Article

Gender discrimination in salaries: the case of the Spanish performing arts sector

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Article
Full-text available
Women account for slightly more than half of persons who identify some version of visual artist as their occupation in the USA, and account for slightly less than half of the recipients of MFA degrees. Despite this, works by female artists constitute approximately 7% of the works offered for sale at global auction houses. The works sell for substantially lower prices, with unadjusted discounts in mean price generally in excess of 40%. In this paper, we explore this problem in detail, examining how much of the gender price gap remains after adjusting for characteristics of the artworks, conditions of sale and image content and complexity. We explore how the gender gap is influenced by artist ethnicity and region of birth, and document what appear to be important distinctions and changes over the past 25–30 years. We consider a variety of possible explanations including whether works by women artists are substantially different in characteristics or content than works by other artists, whether they are avoided by the premier auction houses and whether they tend to fail to sell at auction more frequently. This allows us to reduce the range of possible explanations for why these differences continue to be observed, and provide directions for future research.
Article
Full-text available
We test for gender effects in the art market using auction prices for artists who graduated from the Yale School of Art. Yale’s female graduates have significantly fewer auction sales, controlling for their graduating year gender ratio. Conditioning upon sale, works by female artists obtained higher average prices. The results suggest that while institutions and career paths may condition on gender, the market may not.
Article
Full-text available
There is one clear factor that leads to women's inequality in the labour market: "becoming mothers" (The Commission for Equalities and Human Rights, 2007). It is difficult to talk about women and work without talking about childcare. The same would not be true about a discussion of men and work and this is still one of the most obvious difficulties to be managed by working women, even those who choose not to have children. It is the potential of all women to have children and the associated disruption to their career that can lead to women being perceived as less worthy of investment – of time, of career advice, of promotion and even of pay (Fitt and Newton, 1981, Groysberg, 2008, McGuire, 2002, Wajcman, 1998). In the UK film industry, only 14% of women have children compared to 40% of men (Skillset and UK Film Council, 2008). Work in the UK film industry shares many traits of other creative professions such as flexible working hours, project-based employment, uncertainty, precariousness and irregular and often unreliable payment. Skillset's report on the status of women in the creative industries in the UK found that representation is highest in sectors comprising larger employers in which more stable, permanent employment models are common, such as terrestrial television (48%), broadcast radio (47%), cinema exhibition (43%), and book publishing (61%) (Skillset, 2010). This paper considers the hidden inequalities in the apparent freedom of a creative professions such as the UK film industry, paying particular attention to the role of the screenwriter in order to illustrate how continued gendered assumptions about a women's role as a mother and the primary carer for children can impact on their career opportunities in a creative industry.
Article
Full-text available
This chapter addresses work ‘segregation’ by sex in the cultural industries. We outline some of the main forms this takes, according to our observations: the high presence of women in marketing and public relations roles; the high numbers of women in production co-ordination and similar roles; the domination of men of more prestigious creative roles; and the domination by men of technical jobs. We then turn to explanation: what gender dynamics drive such patterns of work segregation according to sex? Drawing on interviews, we claim that the following stereotypes or prevailing discourses, concerning the distinctive attributes of women and men, may influence such segregation: that women are more caring, supportive and nurturing; that women are better communicators; that women are ‘better organized’; and that men are more creative because they are less bound by rules.
Article
Full-text available
Over the past 40 years or so, the large volume of work on gender and media has mostly focused on women’s representation and there is a complementary and growing literature which considers women’s employment in media, mostly news, industries. However, there is very little work which has explored the extent to which women have achieved the top jobs in the sector. When the Presidency of the Council of Europe moved to Ireland in January 2012, they chose to focus on Area J of the Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA, women and media) and worked with the European Institute for Gender Equality in scoping out a set of research projects to be commissioned. This short paper draws from one of those studies which aimed to explore the extent to which women are employed in decision-making positions in large-scale media organisations across Europe, including on boards and what kinds of gender-equality and/or women-focused policies are in place in those organisations. Once the resulting data had been analysed, the project intended to develop a set of indicators which could be adopted by the Council of the European Union – see later.
Article
Full-text available
Distinctive features of culture industries suggest that women culture workers face formidable barriers to career advancement. Using longitudinal data on the careers of screenwriters, we examine gender inequality in the labor market for writers of feature films. We hypothesize and test three different models of labor market dynamics and find support for a model of cumulative disadvantage whereby the gender gap in earnings grows as men and women move through their careers. We suggest that the transition of screenwriting from a mixed to a male-dominated occupation parallels the “empty field” phenomenon described in a study by Tuchman of nineteenth-century novelists. The institutionalization of male dominance of the film industry in the 1930s and the typecasting of women writers has had a lasting impact on gender inequality, which shows little change through the early 1990s.
Article
Full-text available
We analyse determinants of prices for contemporary art with the help of quantitative data. The focus is on gallery rather than auction prices in the Netherlands. We model the determinants of prices on three different levels: the work of art (size, material), the artist (age, sex, place of residence, institutional recognition), and the gallery (location, institutional affiliation, age). Our main findings are that the size and material of works of art, and the age and place of residence of the artist are strong predictors of price; that differences in size and materials partly ``mask'' price differences between artists; and that the variance in prices across galleries is largely explained by characteristics of the artists they represent. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2002
Article
This study explores women’s and men’s perceptions of the specific barriers that prevent women from participating fully in the cultural labour market. To this end, an online questionnaire was administered to 375 cultural professionals in Catalonia (Spain) regarding their perceptions of the barriers faced by women in a range of areas. The results show similar views between genders regarding the difficulties associated with the work–life balance as the most important obstacle preventing women from entering specific cultural fields and from rising to decision-making positions. However, perceptions of the barriers impacting the recognition of women’s career achievements differed greatly between men and women. While men place more emphasis on issues of work–life balance, women more frequently mention the existence of a glass ceiling and their exclusion from networks of influence. Regarding the visibility of women’s artistic creations, although intersectionality is mentioned by both genders as the main limiting factor, there are marked differences between women’s and men’s perception of the other barriers. Men thus more frequently refer to the barriers of work–life balance and the association of creativity with maleness as the main factors limiting the visibility of women’s artistic creations. In short, this study provides evidence to stakeholders of the different perceptions that men and women have in relation to the main barriers that prevent women from climbing the career ladder; gaining recognition and visibility for their work; and, in some creative sectors, even from entering the labour market.
Article
Despite the growing evidence of inequalities related to the presence, promotion and labor conditions of women in the cultural sector, as well as the factors that cause these inequalities, there is still a lack of research and consensus on the key measures that should be applied to reduce the effect of these inequalities. The aim of this study was to identify intervention measures, from both the public and private sectors, that will help promote gender equality in the Catalan context. In a three-round survey using the Delphi technique, cultural professionals were asked about the most appropriate measures to achieve gender equality in cultural employment. In this regard, this article presents an innovative data-gathering methodology for cultural studies, involving diverse stakeholders from the public, private and civil society sectors and contributing to informed decision-making processes. The highest priority measure identified in both the public and private sectors was related to compliance with legal provisions regarding the recognition of equal pay for work of equal value between women and men. The adoption of and compliance with laws and regulations aimed at advancing gender equality and the establishment of measures related to the reconciliation of work with family and social life was also prioritized highly by most professionals. The full set of measures proposed by cultural experts and affected groups can help to effectively address gender inequalities in the Catalan context and provide ideas for other local and national settings.
Article
Representations of women, or more exactly of gender, and the presence and works of women filmmakers constitute an important area of analysis for gender studies and feminist film theories. In Turkey the presence and the participation of women in the public sphere have been one of the important objectives of the Kemalist modernization project since the founding of the modern nation-state in 1923. However, despite the modernizing efforts to empower women in different spheres of life there was no woman director in Turkish commercial feature cinema until the beginning of the 1950s. Since the beginning of the 2000s the number of women directors has increased significantly, reaching a number well above that of the entire period before. This article investigates the reasons behind this increase based on quantitative data gathered from secondary sources and in-depth interviews with women producers and directors. It also questions whether and to what extent the increase in the number of women film directors contributed to the production of ‘women’s films’, based on a qualitative analysis of films produced by women directors between the years 2004 and 2013. The results show that in addition to technological and aesthetic changes in the industry, the increase in the availability of international and national public funding for low-budget independent film productions and the enlargement of the women’s movement allowed more women directors to enter the film industry. While half of the films made by women directors in the 2000s could be qualified as ‘women films’, the other half remained, largely due to market forces, within the conventions of popular or art house cinema.
Article
There is currently widespread concern that Britain’s cultural and creative industries (CCIs) are increasingly dominated by the privileged. This stands in stark contrast to dominant policy narratives of the CCIs as meritocratic. Until now this debate has been clouded by a relative paucity of data on class origins. This paper draws on new social origin data from the 2014 Labour Force Survey to provide the first large-scale, representative study of the class composition of Britain’s creative workforce. The analysis demonstrates that CCIs show significant variation in their individual “openness”, although there is a general under-representation of those from working-class origins across the sector. This under-representation is especially pronounced in publishing and music, in contrast to, for example, craft. Moreover, even when those from working-class backgrounds enter certain CCIs, they face a “class origin pay gap” compared to those from privileged backgrounds. The paper discusses how class inequalities, as well as those related to gender and ethnicity, between individual CCIs point to occupational subcultures that resist aggregation into the Department for Culture, Media and Sport’s broader category of CCIs. The paper concludes by suggesting the importance of disaggregating CCIs and rethinking the definition and boundaries of CCIs as a meaningful category.
Article
While a large body of work has focused on gendered income inequalities in other fields, virtually no literature has explored this phenomenon within artistic careers. We use the Strategic National Arts Alumni Project (SNAAP)—a nationwide survey of 33,801 individuals who have received degrees in the arts—to assess the gendered earnings gap for artists and for nonartists. We find that the gendered earnings gap is comparable for artists and nonartists, and that artistic careers are subject to some of the same social forces that drive disparity in other occupational realms. Yet in the arts, we do not find the wage penalty to motherhood that has been documented in virtually every other field. Broader implications for scholarship on gender and work, as well as suggestions for further research and policy, are discussed.
Article
Inequalities within the cultural and creative industries (CCI) have been insufficiently explored. International research across a range of industries reveals gendered patterns of disadvantage and exclusion which are, unsurprisingly, further complicated by divisions of class, and also disability and race and ethnicity. These persistent inequalities are amplified by the precariousness, informality and requirements for flexibility which are widely noted features of contemporary creative employment. In addition, women in particular are disadvantaged by the boundary-crossing (for instance, between home and work, paid work and unpaid work) and new pressures around identity-making and self-presentation, as well as continuing difficulties related to sexism and the need to manage parenting responsibilities alongside earning. This article introduces a new collection which explores these issues, marking the significance of gender for an understanding of creative labour in the neoliberal economy.
Article
The number of women in the world labour force is growing. Nevertheless, in spite of women's large share in the labour force, many gender inequities in the labour market, such as gender specific jobs, pay inequities are observed. Women and men do not receive equal pay for equal work. Wage discrimination is reality. Women on average have lower incomes, lower wages and less advantageous terms of employment than men. The purpose of this article is to review main theoretical approaches to the basic economic question about the gender pay gap: why do, women, on average earn less than men. Attention has been focused on basic theoretical approaches: human capital model, labour market discrimination and theory of occupational segregation. The paper is based on empirical data from Lithuania and other European Union countries.
Las Ferias de Artes Escénicas En el Estado Español. Propuesta de Mejora Del Estudio Del Impacto Inducido En el Sector
  • Doistua Nebreda
Autoras En el Audiovisual, la Música y Las Artes Escénicas. Un Estudio Sobre el Desarrollo Profesional Desde Una Perspectiva de Género
  • Sgae Fundación
  • Fundación SGAE
The GamesIndustry.biz Careers Survey: An industry driven by passion not pay
  • J Batchelor
A profile of creative professionals
  • C Brunton
Estudio de Género En Las Programaciones de COFAE y En Los Equipos Organizativos de Las Ferias
  • I Fernández
  • Fernández I.
Who run the World Female Music Industry Leaders Confront the Gender Pay Gap
  • B Gilbert
Mujeres en la Cultura: Notas Para el Análisis del Acceso y la Participación Cultural en el Consumo y el Mercado de Trabajo.” Ministerio de Educación Cultura Ciencia y Tecnología
  • Argentina Gobierno De
Challenges and Opportunities for Decent Work in the Culture and Media Sectors Work in the Culture and Media Sectors
  • M Gruber
  • Gruber M.
Arts Salary Survey Reveals Stark Gender Pay Gap
  • L Hill
Gender Equality: Missing in Action
  • A Joseph
  • Joseph A.
The Living and Working Conditions of Artists in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.” The arts Council/An Chomhairle Ealaíon and The Arts Council of Northern Ireland
  • C Mcandrew
  • C Mckimm
Age Gender and Performer Employment in Europe
  • D Dean
Employment Relationships in the Media and Culture Industries. Issues Paper for the Global Dialogue Forum on Employment Relationships in the Media and Culture Sector
  • International Labour Organization
Madrid: Clásicas y Modernas, Asociación para la igualdad de género en la cultura
  • P Pastor Eixarch
  • Pastor Eixarch P.
Informe de igualdad en las artes escénicas: Análisis de la programación y equipos directivos del CDN Temporada
  • Veiga Barrio
Towards Gender Equality in the Cultural and Creative Sectors
  • A Menzel
  • Menzel A.
Employment in the cultural and creative sectors.” European Parliamentary Research Service’s briefing
  • M Pasikowska-Schnass
Gender Inequalities in the cultural sector
  • S Pujar
Survey of the Audio Visual Industries
  • Skillset
  • Skillset
Creative Media Workforce Survey
  • Skillset
  • Skillset
The Gender Pay Gap Among Australian Artists: Some preliminary findings.” Australia Council for the Arts
  • D K Throsby
  • S N Petetskaya
  • Shin
Working Paper No. 301. Geneva: International Labour Office
  • G Van Liemt
Gender Equality: One Step Forward, Two Steps Back.” In Re/Shaping Policies for Creativity. Addressing Culture as a Global Public Good
  • A Villarroya Planas
  • Villarroya Planas A.
L’ocupació En el Sector de la Cultura Des D’una Perspectiva de Gènere
  • A Villarroya
  • Villarroya A.
Artists in the Winner-Take All Economy: Artists
  • M J Stern
  • Stern M. J.