Prevalence, Disclosure, and Help Seeking in Black and Asian Male Survivors of Sexual Violence in the United Kingdom: A Rapid Review

Abstract

Sexual Violence against men has been significantly overlooked and under researched, with minimal attention paid to the influence of culture and ethnicity on survivors' experiences of abuse. This rapid review examines prevalence, disclosure, help-seeking, and criminal justice experiences of Black and Asian male survivors in the United Kingdom. Eight empirical studies published since 2000 involving Black and Asian sexual violence survivors were included through comprehensive database searches, including grey literature and reference lists. Findings suggest prevalence data underestimate the true extent of victimization in ethnic minority groups in the United Kingdom. Barriers to disclosure and help-seeking were associated with specific cultural factors unique to Black and Asian male experiences, as revealed by three qualitative studies. However, accessing and reporting to the Criminal Justice System remains largely unexplored for Black and Asian male survivors. Methodological limitations within existing studies emphasise the urgent need for substantial, high-quality research that addresses issues with inconsistent definitions, measurements, and lack of ethnic-specific approaches across prevalence, disclosure, help-seeking, and criminal justice experiences. Culturally informed professional training emerges as a critical requirement to sensitively address the unique challenges faced by ethnic minority male survivors. Additionally, targeted outreach initiatives hold the potential to engage minority male survivors more effectively. A collaborative, system-wide approach is vital to bring to the forefront the overlooked experiences of ethnic minority males, thereby promoting an environment of support, understanding, and recovery.

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https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241246217
TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE
1 –16
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DOI: 10.1177/15248380241246217
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Review Manuscript
Sexual violence is a deeply rooted societal problem that
affects individuals of all ages, genders, sexuality, ethnicity,
and religious affiliation (Bagwell-Gray, 2019; Bows, 2018;
Messinger & Koon-Magnin, 2019; Smith et al., 2021;
Stoltenborgh et al., 2011; Torazzi et al., 2021; Vanderwoerd
& Cheng, 2017), which can occur at the hand of current and
past intimate partners, family members, figures of authority,
acquaintances, and/or strangers (Bagwell-Gray et al., 2015).
However, understanding and determining the scope of the
problem is challenging since there does not appear to be a
universally accepted definition that fully captures this multi-
faceted phenomenon.1 Nevertheless, the consequences of
sexual violence are well documented and clear, including
severe and wide-ranging physio-psychological harms, par-
ticularly among women (Jina & Thomas, 2013).
The immediate and radiating effects of sexual violence
pose a significant challenge for practitioners and policy mak-
ers who strive to accurately determine the prevalence of such
crimes within society while working toward establishing
pathways that facilitate victims’ help seeking and reporting
to the criminal justice system. In the United Kingdom, there
has been a notable surge in demand for political accountabil-
ity and action, particularly in relation to addressing Violence
Against Women and Girls (see Home Office, 2021; Mayor of
London, 2022), who remain the victim group with highest
prevalence of sexual (Office for National Statistics (ONS),
2021b) and domestic violence (Office for National Statistics,
2022a) compared to men across all ages and ethnicities.
However, third-sector services and academics have high-
lighted the importance of broadening the scope of political
intervention to other groups affected by sexual violence,
1246217TVAXXX10.1177/15248380241246217TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSEWidanaralalage et al.
review-article2024
1King’s College London, UK
2University of Westminster, London
Corresponding Author:
B. Kennath Widanaralalage, Department of Psychology, King’s College
London, Guy’s Campus, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 1UL, UK.
Email: Kennath.widanaralalage@kcl.ac.uk
Prevalence, Disclosure, and Help Seeking
in Black and Asian Male Survivors of
Sexual Violence in the United Kingdom:
A Rapid Review
B. Kennath Widanaralalage1, Stacey Jennings2,
Coral Dando2, and Jay-Marie Mackenzie2
Abstract
Sexual violence against men has been significantly overlooked, and under-researched, with minimal attention paid to the
influence of culture and ethnicity on survivors’ experiences of abuse. This rapid review examines prevalence, disclosure,
help-seeking, and criminal justice experiences of Black and Asian male survivors in the United Kingdom. Eight empirical
studies published since 2003 involving Black and Asian sexual violence survivors were included through comprehensive
database searches, including gray literature and reference lists. Findings suggest prevalence data underestimate the true
extent of victimization in ethnic minority groups in the United Kingdom. Barriers to disclosure and help-seeking were
associated with specific cultural factors unique to Black and Asian male experiences, as revealed by three qualitative studies.
However, accessing and reporting to the criminal justice system remains largely unexplored for Black and Asian male
survivors. Methodological limitations within existing studies emphasize the urgent need for substantial, high-quality research
that addresses issues with inconsistent definitions, measurements, and lack of ethnic-specific approaches across prevalence,
disclosure, help-seeking, and criminal justice experiences. Culturally informed professional training emerges as a critical
requirement to sensitively address the unique challenges faced by ethnic minority male survivors. Additionally, targeted
outreach initiatives hold the potential to engage minority male survivors more effectively. A collaborative, system-wide
approach is vital to bring to the forefront the overlooked experiences of ethnic minority males, thereby promoting an
environment of support, understanding, and recovery.
Keywords
male rape, ethnic minorities, disclosure, help seeking, service provision

2 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
such as men and boys (Widanaralalage, Hine, & Murphy
2022) who experience unique barriers to disclosure, help
seeking, and access to the criminal justice system. Barriers
include fear of not being believed, shame and embarrass-
ment, lack of awareness of available resources, concerns
about retaliation or further harm, and systemic/institutional
barriers (Abdullah-Khan, 2008; Langdridge et al., 2023;
Weare et al., 2024; Widanaralalage, Hine, Murphy, et al.,
2022) Thus, it is imperative to widen the conversation to men
and boys to ensure comprehensive support for all survivors
of sexual violence.
The Scope of Men’s Sexual
Victimization in the UK
Data from the Office for National Statistics (2021a, 2021b)
reveals approximately 5% of men in England and Wales have
experienced sexual assault after the age of 16. Additionally,
year-on-year data, which combines information from the
Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW)and police
records, indicates that around 155,000 experienced some
form of sexual violence within a 12-month period (Office for
National Statistics, 2021a). Recent findings from the CSEW
(Office for National Statistics, 2023a) reveal that 25% of all
victims of sexual violence are men. These figures are likely
underestimates due to the barriers men face when disclosing
sexual victimization. Campaigners suggest that as many as 1
in 6 boys and 1 in 4 men have experienced unwanted sexual
contact during their lifetime (1in6, n.d.; Dube et al., 2005;
Smith et al., 2018) (Dube et al., 2005). Data from the support
organization Survivors UK suggest that these figures are as
high as 45% in a sample of gay and bisexual men (N = 505)
when disclosing experiences of unwanted sexual contact
(Survivors UK, 2021). These data reveal a substantial pro-
portion of male sexual victimization remains unreported,
highlighting the ongoing struggle men face in acknowledg-
ing and disclosing their experiences of victimization (Easton
et al., 2014; Sorsoli et al., 2008; Widanaralalage, Hine,
Murphy, et al., 2022).
It is important to note that the prevalence of sexual vio-
lence against men is influenced by complex dynamics of per-
petrator gender (Widanaralalage, Reed et al., 2022). While
the available data from the ONS does not explicitly outline
the gender of perpetrators per victim group, past UK evi-
dence highlights a higher prevalence of male perpetrators on
male victims (96.1% Hickson et al., 1994). Hickson et al.’s
work, however, focused specifically on examining the expe-
riences of gay men as victims of nonconsensual sex, which
might, in part, explain male perpetrators’ overrepresentation
in the sample. Indeed, analysis of forced-to-penetrate inci-
dents across 37 police forces in England and Wales reveals a
more nuanced picture, with men found to be the most
recorded offenders (60.1%) and women comprising a signifi-
cant proportion (39.1%) of forced-to-penetrate cases against
men (Weare, 2020). These findings highlight how, while men
are likely to remain the predominant perpetrators of male
sexual victimization, the involvement and prevalence of
female perpetrators reflect many of the barriers encountered
by men to disclose and recognize their victimization of
crimes that are stereotypically seen as “female only” crimes
(Willmott & Widanaralalage, 2024), particularly in contexts
and communities where male sexual victimization is silenced
and taboo.
Sexual violence inflicts long-term and profound effects
on male victims, including the development of post-trau-
matic stress disorder, depression, suicidal ideation, anxiety
disorders, dissociation, shame and guilt, self-esteem and
body image issues, trust and intimacy difficulties, substance
abuse, and sexual dysfunction (Bullock & Beckson, 2011;
Coxell & King, 2010; Davies et al., 2010; Lowe & Rogers,
2017; Monk-Turner & Light, 2010; Peterson et al., 2011;
Walker et al., 2005). Although attempts to compare men’s
symptoms with those of other victim groups have yielded
mixed results (Peterson et al., 2011), there is a growing con-
sensus that men experience post-assault sequelae of compa-
rable magnitude yet qualitatively different in nature (Javaid,
2018; Smith et al., 2021; Widanaralalage, Reed et al., 2022).
One significant aspect of male survivors’ experiences is
the intense emotional turmoil they often encounter, including
feelings of emasculation and confusion over their identity,
accompanied by profound shame, guilt, and self-blame
(Hlavka, 2017; Widanaralalage, Hine, Murphy, Murji et al.,
2022, Widanaralalage et al., 2023). These emotions draw
attention to the role played by gendered stereotypes and nar-
ratives in shaping men’s reluctance to seek mental health
support and engage in legal processes and with law enforce-
ment officers (Dim & Lysova, 2022; Lysova et al., 2020).
Men, in general, face challenges with help-seeking and self-
caring behaviors (Addis & Mahalik, 2003) due to societal
expectations associated with masculinity, which prescribe
gender-appropriate behaviors such as being strong, assertive,
independent, resilient, and stoic (Thompson & Bennett,
2015). Consequently, these expectations influence how male
survivors perceive their mental health and subsequent post-
incident behaviors, leading to risk-taking behaviors and
compensatory coping strategies such as self-blame, sub-
stance abuse, and violence (Bullock & Beckson, 2011; Ellis
et al., 2020; Widanaralalage et al., 2023). Acknowledging
vulnerability and seeking help after sexual assault can be
challenging for many men, as it goes against traditional mas-
culine norms (Pearson & Barker, 2018). As a result, male
survivors often resort to avoidance, social withdrawal,
denial, and self-medication rather than disclosing the assault
or reaching out for support services (Easton et al., 2014;
Sable et al., 2006; Walker, 2004).
Homophobia also plays a significant role as a barrier for
male victims seeking help (Abdullah-Khan, 2008; Rumney,
2008). Fear of being perceived as gay and the associated ste-
reotypes (Diefendorf & Bridges, 2020) prevents men from
reporting the assault or seeking help, perpetuating a harmful

Widanaralalage et al. 3
silence around their experiences. Such barriers reflect the
intersectional nuances of male sexual victimization, whereby
a survivor’s gender and sexual identity shape their engage-
ment with key services in the health and criminal justice sec-
tor (Jamel et al., 2008; Javaid, 2017; Widanaralalage et al.,
2023). While research examining survivors’ post-abuse
experiences under an intersectional lens is limited, past
research clearly highlights how men from sexual minority
groups are reluctant to disclose their abuse for fear of ridi-
cule and dismissal. Underpinning these expected reactions
are biases and falsehoods that surround male sexual victim-
ization (Turchik & Edwards, 2012).
Male rape myths are widespread beliefs that deny male
sexual victimization, portray male survivors as complicit to
their victimization, and minimize and trivialize the emo-
tional consequences of sexual violence for male victims
(Struckman-Johnson & Struckman-Johnson, 1992).
Examples of male rape myths include: “men cannot be
raped,” “only gay men are raped”; “men are only raped in
prisons”; “men are too strong to be raped”; “men who are
sexually aroused cannot be raped”; “men lie about being
raped to hide their sexuality”; “men are not traumatised by
rape” (Turchik & Edwards, 2012; Willmott & Widanaralalage,
2024). The existence and experiences of male rape myths
leave many male survivors fearing they will not be believed
or taken seriously (Hine et al., 2022; Lowe & Rogers, 2017;
Turchik & Edwards, 2012). Male rape myths are commonly
found in the healthcare system and criminal justice processes
and discourage male victims from coming forward
(Widanaralalage et al., 2023). For example, many service
providers harbor misconceptions that sexual violence only
happens to women and lack training on how to respond sen-
sitively to male disclosure (Donnelly & Kenyon, 1996; NHS
England, 2022). Poor police attitudes and insensitivity can
further traumatize victims and undermine engagement with
the legal process (Hine, Murphy, Yesberg et al., 2021;
Rumney, 2008). Together, these findings indicate social
stigma, stereotypes about masculinity, and institutional
biases come together to silence male survivors and inhibit
help-seeking. Targeted efforts are needed to promote disclo-
sure and gender-informed approaches across health, social
services, and criminal justice agencies.
The Need for an Intersectional Lens
Despite significant growth in research on male sexual vic-
timization and calls for recognizing the intersections of gen-
der and sexuality in shaping male survivors’ experiences of
sexual victimization, there remains a notable gap in under-
standing how ethnicity and culture intersect with gendered
expectations to shape the experiences of minoritized men.
Particularly in the UK context, studies have tended to over-
look male sexual victimization within minoritized ethnic
groups. Two of the largest ethnic minority groups in the UK
are individuals of Asian and Black African/Caribbean
background, comprising approximately 9.3% and 4% of the
population, respectively (Office for National Statistics,
2022b). While having important cultural differences, these
communities share the fear of dishonoring oneself and fam-
ily, which shapes how individuals respond to trauma and dis-
closure (Gilbert et al., 2004; Gilligan & Akhtar, 2006).
Individuals from minoritized ethnicities’ decision to conceal
their experiences of sexual trauma is often motivated by
pressures to not bring shame to their families (Rehal &
Maguire, 2014). Moreover, families frequently cover up
such incidents, fearing that they may discredit their status in
the community (Gill & Harrison, 2019; Harrison & Gill,
2018). Consequently, the sociocultural context creates sub-
stantial barriers to disclosure and help-seeking for minori-
tized men who experienced sexual abuse. This is despite
research indicating that sexual victimization is particularly
prevalent among minority ethnic men who have sex with
men in the UK, with 27% of men from these communities
reporting sexual abuse (Jaspal et al., 2017). However, previ-
ous studies suggest that these numbers are likely underesti-
mates due to the influence of collectivist norms and
patriarchal values prevalent in many minoritized cultures
(Sawrikar & Katz, 2017).
Collectivist cultures, commonly found in Black and Asian
communities, place significant emphasis on family reputa-
tion and honor, playing a pivotal role in social life (Gilbert
et al., 2004). Upholding family honor becomes a major pre-
occupation that refrains sexual violence survivors from dis-
closing and seeking help, as the stigma associated with male
sexual victimization brings shame upon the entire family.
Moreover, the expectations of masculinity deeply rooted in
the patriarchal values of many minority cultures pressure
men to embody traits like dominance, stoicism, and being the
family provider (Simkhada et al., 2021). Consequently,
admitting vulnerability through the disclosure of sexual
trauma may be perceived as a sign of weakness and failure to
fulfill the male gender role (Gill & Begum, 2023). These
sociocultural barriers further exacerbate the self-stigma,
shame, and isolation already felt by male survivors. It is
imperative, therefore, to adopt an intersectional lens that
considers the complex interplay of ethnicity, culture, and
gendered expectations to better understand and address the
challenges faced by minoritized male victims of sexual
abuse. While primary research with female survivors sup-
ports these claims (Armstrong et al., 2018), only a few stud-
ies explicitly explore the narratives of adult male survivors
from ethnic minority groups.
Recent studies have illuminated the nuanced role of eth-
nicity in shaping attitudes toward sexual violence. Willmott
and Widanaralalage’s (2024) investigation revealed that
participants from Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic
(BAME) backgrounds exhibited significantly higher accep-
tance of male rape myths compared to Caucasian partici-
pants, corroborating previous findings by Rosenstein
(2015). This highlights the influence of cultural norms and

4 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
societal perceptions on the endorsement of harmful beliefs
surrounding sexual assault. Similarly, Willmott et al., (2024)
demonstrated that both male and BAME participants
expressed more problematic attitudes toward sexual vio-
lence, emphasizing the intersecting identities that contribute
to varying degrees of myth acceptance. Furthermore, Lilley
et al. (2023) exploration of juror decision-making uncov-
ered significant disparities based on juror ethnicity, with
Caucasian jurors demonstrating a propensity for leniency
compared to their minority ethnic counterparts. These stud-
ies collectively underscore the need for intersectional analy-
ses when examining attitudes toward sexual violence,
emphasizing the complex interplay between ethnicity, gen-
der, and societal perceptions in shaping beliefs surrounding
rape myths.
Understanding the experiences of sexual victimization in
men from minoritized ethnicities in the UK is crucial for the
development of culturally sensitive interventions and effec-
tive support pathways. This rapid review is the first to inves-
tigate and synthesize research on Black and Asian male
survivors in the UK by quantifying and qualifying the nature
and scope of this public health problem and identifying
knowledge gaps to inform practice, policy, and research. The
review has the following objectives: (a) determining the
prevalence of sexual victimization among Black and Asian
men in the UK, (b) identifying the challenges faced by men
from minority groups when disclosing their experiences of
victimization and exploring the barriers they encounter while
seeking help and accessing support services, and (c) examin-
ing the difficulties minority men experience when involving
the criminal justice system regarding sexual victimization
cases. By addressing these objectives, the review seeks to
provide valuable insights to guide practice, shape policies,
and inspire further research in this critical area.
Methods
A rapid review was undertaken within a 6-month timeframe.
By accelerating and streamlining typical traditional system-
atic review processes, rapid reviews provide a timely and
resource-efficient method of synthesized evidence to inform
key decisions in healthcare policy and practice (Moons et al.,
2021). However, rapid review methodology is variable, and
a single validated approach does not currently exist. As such,
this review has adopted recent Cochrane interim guidance
(Garritty et al., 2021), which aims to support the conduct and
improve the utility and robustness of rapid review results.
This guidance includes specific recommendations to improve
rigor at all stages of the review process including search
strategies, screening, study selection, data extraction, risk of
bias assessment and synthesis. The review also draws from
Rapid Evidence Assessment methodologies to provide a
timely synthesis of the available evidence (Barnett et al.,
2021) on the prevalence, disclosure, help-seeking, and crimi-
nal justice experiences of Black and Asian male survivors of
sexual violence in the UK. To enhance transparency and
reduce bias, a pre-registered review was published on
PROSPERO (ID CRD42023407522) on March 15th, 2023.
Search Strategy
Searches were carried out across four databases in April
2023 (spanning January 1, 2000 to April 1, 2023): Embase,
Medline, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. Gray literature
searches were also carried out for leading specialist sexual
violence organizations in the UK (Male Survivors
Partnership, Survivors UK, 1 in 6, Rape Crisis, and ManKind
UK), as well as the ONS, gov.uk research database, and
British Library EThOS thesis database. Reference lists of
included studies were also hand-searched to minimize inac-
curacies from the database search and identify any other
papers meeting the eligibility requirements.
Assessment of Quality
Citations were initially imported into EndNote software to
remove duplicates and then uploaded to Zotero software to
facilitate screening. As per Cochrane guidance (Garritty
et al., 2021), one reviewer (SJ) screened all titles and
abstracts. A second reviewer (KW) also independently
screened 25% of abstracts and then screened all excluded
abstracts. For full-text screening, one reviewer screened all
included full-text articles, and the second reviewer then
independently screened all excluded full-text articles.
Disagreements were resolved by discussion between the
two reviewers and consultation with the wider research
group where consensus could not be reached. Notably, given
the small number of relevant papers identified and the
unsuitability of the excluded papers, the reviewers reached
full agreement in their assessments. The Preferred Reporting
Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
(PRISMA) flow diagram (Figure 1) details the search results
and the process of screening and selecting studies for inclu-
sion, including the reasons for study exclusion. Studies
clearly not relevant were rejected without recording a
detailed reason, but “near misses” were recorded within the
PRISMA flow diagram. As per guidance, the relevant
Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal checklist (Joanna
Briggs Institute, 2024) was applied according to the design
of the included study (cross-sectional, cohort, experimental,
qualitative, or mixed methods). One reviewer (SJ) assessed
risk of bias for each study, with a second reviewer (KW)
providing a full verification of all judgments and support
statements for each. All studies were included in the review
irrespective of rating; however, implications of methodolog-
ical flaws for review findings were discussed within the nar-
rative synthesis.
Eligibility and Exclusion Criteria
Studies meeting the following criteria were included in
the review: examination of the prevalence, disclosure/

Widanaralalage et al. 5
help-seeking behaviors, or experiences within the criminal
justice system related to sexual violence against Black and/
or Asian males in the UK context; publication in English
from 2000 onwards. Studies based outside the UK were
included only if deemed relevant to the UK context. All pri-
mary research study designs, including qualitative and mixed
methods studies, were eligible for inclusion. Studies falling
outside of the above timeframe and not focusing on Black/
Asian male populations or not directly relating to prevalence,
disclosure, help seeking, and criminal justice experiences
were excluded. Additionally, non-empirical studies such as
revies, editorials, and opinion pieces were excluded from
consideration.
The search strategy employed Boolean operators, com-
bining the core concepts of sexual violence, males, and the
UK setting. Ethnicity was not added as a key concept to cap-
ture studies that did not explicitly focus on Black or Asian
groups but did consider ethnicity within analysis. Searches
for other databases were database-specific adaptations of
these keywords and/or MeSH headings (See Supplemental
materials for the Medline search strategy, which was adapted
for other databases). As per Cochrane guidance, only English
language papers were included. Searches focused on
UK-based studies but included world literature where rele-
vant to a UK context. A methodological filter for qualitative
studies was not applied to enable mixed-method studies to be
identified.
Study Selection
Studies were assessed for their eligibility according to inclu-
sion and exclusion criteria specified in the pre-registered proto-
col. The Patient/problem, Intervention/exposure, Comparison/
control, Outcome(s) (PICO) framework was adopted as it is
suitable for mixed-method reviews composed of quantitative
and qualitative lines of inquiry. Given the context-sensitivity
of sexual violence policy and practice and ethnic minority
experiences across countries, this review focused on
UK-based studies. As a prior scoping review found few stud-
ies explicitly focused on ethnic minorities, study populations,
assessments, and outcomes were broadly defined. No restric-
tions were applied in terms of research setting or length of
study and included both published and unpublished studies.
All primary research study designs were permitted. Reviews,
case reports, editorials, news/opinion pieces, letters, com-
ments, and purely methodological studies were excluded.
Data Synthesis
Due to the limited number of included studies and the hetero-
geneity of these studies, a comprehensive thematic analysis
could not be conducted. Instead, a descriptive summary was
conducted to present the characteristics of included studies.
A narrative synthesis of findings from the included studies
was then conducted to interpret the collective evidence fully.
Recordsidentified from:
Databases(n =1262)
Registers (n =0)
Records removed before
screening:
Duplicate records removed
(n =182)
Records marked as ineligible
by automation tools (n =0)
Records removed for other
reasons (n =0)
Records screened
(n =1089)
Recordsexcluded
(n =759)
Reportssought for retrieval
(n =0)
Reportsnot retrieved
(n =0)
Reports assessed for eligibility
(n =321)
Reports excluded: 315
Wrong outcome (n =85)
Ethnicity not stated (n =82)
Wrong study design (n =51)
Aggregate ethnic categories
used (n =28)
Pre 2003 (n= 27)
Ethnicity not included in
analysis (n = 23)
Wrong population (n =19)
Recordsidentified from:
Websites (n =39)
Organisations (n =0)
Citation searching(n =0)
etc.
Reportsassessed for eligibility
(n =39)
Reports excluded:
Ethnicity not stated (n = 20)
Wrong outcome (n =6)
Ethnicity not included in
analysis (n =3)
etc.
Wrong study design (n=2)
Aggregate ethnic categories
(n=1)
Studies included in review
(n =6)
Reports of included studies
(n =2)
Identification of studiesvia databases and registersIdentification of studiesvia other methods
noitacifitnedI
Screening
Included
Reportssought for retrieval
(n =0)
Reportsnot retrieved
(n =0)
Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart.

6 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
Synthesis was grouped across each of the three study aims
(prevalence, disclosure, help seeking, and criminal justice
system experiences) to synthesize current literature and
highlight significant research limitations across each area.
Data Extraction
One reviewer (SJ) extracted all relevant data from each study
using a piloted data extraction form in Microsoft Excel. A
second reviewer (KW) checked extracted data for accuracy
and completeness. As per Cochrane guidance, data extrac-
tion was limited to a minimal set of essential data items,
including publication details (author, title, year of publica-
tion), research aim, recruitment procedures, data collection
method (e.g., interview, focus group, face-to-face), study
design, population (survivors, health professionals), sample
characteristics (e.g., age, ethnicity, and religion) and size,
outcome, as well as any author recommendations or conclu-
sions based on findings (see Table 1).
Results
Literature Search and Description of Studies
The search identified 1,080 records after duplicate removal.
After title and abstract screening, 321 records were retained
for full-text screening. Thirty-nine gray literature reports
were also identified for full-text screening. Ten studies relat-
ing to sexual violence of Black and Asian men in the UK met
the inclusion criteria. Six of these related to prevalence and
two related to disclosure and help seeking. No studies were
identified related to Black and Asian men’s experiences
within the UK’s Criminal Justice System. Study types
included four cross-sectional surveys, three qualitative stud-
ies, and one prospective cohort design. Overall, very few
studies were identified that aligned with review aims and
inclusion criteria. Many studies were excluded due to limita-
tions surrounding ethnicity, including a lack of reporting of
ethnic makeup of sample, inclusion of White British only
samples, inappropriate aggregate (BAME) or binary (White
vs Non-White) categorization, or a lack of appropriate analy-
sis making it unclear how salient findings are for Black and
Asian groups specifically. Identified papers are analyzed and
presented in a narrative synthesis below according to each
key review question (a) prevalence, (b) disclosure and help-
seeking, (c) criminal justice system), with core limitations
and areas for improvement highlighted.
RQ 1: Prevalence
Five studies (Bebbington et al., 2011; Cockbain et al., 2017;
Jaspal et al., 2017; Khadr et al., 2018; Office for National
Statistics, 2023b) were identified that related to prevalence,
one of which was the ONS dataset output on victim character-
istics of sexual offenses. In the UK, official statistics on
sexual violence are derived from two main sources (a) the
CSEW and (b) police record crime. The CSEW is a represen-
tative household survey of the England and Wales population
comprised of a face-to-face questionnaire that asks respon-
dents to report on sexual violence experiences within the pre-
vious year. More recently, an anonymous self-completion
survey was introduced to improve the reliability of estimates
and reporting rates of sensitive disclosures, including sexual
violence. While the ONS does produce regular outputs on
victim characteristics of sexual offenses, ethnicity is neglected
as a key feature in the main report (unlike age, gender, and
deprivation measures). A supplementary table2 does provide
data on victim ethnicity; however, for Asian/Asian British
and Black/Black British males, these are largely suppressed
due to disclosure constraints. The only figure publicly avail-
able is an unweighted base estimate of 171/2356 (7.26%) for
Asian/Asian British men. Unfortunately, ONS statistics on
UK child sexual abuse prevalence in England and Wales
(Office for National Statistics, 2020) also neglects to produce
any data on ethnicity.
While lifetime prevalence studies do exist in the UK
(Coxell et al., 1999; Coxell & King, 2010; Plant et al., 2004),
most are outdated, and none explicitly include a meaningful
analysis of sexual victimization across different ethnic
minority groups. Alternative, less reliable indicators and
sources of prevalence data identified by this review rely on
the clinical characteristics of those in services or established
British health research cohorts that collect and explore rele-
vant sexual violence variables. However, these studies are
limited and fragmented. For example, despite being the rec-
ommended treatment pathway for sexual offenses, sexual
assault referral centers (SARC) do not currently publish rou-
tine data on service user characteristics. While regional and
small-scale SARC audits and research studies have shown
high prevalence of sexual violence experiences by ethnicity
(McLean, 2007), almost none further broke this down by
gender. Khadr et al. (2018) was the sole study identified by
this review that examined the childhood sexual abuse (CSA)
prevalence of a limited number of SARC service users, dis-
aggregated by both ethnicity and gender. However, despite a
diverse sample of nearly 50% non-White, this study only
included six males (two Black and one South Asian male)
compared to 141 females. Interestingly, compared with non-
participants, participants were also significantly less likely to
be of Asian ethnicity.
While some established British research cohorts collect
relevant sexual violence and ethnicity variables (e.g., Chaplin
et al., 2021), almost none have explicitly focused on the rela-
tionship except Bebbington et al. (2011). This study utilized
data from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey
(N = 7,353) in England to estimate child sexual abuse preva-
lence. This study estimated 8% of men (294/3,630) to have
experienced sexual abuse of any description before 16; how-
ever, no significant differences were found in prevalence
rates between White (5.4%), Black (4.8%), and Asian (4.1%)

7
Table 1. Included Studies.
Article Name Author Name (Year) Methodology Aims and Objectives
Child sexual abuse reported by an English
national sample: characteristics and
demography
Bebbington etal.
(2011)
Cross-sectional survey, random sample of
English household population (N = 7,353); Black
male victims = 4.8% (5/105); South Asian male
victims = 4.1% (7/170)
To establish sociodemographic distribution of
childhood sexual abuse (CSA) in the general
population.
Immaterial Boys? A Large-Scale
Exploration of Gender-Based Differences
in Child Sexual Exploitation Service
Users
Cockbain etal.
(2017)
Cross-sectional survey, Childhood Sexual Exploitation
survivors from Barnardo’s national database
(N = 9,042); Black male victims = 6%; Asian male
victims = 5%
A large-scale empirical assessment of differences
and commonalities between boys and girls
accessing CSE support services in the UK.
Sexual abuse and HIV-risk behavior among
black and minority ethnic (BME) men
who have sex with men in the UK
Jaspal etal. (2017) Cross-sectional survey of BME men who have sex
with other men and accessed a Sexual Health Clinic
(N = 432); Black male victims = 3.01% (13/432); South
Asian male victims = 27% (103/432)
Exploring the relationship between sexual abuse
experiences and sexual risk taking, predicting
that this relationship would be mediated by
victimization and maladaptive coping variables
Mental and sexual health outcomes
following sexual assault in adolescents: a
prospective cohort study
Khadr et al. (2018) Prospective longitudinal study with attendees of a
sexual assault referral center (SARC) in Greater
London (N = 6 male survivors, of which two Black
and one South Asian)
Examine the characteristics of adolescents
accessing SARC services and the trajectory of
their health and wellbeing after sexual assault.
Sexual offenses prevalence and victim
characteristics, England and Wales
Office for National
Statistics (2023a)
Random national sample of self-reported and police-
reported sexual assaults in England and Wales based
upon findings from the Crime Survey for England
and Wales and police-recorded crime (N = 171/2,356
Asian/Asian British Men)
To estimate sexual offense numbers, prevalence,
and victim characteristics, including breakdowns
by type of incident, sex, victim-perpetrator
relationship, and location.
“They Wouldn’t Believe Me”: Giving
a Voice to British South Asian Male
Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse
Gill and Begum
(2023)
Qualitative study with CSA British Asian Survivors
who accessed counseling organization in the
Survivors Trust (N = 8)
To explore experiences of male survivors from
British South Asian communities, with a focus on
disclosure and help seeking.
Recovery Experiences from CSA among
Black Men: Historical/Sociocultural
Interrelationships
Myrie and Schwab
(2023)
Qualitative study of Black CSA male survivors living in
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States
(N = 6).
Using critical race theory lens and transactional
model of stress and coping, the study explores
Black CSA survivors’ “experiences and their
recovery journeys.”
Improving responses to the sexual abuse
of Black, Asian, and minority ethnic
children
Ali etal. (2021) Qualitative study with professionals in the voluntary
sector in England (N = 16) who worked with Black,
Asian, and minority ethnic survivors of CSA.
To address knowledge gaps around professional
practice in supporting children from Black, Asian,
and minority ethnic backgrounds who are at risk
of experiencing CSA.

8 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
men. Jaspal et al.’s (2017) study had a specific focus on the
lifetime sexual abuse prevalence of ethnic minority men who
have sex with other men accessing a limited number of sex-
ual health charities in the UK. Of 432 male participants, 143
reported sexual abuse (27%), of which 103 (23.84%) were
South Asian and 13 (3.01%) were Black. Cockbain et al.
(2017) assessed characteristics of individuals who had expe-
rienced childhood sexual exploitation on the Barnardo’s cen-
tral register (a non-governmental organization and the United
Kingdom’s largest provider of childhood sexual exploitation
services). Of the 2,986 male service users, 83% were White,
6% Black, and 5% Asian, compared to youth population fig-
ures of 82%, 4%, and 9%, respectively. This may indicate an
overrepresentation of Black and underrepresentation of
Asian groups; however, formal statistical analyses were not
carried out. It is important to note that the study explicitly
stated that it “found no theoretical or empirical grounds to
expect an association between service users’ gender and their
ethnicity.” (p. 665) without offering further explanation as to
the assertion.
RQ 2: Disclosure and Help-seeking
Only three studies were identified relating to disclosure and
help-seeking of Asian and Black men survivors of sexual
violence in the UK, two from the scientific literature (Gill &
Begum, 2023; Myrie & Schwab, 2023) and one from the
gray literature (Ali et al., 2021), all relating to CSA.
Gill and Begum (2023) focused specifically on the experi-
ences of eight British South Asian males who had experi-
enced CSA, focusing specifically on understanding the
complexities of disclosure for men in these communities.
Most Asian survivors in this study opted for disclosing to
non-family members for fear of “letting down” the family
and compromising the family’s standing in the community.
Other Asian survivors in the study expressed doubt over
whether family members would believe them, thus pushing
survivors to protect themselves from a disappointing reac-
tion to their disclosure.
Myrie and Schwab (2023) conducted a qualitative analy-
sis of the experiences of six Black male survivors of CSA
living in Canada, the United States, and the UK. They found
that Black survivors were vulnerable to long-term mental
health consequences; however, neglected to disclose their
experiences and seek support. Black survivors reported con-
cerns around protecting the family from outside judgment,
given the shame and stigma attached to mental health in
Black and minority ethnic (BME) communities in the UK
(Memon et al., 2016). Relatedly, Black men reported a reluc-
tance to disclose and seek support for fear of marginalization
Table 2. Summary of Critical Findings.
Summary of Critical Findings
• Substantial gaps across all domains—prevalence, disclosure/help-seeking, criminal justice experiences.
○ Rates range from 5% to 6% but comparisons are difficult due to differences in definitions, measurements, and samples.
○ Emerging qualitative research identifies cultural barriers (e.g., family reputation, gender roles) that inhibit disclosure and help-
seeking among Asian and Black male childhood sexual abuse survivors.
○ No studies identified examining experiences of Asian and Black male survivors within the UK’s Criminal Justice System.
• Sparse and fragmented evidence precludes clear insights into scale of issue or service needs of minority male survivors.
• Significant limitations in existing literature including inconsistent definitions/measurements neglect of ethnicity in analysis.
• More rigorous research urgently needed using ethnic-specific approaches and perspectives of both survivors and professionals.
Table 3. Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice.
Implications for Research
• Future research should delve into the experiences of specific ethnic minority groups separately for a more nuanced understanding of
the challenges and needs faced by different communities within the larger minority framework.
• Research should explore the complex intersections of gender, sexuality, and ethnicity and how they influence barriers to disclosure
and help-seeking.
• Involving not just survivors but also professionals and informal support networks can provide insight into survivor recovery and
engagement with formal services in various sectors.
• Research should extend its scope beyond healthcare and criminal justice settings to encompass a wider range of contexts, such as
community organizations.
Implications for Practice and Policy
• Mandate improved data collection on ethnicity across national cohorts, healthcare systems, and criminal justice settings.
• Prioritize training and awareness initiatives to enhance the responsiveness of support services to the needs of minority male
survivors.
• Dedicated, tailored support services and outreach efforts should be established to engage Asian and Black male survivors who may
fear stigma.
• Community engagement to challenge secrecy surrounding sexual violence within minoritized communities to foster disclosure and
access to professional mental health services.

Widanaralalage et al. 9
from their community, confirming the importance of cultural
dynamics in shaping survivors’ experiences with recognition
and help-seeking. Despite focusing specifically on Black
men’s experiences, Myrie and Schwab call for caution on the
transferability of their findings, due to a small sample of men
from different countries. Indeed, only one participant was
from the UK. Furthermore, the sample was recruited across
multiple entry points, including community agencies, sup-
port groups, and counseling and therapy centers, thus poten-
tially introducing a sampling bias.
Ali et al. (2021) focused on professional responses to
child sexual abuse within general “BAME” groups. The
study reports a series of cultural barriers that refrain BAME
CSA survivors to disclose, including pressures to conform to
gender roles, fear of being disbelieved, and familial pres-
sures to maintain honor and prevent shame. Professionals
also reported structural, societal, and organizational barriers
to accessing support for minority CSA survivors in the UK,
highlighting how agencies’s cultural insensitivity toward
BAME survivors may enhance mistrust toward services. The
study has many strengths, including a unique perspective on
the experiences of CSA survivors from BAME community
through the lenses of specialist service providers, an approach
that is not uncommon in the male victimization literature,
given the well-known challenges accessing these communi-
ties (Sivagurunathan et al., 2019; Widanaralalage et al.,
2023). However, despite attempts to highlight findings spe-
cific to Black and Asian groups, the BAME focus does not
allow for a clear appraisal of the extent to which the barriers
and challenges for disclosure and help seeking are shared or
unique. The publication is also not peer reviewed, so caution
is needed in interpreting the findings.
RQ 3: Access to the Criminal Justice System
This review did not identify any eligible studies concerned
with the experiences of Black or Asian male survivors within
the criminal justice system. While a limited number of UK
studies do exist (Jamel, 2010; Jamel et al., 2008) that demon-
strate men’s poor experiences with disclosure of sexual
assault to the police and the wider judicial system, these
studies do not disaggregate analysis by ethnicity. However,
both studies do highlight the need for greater training and
dedicated support services sensitive to the intersection of
sexuality and ethnicity in sexual assault.
Discussion
Our rapid review highlights substantial gaps in the literature
on sexual violence against ethnic minority men in the UK.
Despite recent calls for improving how ethnicity data is col-
lected and acknowledged in healthcare research,3 the evi-
dence base on male survivors’ experiences remains
significantly limited across all levels of analysis, reporting,
and inclusion of diverse groups. This rapid review identified
a stark paucity of literature examining prevalence, disclo-
sure, help-seeking, and access to the criminal justice system
among Asian and Black male survivors. The sparse data
available paints a concerning picture of unmet needs among
these populations. Substantial research is urgently required
to provide clarity on the true scale and nature of male sexual
victimization among Asian and Black men in the UK.
The review highlighted how the UK male sexual violence
literature is characterized by suboptimal consideration of
ethnicity at inclusion, reporting, and analysis levels. Included
studies also suffered from significant methodological flaws
identified by recent reviews of male sexual violence litera-
ture (Langdridge et al., 2023; Thomas & Kopel, 2023) relat-
ing to inconsistency in definition, measurement, and
sampling procedures. The studies included in this review
provide limited and mixed evidence regarding the preva-
lence of sexual violence among Asian and Black men, with
rates ranging between 5% and 6% (Bebbington et al., 2011;
Cockbain et al., 2017). These figures are consistent with both
historic (e.g., Coxell et al., 1999) and recent (ONS, 2021a,
2021b) data on prevalence of lifetime sexual victimization
among all men in the UK, estimated at around 5% of the
adult male population. Similarly, Jaspal et al.’s (2017) work
with BME men who have sex with other men emphasize the
increased rates of victimization among sexual minority
found in other research on male sexual victimization
(Hickson et al., 1994; Survivors UK, 2021), highlighting the
importance of taking an intersectional lens to the study of
sexual violence among these communities. However, cau-
tion is necessary when comparing these figures to data avail-
able for White male survivors, as significant heterogeneity in
sample populations and measurement issues precludes
meaningful comparisons.
Research on sexual violence is often hindered by the lack
of consistency in defining these crimes (Bagwell-Gray et al.,
2015), as was the case for this rapid review. Sources varied
in focus, from CSA (Bebbington et al., 2011), adolescent
sexual assault (Khadr et al., 2018), lifetime sexual victimiza-
tion (Jaspal et al., 2017), and recent adult sexual victimiza-
tion (Office for National Statistics, 2023a). Within each
study, different definitions of sexual violence were employed,
with varying degrees of inclusion of acts ranging from non-
consensual sexual contact (Jaspal et al., 2017; Khadr et al.,
2018) to uncomfortable sexual talk (Bebbington et al., 2011).
Sexual assault, as defined by the CSEW encompasses rape or
assault by penetration (including attempts), indecent expo-
sure, or unwanted sexual touching, whereas in police-
recorded crime refers only to the sexual touching of a person
without their consent (Office for National Statistics, 2023a).
Police-recorded sexual offenses also cover a broader range
of offenses than are measured by the CSEW.
Taken together, the findings of this review highlight an
inconsistency in definition that is commonplace across the
sexual violence literature, as reflected in the 2018 NHS
Strategic Direction for Sexual Assault and Abuse Services

10 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
report (NHS England, 2018), which includes forced mar-
riage, honor-based violence, female genital mutilation,
human trafficking, and ritual abuse in their definition of sex-
ual violence. UK legal definitions further exacerbate this
conceptual confusion, whereby the most recent 2003 Sexual
Offenses Act only recognizes rape as penile penetration and,
therefore, can still only be committed by men (Weare, 2020).
This has potential implications for identification and self-
report of rape, as well as perpetuating rape myths and stigma
for male survivors (Hine, Murphy, & Churchyard, 2021).
Challenges with recognition (both personal and institutional)
affect self-disclosure and perpetuate stigma.
With no standardized prevalence measures, comparisons
were precluded. Nonetheless, existing data indicates con-
cerning vulnerability among ethnic minority males. Their
underrepresentation likely reflects non-disclosure rooted in
cultural factors like gender norms, fears of stigma, and famil-
ial reputation (Gill & Begum, 2023; Lowe & Balfour, 2015;
Simkhada et al., 2021). More accurate prevalence estima-
tions require addressing definitional and measurement
issues, along with adopting ethnicity-focused sampling and
analyses. As no singular validated assessment of sexual vio-
lence exists, measurement across studies is also highly vari-
able. Self-report methods have been recognized as being
likely to be more accurate for disclosure compared to face-
to-face methods of inquiry (as evidenced by the CSEW).
However, male disclosure is still limited by several estab-
lished factors including gendered and cultural differences in
what constitutes abuse (Gill & Begum, 2023; Widanaralalage
et al., 2023). The understanding of ethnic minority male
experiences is even poorer, particularly surrounding the
influence of ethnocultural and other relevant factors in driv-
ing underrepresentation in prevalence data. Conceptual clar-
ity and transparency within academic literature regarding
definitions, measurements, and sample derivation are neces-
sary to gain reliable insights into the prevalence and context
of sexual violence experiences for ethnic minority males. An
enhanced consideration of ethnicity in national statistics and
established healthcare cohorts is desperately required to
meaningfully examine scale of issue and address unmet
needs of ethnic minority male survivors in the UK.
A notable finding in this review was an emergence of con-
temporary research exploring disclosure experiences of
Black and Asian male survivors of CSA in the UK (Ali et al.,
2021; Gill & Begum, 2023; Myrie & Schwab, 2023).
Although significant gaps in knowledge remain, initial quali-
tative studies have identified a reluctance among British
South Asian men to disclose CSA to family members due to
concerns about bringing shame and dishonor to the family
and damaging community standing (Gill & Begum, 2023).
Research also indicates that cultural factors, like desires to
protect family from judgment and marginalization, create
barriers to disclosure for Black male survivors (Myrie &
Schwab, 2023). However, small sample sizes and lack of
UK-specific data limit the transferability of these findings.
Broader examinations of disclosure among BAME survivors
highlight cultural barriers related to gender roles, fears of
being disbelieved, and familial honor, but lack ethnic speci-
ficity (Ali et al., 2021). Overall, existing studies suggest cul-
tural factors pose significant challenges to disclosure for
Asian and Black male CSA survivors in the UK, but more
research is needed to strengthen the evidence base, particu-
larly using ethnic-specific approaches. Examining the expe-
riences of minority ethnic populations, rather than broader
BAME categorization, will likely provide greater insight on
the distinct disclosure barriers faced.
This rapid review sheds light on the current state of
research on sexual violence against ethnic minority males in
the UK, revealing its fundamental limitations and fragmented
nature. The lack of comprehensive studies across various
contexts, settings, perspectives, and methodologies under-
scores the urgent need to understand the experiences and
unmet support needs within Asian and Black communities.
One issue in the existing research is its narrow focus on CSA,
neglecting the exploration of other groups, such as adult sur-
vivors, and other critical contexts where sexual violence may
proliferate, such as chemsex environments (see Blomquist
et al., 2020). These diverse experiences likely pose distinct
barriers and necessitate separate considerations. Additionally,
the lack of studies conducted in various service settings,
including primary care, SARCs, faith groups, peer support
networks, charities, mental health, and addiction services, is
troubling, given the known risks for trauma exposure across
minority groups (Motley & Banks, 2018, Widanaralalage et
al., 2024)) and the likelihood of men attempting to gain
access to support through different entry points.
To gain a more comprehensive understanding, compara-
tive research explicitly contrasting different ethnic groups is
essential. Such an approach would allow for the identifica-
tion of both unique and shared factors that shape experi-
ences, ultimately leading to a more nuanced understanding
of the issue. Furthermore, incorporating viewpoints from
both service users and professionals would offer invaluable
insights into the barriers and facilitators to disclosure and
help-seeking, providing a holistic view of the entire system.
The male survivor literature itself already suffers from con-
ceptual ambiguity, measurement inconsistencies, and domi-
nance of female perspectives (Widanaralalage et al., 2022c).
By neglecting the aspect of ethnicity, the visibility of the
issue is further obscured, and intersectional barriers for
minority groups are introduced. Therefore, it becomes
imperative to address the ethnicity data gap in male sexual
violence research, which is equally significant as the gender
data gap previously highlighted by Cooper and Obolenskaya
(2021). Calls for culturally competent and intersectional
approaches to address the needs of marginalized male survi-
vors have been made by organizations like the NHS England
(2018) and the Male Survivor Partnership (2021). However,
despite these calls, the evidence base remains fragmented.
Furthermore, it is essential to consider how emerging issues

Widanaralalage et al. 11
such as online harassment and revenge porn (reference)
intersect with ethnicity, as these, too, can have significant
implications for minority groups (Ng et al., 2022).
Implications
The findings of this review have several implications for
future research, policy, and practice for supporting Asian and
Black minority men who experience sexual violence in the
UK. Clearly, further prevalence research is needed to address
the substantial gap in knowledge on the scope of this phe-
nomenon. This should be achieved by moving beyond broad
categorization of ethnic minority men under the umbrella
term “BAME” and examining experiences of specific ethnic
minority groups separately. Similarly, more research is
needed to further understand the barriers to disclosure and
help seeking beyond CSA, by recognizing the intersections
of gender, sexuality, and ethnicity in shaping survivors’ post-
assault experiences (Armstrong et al., 2018). This can be
achieved by involving not only survivors but also profes-
sionals and immediate, informal support networks, known in
the sexual violence literature to be key players in survivors’
recovery and engagement with formal services in the third
and criminal justice sector (Widanaralalage et al., 2023).
Furthermore, such efforts would allow for a more compre-
hensive understanding of barriers encountered by ethnic
minority survivors, by examining a wider range of settings,
from healthcare, criminal justice, and community.
Efforts to improve research practices and knowledge must
be linked with efforts to improve policy, by, for example,
mandating an improved collection of ethnicity data and
reporting across national cohorts, healthcare, and criminal
justice settings. Similarly, policies and training are needed
across public services to improve responsiveness to the needs
of minority male survivors. This would involve challenging
stigma, raising awareness, and identifying cultural-specific
barriers, which should be a policy priority to increase rates of
disclosure by enhancing cultural competency in organiza-
tions serving minority male survivors and addressing the
secrecy of sexual violence across Black and Asian communi-
ties in the UK. While specialist male support services exist in
the UK, dedicated, tailored services and outreach may be
required to engage Asian and Black male survivors who fear
stigma. This would potentially help developing clearer refer-
ral pathways and connect mainstream and ethnic-specific
services.
Limitations and Future Directions
The review provides the first attempt to comprehensively
examining the existing literature on sexual violence against
Black and Asian men in the UK context. It highlights major
gaps in knowledge related to prevalence, disclosure, help-
seeking, and criminal justice experiences. However, there
are important limitations to be considered. As with any
review methodology, some relevant studies might have been
missed (Ganann et al., 2010). Our ability to conduct a quality
appraisal and synthesis was limited by the small number of
eligible studies. Furthermore, the sole focus on male survi-
vors’ literature does not allow for complete integration with
the broader literature on female sexual victimization.
Nevertheless, more systematic reviews of the evidence are
needed as the evidence base expands. It is also important to
note that, by restricting its focus solely on UK-based studies,
the review may have overlooked valuable insights from
diverse cultural contexts an backgrounds, potentially limit-
ing the generalizability of our findings. The exclusion of the
international literature may have narrowed our understand-
ing of the barriers that are unique to different cultural, social,
and legal settings. Adopting a more inclusive approach in
future literature reviews will be crucial for developing a
comprehensive understanding of Black and Asian male sur-
vivors’ experiences of disclosure, help seeking, and access to
service. In summary, while the review makes a compelling
case for more research on this overlooked topic, its ability to
draw firm conclusions is constrained by the limited evidence
base. As the literature develops, more comprehensive sys-
tematic reviews will be needed. Key future priorities include
prevalence research and qualitative inquiries to understand
barriers faced by minority males across diverse settings and
perspectives.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this rapid review highlights profound gaps in
the literature on sexual violence against ethnic minority
males in the UK context. Existing prevalence data is
extremely limited and hampered by inconsistencies, with
rates for Asian and Black men ranging from 5% to 6%.
Emerging qualitative evidence suggests cultural factors
pose barriers to disclosure and help-seeking for these
groups, but studies are few and methodologically flawed.
No research was identified examining experiences within
the criminal justice system. Overall, the review underscores
the lack of rigorous evidence across all domains, preclud-
ing clear insights into the scale of the issue or service needs
of minority male survivors. Substantial research is urgently
required using consistent definitions and measurements,
ethnic-specific approaches, and perspectives of both survi-
vors and professionals. Alongside further research,
enhanced ethnicity data collection and culturally informed
training are needed across public services to improve
responsiveness. A collaborative, system-wide approach is
essential to address this overlooked issue. In summary, this
review makes a compelling case for targeted research and
policy efforts to elucidate and respond to the neglected
experiences of sexual violence against ethnic minority
males in the UK (Tables 2 and 3).

12 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article:
British Academy/Leverhulme Small Research Grants SRG 2022
Round: SRG22\220635
ORCID iD
B. Kennath Widanaralalage https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5748-
1517
Notes
1. In this review, we have adopted the definitions of sexual
violence and victimization as provided by the authors of the
reviewed studies, allowing for a thorough exploration of
diverse conceptualizations within the field.
2. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/
crimeandjustice/datasets/sexualoffencesprevalenceandvictim-
characteristicsenglandandwales.
3. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/standards-for-
ethnicity-data/standards-for-ethnicity-data.
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Author Biographies
B. Kennath Widanaralalage, PhD, is a Lecturer in Psychology at
King’s College London. His research focuses on sexual and inti-
mate partner victimization in men and minoritized groups, examin-
ing disclosure, help seeking, and access to support and criminal
justice services. Working with survivors, practitioners, and agen-
cies, his research highlights the intersections of gender, sexuality,
and ethnicity/culture in violence and victimization.
Stacey Jennings, PhD, completed her doctorate at Queen Mary
University London, exploring alcohol use and ethnicity. Her exper-
tise spans perinatal mental health, alcohol-related issues, and male
survivors’ experiences of sexual violence. Her work led her to
develop partnerships with medical services, substance use agencies,
and domestic violence organizations to help shape research agendas
and best practices for service provision.

16 TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE 00(0)
Coral Dando, PhD, is a Professor of Psychology at the University
of Westminster London and a Consultant Forensic Psychologist.
Previously a London police officer, her research is centered on
applying psychological science to develop evidence-based tech-
niques to support vulnerable witnesses, victims, and survivors to
recount their experiences and give “best evidence” to support the
investigative and prosecution processes.
Jay-Marie Mackenzie, PhD, is a Reader in Psychology at the
University of Westminster. Her research focuses on understanding
how environmental contexts are important in suicide prevention.
She is involved with several projects aimed at understanding self-
harm by university students and how to support them. Her work
also explores access and involvement of criminal justice services
from victim and perpetrator perspectives.