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Digital Inequality: The Digital Divide and Educational Outcomes
Muhammed Miah
Department of Business Information Systems
Tennessee State University
mmiah@tnstate.edu
Abstract
Digital technology has become an integral part of modern society and education, yet
access to technology and the internet is not equally distributed. This study aims to explore
the impact of digital inequality on educational outcomes, specifically focusing on the
digital divide, defined as the gap between those who have access to digital technologies
and those who do not. A systematic literature review (SLR) approach was used for this
study. Findings indicate that students from low-income families and minority groups are
less likely to have access to digital technologies, leading to lower academic achievement
and poorer educational outcomes. Moreover, students who do not have access to digital
technologies are less likely to develop the necessary digital literacy skills required in the
21st century. The study also found that access to technology alone does not guarantee
academic success, as the quality of digital resources and the ability to use them effectively
are also important factors. The findings of this study have important implications for
policymakers and educators in addressing digital inequality and improving educational
outcomes for all students.
Introduction
The rapid development and advancement of technology over the past few decades has
brought about many changes in the way we live, work, and communicate. The rise of the
digital age has created many opportunities for individuals, businesses, and communities to
connect and interact on a global scale. However, the benefits of technology are not shared
equally by all, and there are many people who are left behind in the digital world. This
digital inequality, also known as the digital divide, has significant implications for
educational outcomes, especially for disadvantaged students.
The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to and use
technology and those who do not. This gap can be attributed to a variety of factors, such as
income, education level, geographic location, and age. According to the Pew Research
Center, as of 2021, approximately 15% of American adults do not use the internet, with the
highest rates of non-use among those over 65 years old, those without a high school
education, and those with low household incomes (Perrin, 2021). The digital divide is not
only a problem in the United States but also in many other parts of the world. In developing
countries, the divide is often more pronounced due to a lack of infrastructure and resources.
According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), as of 2020, only 53% of
the world's population had access to the internet, with much lower rates in developing
countries (ITU, 2020). This lack of access to technology can have significant consequences
for educational outcomes, as many students rely on the internet and digital resources to
complete assignments, access information, and communicate with teachers and classmates.
The relationship between the digital divide and educational outcomes has been widely
studied, and the evidence suggests that students who lack access to technology are at a
disadvantage compared to their peers who have access. The digital divide also has
implications for the development of digital literacy skills. Digital literacy refers to the
ability to access, evaluate, and use digital information effectively (Gilster, 1997). In today's
digital world, digital literacy skills are essential for success in education and the workplace.
However, students who lack access to technology may not have the opportunity to develop
these skills, putting them at a further disadvantage.
Efforts to bridge the digital divide have been ongoing for many years, but progress has
been slow. Some initiatives have focused on increasing access to technology, such as
providing computers and internet access to low-income families and schools. Other
initiatives have focused on providing digital literacy training to students and teachers.
While these efforts have had some success, the digital divide remains a significant
challenge. The digital divide is a complex problem that has significant implications for
educational outcomes, particularly for disadvantaged students. The lack of access to
technology can exacerbate existing educational inequalities and hinder the development of
digital literacy skills. Efforts to bridge the divide are ongoing, but more needs to be done
to ensure that all students have equal access to technology and the opportunity to develop
the digital skills necessary for success in education and the workplace.
Literature Review
The digital divide, or the gap between those who have access to technology and those
who do not, has been a topic of research for many years. In recent years, researchers have
focused on the impact of the digital divide on educational outcomes, particularly for
disadvantaged students.
Access to technology has become increasingly important in education, with many
schools and teachers relying on digital resources to teach and engage students. However,
not all students have equal access to technology, and this can have significant consequences
for their academic performance. A study by Warschauer and Matuchniak (2010) found that
students who had access to computers and the internet at home had higher grades and better
attendance rates than those who did not. These findings were consistent across different
grade levels and socioeconomic groups. According to a report by the National Center for
Education Statistics (2017), students from low-income families and those attending schools
in economically disadvantaged areas are less likely to have access to technology than their
more affluent peers. Students who lack access to technology may not have the opportunity
to develop digital literacy skills, putting them at a further disadvantage. A study by
DiMaggio et al. (2004) found that initiatives such as providing digital literacy training to
students and teachers can have a positive impact on student achievement. However, the
effectiveness of these initiatives is often limited by factors such as funding, infrastructure,
and training.
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of access to technology in
education. With many schools and universities switching to remote learning, the lack of
access to technology and the internet has become an even more significant barrier to
education. A report by the National Education Association (2020) found that the pandemic
has widened existing educational inequalities and exacerbated the digital divide and the
homework gap. A report by the Alliance for Excellent Education (2020) found that students
from low-income families and those attending schools in economically disadvantaged
areas were more likely to experience barriers to remote learning than their more affluent
peers. The impact of the digital divide on educational outcomes is not limited to K-12
education. Research has also shown that access to technology and digital literacy skills are
essential for success in higher education. A study by Xu and Jaggars (2013) found that
community college students who had access to computers and the internet at home had
higher rates of persistence and completion than those who did not. The study also found
that digital literacy skills were positively associated with academic performance. The
digital divide also has implications for workforce development and economic mobility. In
today's economy, digital skills are increasingly important for finding and retaining
employment. A study by the Brookings Institution (2018) found that workers with digital
skills were more likely to have stable employment and higher wages than those without
such skills.
In addition to the digital divide, research has also focused on the "homework gap," or
the gap in access to technology and the internet that exists outside of school hours.
According to a report by the Pew Research Center (2021), about 15% of U.S. households
with school-age children do not have a high-speed internet connection at home. This lack
of access can make it difficult for students to complete homework and keep up with their
peers.
Warschauer (2003) provides an overview of the digital divide and its impact on society,
including the implications for education. It argues that access to technology is essential for
participation in modern society and that efforts to bridge the digital divide should focus on
both access and digital literacy. Warschauer & Matuchniak, 2010) reviews existing
research on the impact of technology on educational outcomes and argues that efforts to
bridge the digital divide should focus on equity in access, use, and outcomes. The authors
suggest that digital inequality can be addressed through policies that promote access to
technology and digital literacy. Hargittai (2010) explores the concept of digital natives, or
those who have grown up with digital technology, and argues that there is significant
variation in internet skills and uses among this group. The study suggests that efforts to
bridge the digital divide should focus on developing digital literacy skills for all students,
regardless of their background. DiMaggio & Hargittai (2001) provides an overview of the
digital divide and argues that the concept should be expanded to include digital inequality,
or the unequal distribution of benefits and risks associated with technology use. The study
suggests that digital inequality can be addressed through policies that promote equitable
access to technology and digital literacy.
Warschauer & Matuchniak (2011) explores the relationship between access to
technology, digital literacy skills, and educational outcomes. The study suggests that access
to technology alone is not enough to bridge the digital divide, and that efforts to promote
digital literacy skills are essential for improving educational outcomes. van Dijk (2012)
provides an overview of the evolution of the digital divide, arguing that the focus has
shifted from access to technology to inequality in skills and usage. The study suggests that
efforts to bridge the digital divide should focus on developing digital literacy skills for all
students. Warschauer (2011) evaluates the impact of the One Laptop per Child (OLPC)
program on students' learning outcomes in developing countries. The study presents a
comprehensive evaluation of the program at multiple levels, including the individual,
classroom, school, and community levels, and suggests that the OLPC program can have
positive effects on student learning when implemented effectively.
Concerns arose among scholars and policymakers about widening sociodemographic
gaps in education became more crucial, especially during COVID-19 when education
disrupted for many children, shifting to online learning in March 2020. Effective online
learning requires a conducive environment, digital skills, parental involvement, and
prepared schools, often varying by social status. van de Werfhorst, Kessenich, and Geven
(2022) conducted a study to investigate pre-pandemic digital disparities among students,
focusing on skills and resources. Results reveal gender, socioeconomic, and migration-
based disparities in digital readiness, primarily driven by student skills, rather than school
infrastructure. On the other hand, our study also considers the infrastructures that create
digital divide.
Kuhn et al (2023) collaborated to create a methodological toolkit, a theoretical
kaleidoscope, to scrutinize and critique digital inequalities. The authors claim this tool is
crucial for examining the "ideology of digitalism," its associated inequalities, and the
resulting human losses. The toolkit encompasses various theoretical approaches, allowing
researchers to explore the complex dimensions of digital inequality in both online and
offline contexts. It's not about dismissing digital but understanding its evolving power
structures in our socio-technical landscape. The authors claim that the approach helps shed
light on invisible power structures shaping people's experiences with technology,
particularly in the Global South, where digital injustices have become urgent. The toolkit
empowers researchers to uncover multifaceted digital inequalities often overlooked and
contributes to the pursuit of social justice in education. Our study does not focus on the
global South, and also found that access to technology alone does not guarantee academic
success, as the quality of digital resources and the ability to use them effectively are also
important factors.
Heeks (2022) conducted a study especially for the global South where the future of
digital technologies promises developmental benefits but also poses challenges beyond
inequality, such as the environmental impact of digital systems. The study introduces
"adverse digital incorporation" to address inequalities arising when less-advantaged groups
are included in digital systems. Drawing from development studies, the study offers a
systematic framework to understand these emerging inequalities. It highlights the need to
explore power dynamics within digital systems and emphasizes the importance of
addressing underlying inequalities for digital justice. It explores that practitioners should
widen their focus to impact broader institutions, resource distribution, and structural
relations, moving from adverse to advantageous digital incorporation and delivering digital
justice in the global South. Our study covers more widen area to address the effects of
digital divide on education, obstacles and bridging the digital gap.
Research Methodology
A systematic literature review (SLR) approach was adopted to collect freely available
online content and articles published. Brocke et al. (2015) recommends that researchers
conducting SLRs should make clear decisions on selecting databases and journals, defining
search terms, selecting criteria for including and excluding papers, and developing
strategies for citation analysis. This study involves a comprehensive and structured search
for relevant studies and literature using multiple databases such as Google Scholar, Web
of Science, and Scopus. The criteria for inclusion of content in the review required that the
article be published in complete form, whether in a journal, conference proceedings,
technical report, white paper, or blog, and be written in English. The search strategy
included a combination of keywords such as “digital divide”, “digital inequality”,
“educational outcomes”, “technology access”, “internet usage”, “academic achievement”,
“socio-economic” and so on to satisfy PRISMA conditions (Moher et al., 2009). The
PRISMA framework specifies an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in
systematic reviews and meta-analyses and has been widely utilized in academic studies
(Kruse et al., 2016). Using PRISMA for the analysis allowed for the employment of
guidelines to review clearly formulated questions and use systematic and explicit methods
to locate, select, and critically evaluate relevant publications to address the research
questions identified earlier. In addition to academic publications, technical reports and
prominent blogs were also reviewed.
Findings
Significant Facts Found on Digital Divide
• According to a 2020 report from the National Center for Education Statistics,
approximately 9 million students in the United States do not have access to a device
(such as a laptop or tablet) for online learning at home.
• The same report also found that approximately 7 million students in the United States
do not have access to broadband internet at home, which can make it difficult to
participate in online learning (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020).
• A survey of teachers in the United States found that 18% of their students do not have
access to a computer and 22% do not have access to the internet at home (PBS, 2018).
• In the European Union, a 2017 report found that 43% of households with low income
did not have access to the internet, compared to only 5% of households with high
income (European Commission, 2017).
• A study conducted in South Africa found that students who did not have access to
technology and the internet at home were significantly less likely to complete
homework assignments and were more likely to receive lower grades than students who
did have access (Chigona & Chigona, 2016).
• In the United States, a study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 15% of
households with school-age children do not have access to high-speed internet at home
(Anderson & Kumar, 2018).
• A report by the World Bank found that globally, only 53% of households have access
to the internet (World Bank, 2019).
• In developing countries, the digital divide is particularly acute. For example, a study in
Pakistan found that only 14% of households had access to the internet, and of those,
only 3% had access to broadband internet (Akhtar, 2016).
• A study conducted in India found that children from households without access to
technology and the internet were significantly less likely to achieve high levels of
academic achievement (Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2019).
• A survey of students in Australia found that those from low-income families were less
likely to have access to a computer or the internet at home, and were less likely to use
digital technologies for learning (Walton, Lozanovska, & Holmes, 2018).
Effects of Digital Divide on Education
• Limited access to technology and the internet: Students who do not have access to
computers, smartphones, and the internet may struggle to complete assignments and
access educational resources that are available online. This can lead to a lack of
engagement and motivation (Warschauer, 2003).
• Lower academic achievement: Studies have shown that students who have limited
access to technology and the internet are at a disadvantage in terms of academic
achievement and overall educational outcomes. For example, a study by Warschauer
and Matuchniak (2010) found that students who had access to technology and the
internet at home had higher grades and test scores than those who did not.
• Reduced participation in online learning: The digital divide can also lead to reduced
participation in online learning. Students who do not have access to technology and the
internet may not be able to participate in online classes or access online materials,
which can limit their educational opportunities (DiMaggio & Hargittai, 2001).
• Limited digital literacy skills: Limited access to technology can also lead to a lack of
digital skills. Students who do not have access to technology and the internet may not
have the opportunity to develop the digital literacy skills that are increasingly important
in today's society (Baturay & Demiray, 2018).
• Social and economic disparities: Digital inequality and the digital divide can
exacerbate social and economic disparities in education. Students from low-income
families or minority backgrounds are more likely to have limited access to technology
and the internet, which can further widen the achievement gap (Chinn & Fairlie, 2010).
• Reduced ability to collaborate and communicate: With the increasing use of
technology in education, students who lack access to technology and the internet may
miss out on opportunities to collaborate with peers and communicate with teachers
outside of the classroom (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010).
• Limited exposure to digital content: Students who have limited access to technology
and the internet may miss out on the vast array of digital content available online,
including educational videos, interactive simulations, and multimedia resources
(Warschauer, Knobel, & Stone, 2004).
• Reduced access to online assessments: Online assessments are becoming more
common in education, but students not having access to technology and the internet
may not be able to complete these assessments (Warschauer & Matuchniak, 2010).
• Increased likelihood of dropping out: Students who lack access to technology and the
internet may feel disconnected from their peers and teachers, which can increase the
likelihood of dropping out of school (Morgan, 2017).
• Reduced ability to develop digital citizenship skills: With the increasing use of
technology, it is important for students to develop digital citizenship skills, such as
responsible online behavior and digital security. However, students who lack access to
technology and the internet may not have the opportunity to develop these skills
(Baturay & Demiray, 2018).
• Effects of COVID-19: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on digital
divide, exacerbating existing disparities in access to technology and digital resources.
With the shift to remote or hybrid learning models, students who lack access to digital
resources and technology are at a disadvantage. This has led to an increase in the
homework gap between students with and without access to digital resources at home
(Chaudhuri & Roy, 2021). The pandemic has highlighted the importance of digital
literacy skills. Students who lack digital literacy skills may struggle to navigate online
learning platforms and access digital resources, leading to frustration and
disengagement (Fuchs & Seo, 2021). In areas without reliable broadband access,
students may struggle to participate in online classes or access digital resources. This
can limit their ability to learn and impact their educational outcomes (Greenberg &
Zhu, 2021). The pandemic has widened economic disparities, making it more difficult
for low-income families to afford digital resources and technology needed for remote
learning (Hrastinski, 2020).
Relationship between Digital Divide and Educational Outcomes
The relationship between digital divide and educational outcomes has been extensively
researched, with many studies highlighting the negative impact that lack of access to
technology and the internet can have on academic achievement. Studies have found that
students who lack access to technology and the internet at home are at a significant
disadvantage compared to their peers who have access to these resources. For example, a
study by Warschauer and Matuchniak (2010) found that students who had access to a home
computer and the internet had higher reading and writing test scores compared to those
who did not have access. Similarly, a study by Subrahmanyam et al. (2002) found that
students who had access to the internet at home were more likely to engage in academic
activities and achieve higher grades. Moreover, digital divide can also exacerbate existing
achievement gaps between different socio-economic groups. A study by Lee and Bartolic
(2014) found that students from lower-income households were less likely to have access
to technology and the internet, which in turn negatively affected their academic
achievement. In addition, access to technology and the internet can also impact students’
long-term educational outcomes, such as college attendance and completion. A study by
Chetty et al. (2015) found that students who had access to broadband internet at home were
more likely to attend and complete college, even after controlling for other factors such as
parental income and educational attainment. Overall, the research suggests that digital
inequality and the digital divide have a significant and negative impact on educational
outcomes, particularly for students from low-income households.
Bridging the Digital Divide in Education
Addressing the digital divide is crucial in ensuring that all students have an equal
opportunity to succeed academically. Here are some ways to bridging the digital divide on
educational outcomes:
• Increase access to technology and the internet: One of the most straightforward ways
to address digital inequality is to increase access to technology and the internet,
particularly for students from low-income households. This can be achieved through
initiatives such as providing free or low-cost laptops or tablets, expanding broadband
internet access, and providing technology training to students and teachers.
• Ensure digital literacy: Simply providing access to technology and the internet is not
enough; students also need to be taught how to use these tools effectively. This includes
skills such as how to conduct online research, evaluate sources, and use digital tools to
create and share content.
• Provide support for at-home learning: As more learning takes place online, it is
essential to ensure that students have the resources they need to succeed outside of the
classroom. This includes access to online learning platforms, digital textbooks, and
support from teachers and tutors.
• Encourage collaboration and peer support: Digital inequality can be isolating for
students who lack access to technology and the internet. Encouraging collaboration and
peer support can help to mitigate this effect. For example, students can be encouraged
to work together on projects using online tools or participate in online discussion
forums.
• Address underlying social and economic inequalities: It is essential to recognize that
digital inequality is often a symptom of broader social and economic inequalities.
Addressing these underlying issues is crucial in creating a more equitable education
system.
• Implement flexible and equitable assessment: Online assessments should be designed
to ensure that they are accessible to all students, regardless of their access to technology
and the internet. This includes providing alternative forms of assessments for students
who lack access to technology or have limited internet connectivity.
• Provide funding for schools in low-income areas: Schools in low-income areas often
have limited resources to invest in technology and infrastructure. Providing funding for
these schools can help to address the digital divide and ensure that all students have
access to the resources they need to succeed.
• Foster partnerships between schools and the community: Collaborating with local
businesses and community organizations can help schools to secure funding,
technology, and resources. This can also help to bridge the digital divide by providing
students with access to technology and the internet outside of school hours.
• Ensure teacher training: Teachers need to be trained in how to use technology
effectively to support student learning. This includes how to use digital tools to
differentiate instruction, support student collaboration, and provide feedback on
student work.
• Conduct research and evaluation: It is essential to continually evaluate and refine
interventions aimed at addressing digital inequality and the digital divide. This includes
conducting research on the impact of these interventions and adjusting them as needed
to ensure that they are effective.
Obstacles to Bridging the Digital Divide in Education
Major obstacles that can hinder efforts to bridge the digital divide in education:
• Lack of Access to Technology: Many students, particularly those in low-income or rural
areas, do not have access to the necessary technology to participate in online learning.
This can include computers, tablets, and high-speed internet access.
• Inadequate Infrastructure: In some areas, the infrastructure necessary for high-speed
internet access may not be available, making it difficult for students to access online
resources.
• Unequal Distribution of Resources: Schools and districts may not have equal access to
funding, which can lead to disparities in technology resources and training
opportunities.
• Digital Literacy Skills: Many students, particularly those from disadvantaged
backgrounds, may lack the digital literacy skills needed to effectively use technology
for learning.
• Teacher Training: Teachers may not have the necessary training or support to
effectively integrate technology into their teaching practices.
• Cost: Technology can be expensive, and schools and districts may not have the
resources to purchase and maintain the necessary equipment.
• Language and Cultural Barriers: Students from non-English speaking backgrounds or
with different cultural backgrounds may face additional barriers to accessing and
effectively using digital resources for learning.
• Lack of Support for Special Needs Students: Students with disabilities or special needs
may require specialized technology or accommodations to access digital resources,
which can be costly and difficult to implement.
• Privacy and Security Concerns: Online learning platforms and digital resources can
raise privacy and security concerns for both students and teachers. Ensuring the safety
and security of digital resources is crucial for building trust and promoting adoption.
• Limited Connectivity in Remote Areas: Students in remote areas may not have access
to reliable internet connectivity, making it difficult for them to participate in online
learning or access digital resources.
• Limited Technical Support: Schools and districts may not have the necessary technical
support or staff to maintain and troubleshoot technology infrastructure, leading to
potential technical problems that can hinder student learning.
• Technological Obsolescence: The fast-paced nature of technological advancements
means that technology can quickly become outdated, leading to ongoing costs for
schools and districts to maintain and upgrade equipment.
• Limited Parental Involvement: Parents may not have the necessary skills or resources
to support their children's learning in a digital environment, leading to a lack of parental
involvement in the educational process.
Recommendations
Based on the literature and research reviewed, here are some recommendations to
address the digital divide in education:
• Increase access to technology and internet connectivity: Efforts should be made to
increase access to technology and the internet for students in low-income households
and communities. This can include providing laptops, tablets, or other devices to
students and ensuring that they have access to reliable internet connectivity.
• Address affordability issues: The cost of technology and internet access can be a barrier
for many families. Efforts should be made to address affordability issues, such as
providing low-cost internet options for low-income families or offering subsidies for
devices.
• Provide digital literacy training: Digital literacy training should be provided to both
students and their families to ensure that they have the skills necessary to effectively
use technology and navigate the digital landscape.
• Address equity in access to digital resources: Schools should ensure that all students
have equal access to digital resources, such as online textbooks and educational
software. This can be achieved through initiatives like digital textbook adoption and
the use of open educational resources.
• Foster collaboration and sharing of resources: Collaboration and resource sharing
among schools and districts can help to address resource limitations and ensure that all
students have access to the tools and resources they need to succeed.
• Advocate for policy change: Policy changes at the local, state, and federal levels can
help to address digital inequality and the digital divide. Advocacy efforts can include
lobbying for increased funding for schools and community programs aimed at
addressing digital inequality, as well as advocating for policies that promote access to
technology and internet connectivity for all.
• Increase funding for digital infrastructure: Many schools and communities lack the
digital infrastructure necessary to provide equal access to technology and the internet.
Increased funding for digital infrastructure can help to address this issue and ensure
that all students have access to the digital resources they need to succeed.
• Expand access to digital resources outside of school: Students should have access to
digital resources outside of school hours to support learning and homework completion.
This can include initiatives like mobile hotspots or digital libraries.
• Increase diversity in technology and education: Efforts should be made to increase
diversity in technology and education fields to ensure that all students have access to
role models and mentors who can inspire them to pursue careers in these fields.
• Support blended and remote learning: Blended and remote learning models can help
to address the digital divide by providing students with access to digital resources
regardless of their physical location. Schools should ensure that all students have access
to the necessary technology and resources to participate in these models.
• Address the root causes of digital inequality: Digital inequality is often a symptom of
larger social and economic inequalities. Addressing these root causes, such as poverty
and inequality in education funding, can help to mitigate digital inequality and improve
educational outcomes for all students.
• Foster partnerships between schools and community organizations: Partnerships
between schools and community organizations can help to address digital inequality by
providing students with access to technology and internet connectivity, as well as
digital literacy training and other resources.
Conclusion
The digital divide has a significant impact on educational outcomes. Students who lack
access to digital resources and technology often struggle to keep up with their peers who
have access to these resources, resulting in achievement gaps and limited opportunities for
success. The COVID-19 pandemic has brought these issues to the forefront, highlighting
the need for increased access to digital resources and technology. To address these issues,
a multi-pronged approach is needed. Schools, governments, and community organizations
must work together to ensure that all students have access to digital resources and
technology, as well as digital literacy training and support. Efforts should also be made to
address the root causes of digital inequality, such as poverty and inequality in education
funding. Despite the challenges posed by the digital divide, there are reasons for optimism.
Innovative solutions, such as blended and remote learning models, have the potential to
bridge the gap and provide all students with access to digital resources and technology. By
working together and focusing on solutions, we can ensure that all students have an equal
opportunity to succeed.
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