate number of fibers is used. In structural design, however, the tensile resilience of these materials can be considered only if it can be characterized by standards and repeatable tests. Four-point bending tests (FPBT) on prism samples are used widely due to their perceived simplicity, particularly for quality control. Although these tests have been introduced in standards as the recommended option, experience shows that in practice they lead to experimental scatter and variability owing to spurious interactions between the specimen and the testing setup. This study explores experimentally, through a round-robin test, the effect of these interactions on the dispersion of the results. Three preblended commercial mixes were considered; identical specimens were tested in three different laboratories using their available hardware to conduct the quality control tests. The variability in the custom details of the FPBT setups and the uncertainties introduced by the operator, as well as the effect of casting methodology on flexural strength were investigated. Bilinear tensile stress–strain and stress-crack mouth opening relationships of the tested materials were derived using the inverse analysis procedures as prescribed in Annex 8.1 of CSA-S6 (Canadian highway bridge design code-annex 8.1 fibre reinforced concrete, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, 2019) and Annex U of CSA-A23.1 (Ultra-high-performance concrete-UHPC, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, 2019). Results indicate that cracking strength of HPFRC and UHPFRC derived from inverse analysis was generally higher than the conservative empirical lower bound estimates, whereas a significant difference is evident between results from the three laboratories participating in this round robin testing program. Despite the scatter, in all cases the inverse analysis indicated that the materials exhibited tension hardening behaviour.
Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) has been widely used due to its perfect mechanical performance, but inclusion of fibers has a decisive influence on the fresh properties. Workability as a short-term property is expected to affect long-term properties of concrete. In this paper, the definition of workability, rheological models of FRC, measurement methods of workability and rheological properties, as well as the measure techniques of the fiber orientation and distribution were discussed in detail. This paper presents a complete and updated literature review on the effects of fiber, various constituent, mixing and temperature on the fresh and rheological characteristics. It also reveals the relationship between workability, rheological properties and mechanical performance of FRC. Most importantly, the paper discusses plausible strategies to control rheological properties of FRC, which makes workability and mechanical performance of FRC simpler and more predictable.
Using high amount of cement is one of the disadvantages of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC). To reduce this, it is tried to replace cement with certain alternative materials with industrial waste materials and disposal. In this research, Ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC) based on ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and silica fume containing steel fiber (SF) and polypropylene fiber (PPF) was investigated experimentally. For this purpose, series 1 of mix proportion has been used to determine the reference design with the highest compressive strength. In series 2, nine mixtures were used to investigate the effect of fibers on mechanical properties of the UHPGC including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength and also modulus of elasticity. Moreover, the chloride ion penetration resistance was evaluated through some specific tests such as electrical resistivity (ER), rapid chloride migration test (RCMT) and rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT). The results show that addition of PPF to the samples containing SF improves the mechanical and durability properties. Moreover, the results indicate that replacing the percentage of SF with PPF leads to reduction in the mechanical strength, although it causes the durability to be increased.
Recent developments in the area of Ultra-High-Performance Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHP-SFRC) enables reduction in steel reinforcement, and has led to enhanced ductility and toughness of structural components owing to its resilient tensile behaviour. This paper presents the results of an experimental study conducted to investigate the tensile behaviour of UHP-SFRC. Four commercial mixes and two in-house mixes were evaluated using the procedures prescribed in the 2018 edition of Annex 8.1 of CSA-S6. Tensile strength of UHP-SFRC was quantified and correlated through the direct tension test, splitting test, inverse analysis of four-point bending test using either code expressions or nonlinear finite element analysis, and a calibrated empirical expression that links this property to the cylinder compressive strength. In addition, the effect of important parameters on flexural strength including casting methodology, volumetric ratio of steel fibers, and aspect ratio (shear span to depth ratio) of bending prisms have been assessed.
The present study aims at testing the effect of mafic minerals content in metagabbro (MG), when used as an alternative cement binder, on the physico-mechanical and durability properties of cement pastes and mortars. For this purpose, the mineralogical, chemical composition and physical properties of metagabbro as well as Ordinary Portland cement were determined using XRD, XRF, particle size distribution, specific surface area, and specific gravity. In the present study, two types of mixes including cement pastes and mortar mixes were prepared using metagabbro powder as an alternative binder at certain proportions for cement pastes and mortar up to 35% and 25%; respectively. The physico-mechanical properties of all prepared mixes were determined and discussed at different curing ages starting with 7 d and ending with 90 d, while the durability properties were measured only for the hardened mortar mixes cured at 90 d. The results clearly revealed that using up to 15% metagabbro replacing for cement binder improved the physico-mechanical properties of cement pastes by reducing water absorption, voids and apparent porosity, while increasing the compressive strength compared with the control mixes. The modified mixes using more than 15% metagabbro powder exhibited a negligible decline in physical and mechanical properties of cement mortars. Regarding the durability properties, the addition of metagabbro achieved an enhancement towards the sorptivity, abrasion resistance, as well as sulfate attack more than the control mix. The results of physico-mechanical and durability properties of all mixes, incorporating metagabbro, comply with the requirements of masonry mortars and cement tiles.
In the present research, Ultra-high Performance Concretes (UHPCs) applying coarse basalt aggregate with a maximum particle size of 16 mm are designed by using the particle packing theory and considering optimal powder proportion. The fluidity, shrinkage, strength of paste, and the compressive and tensile splitting strength of UHPC are investigated. The effect of coarse basalt aggregate size and resulting powder content change are evaluated. Furthermore, the mineral admixture effect, interaction between aggregate and steel fibre are analysed and discussed. The results show that the optimal proportion of powder is 5% of micro-silica and 20% of limestone powder by mass of the total powder. The coarse basalt aggregate has limited reducing effect on the mechanical strength of UHPC. The optimal powder content of about 800 kg/m³ and 700 kg/m³ is found for UHPC when the maximum basalt aggregate size is 8 mm and 16 mm, respectively. Furthermore, a distribution modulus q of 0.19 for the modified Andreasen and Andersen model is recommended for designing UHPC with coarse aggregates. The optimal powder contents are the same for UHPC without and with 2 vol% steel fibre, and longer fibre is suggested for UHPC with coarser aggregate.
Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; and with all thy getting, get understanding. Proverbs 4:7 In the early chapters of the book of Proverbs there is a strong emphasis on three words: knowledge, understanding, and wisdom. Perhaps we can apply these words to our philosophy behind the technology of Predictive Process Control. Knowledge is the accumulation of information provided by education as we begin to store the data in our brains that should prepare us for the challenges of the manufacturing environment. It applies to every level and every opportunity of education, formal and informal. This is simply to Know, without any requirement except a good memory, and is the basis for the following two thoughts. Understanding is the assimilation of knowledge, or the thinking process, as we begin to arrange and rearrange the data we Know for quick recall as it may be needed. This also applies to every level and opportunity of education. It is Know-Why based upon what we Know, and it requires some scepticism of oversimplified answers and a hunger for mental consistency. Wisdom is the application of both knowledge and understanding in real life enterprises. As we apply both our knowledge and understanding in those situations, all three are further enhanced by each progressive experience. This is that wonderful Know-How - to apply our education based upon Know-why, which was based upon Knowledge - which provides the confidence we need to advance in all phases of performance.
The paper presents the results of an extensive research programme on heat-cured, low-calcium, fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Both short-term and long-term properties of geopolymer concrete along with the behaviour and strength of reinforced geopolymer concrete structural members are described. Heat-cured, low-calcium, fly ash-based geopolymer concrete offers many advantages such as excellent structural properties, low creep, very little drying shrinkage, excellent resistance to sulphate attack, and good acid resistance.
Ongoing efforts for improved fracture toughness of engineered cementitious materials address the inherent brittleness of the binding matrix at several different levels of the material geometric scale through the addition of various types of reinforcing fibers. Crack control is required for crack widths that cover the entire range of the grain size spectrum of the material, and this dictates the requirement of hybrid mixes combining fibers of different size (nano, micro, macro). Use of Carbon Nano-Tubes (CNT) and Carbon Nano-Fibers (CNFs) as additives is meant to extend the crack-control function down to the nano-scale where cracking is believed to initiate. In this paper the implications of enhanced toughness thus attained at the material nanostructure are explored, with reference to the global smeared constitutive properties of the material, through consistent interpretation of the reported experimental evidence regarding the behaviour of engineered cementitious products to direct and indirect tension.
Theoretischen Untersuchungen zufolge muß beim Aufbau eines Produkts aus losen Körnern, in dem die Körner ohne jegliche Ordnung vorhanden sind, die notwendige und hinreichende Bedingung für die Konstanthaltung des Zwischenraums beim Zufügen grober und gröberer Körner sein, daß das Körnungsbild stets die Gleichung C(k) = kq befriedigt. Für Produkte mit diesem Körnungsbild wird weiter der Zwischenraum symbat mit der Größe q wachsen.
Es werden Untersuchungen über Produkte aus zwei und drei Korngrößen vorgenommen, indem die Vorschriften Grün's und Kerkhof's für die Erzielung des dichtest möglichen Produkts verglichen werden.
Endlich werden Produkte mit dem obigen Körnungsbild, indem man q die Werte ∞, 2, 1, 2/3, 1/2 und 1/3 gegeben hat, samt ein Produkt nach der „Fullerkurve“ aufgebaut und auf Zwischenraum verglichen Bei allen Untersuchungen wird der Zwischenraum sowohl für das lose eingefüllte als auch für das fest zusammengeschüttelte Produkt gemessen.
Es wird gezeigt, daß man eine größere Dichte kaum erwarten darf bei Produkten aus wenigen, eventuell nacheinander abgepaßten Korngrößen aufgebaut als bei Produkten, wo alle Korngrößen innerhalb gewisser Grenzen anwesend sind.
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