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How to cite this paper: Saha, S.,
Hussain, S., Deka, N., Mahanta,
R. and Bhagabati, A.K. (2023).
Traditional Ecological Farming
Practices in the Eastern Himalayan
Mountain Environment: Case of a
Naga Village, Nagaland (India)
.
Agrobiodiversity & Agroecology
,
03(02): 34-58. Doi:
https://doi.org/10.33002/aa030203
Received: 14 December 2023
Reviewed: 11 February 2024
Accepted: 27 February 2024
Published: 15 March 2024
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y/4.0/
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Dr. habil. Maria-Mihaela
Antofie;
Deputy Editors-in-Chief:
Prof. Dr. Gordana Đurić
Technical & Managing Editor:
Dr. Hasrat Arjjumend
Abstract
The farming systems practised by the tribal communities in the mountain environment of
the North-Eastern region of India are eco-friendly and local climate responsive. These
play a significant role in ensuring food security and conserving the local agro-ecological
diversity. These farming practices are rooted in the local ecological set up, and they
of the Khonoma village of Kohima district, Nagaland, the study village, have been
traditionally practising unique
Alder
tree-based
jhum
(shifting) cultivation, terrace-based
panikheti
(wet cultivation) and kitchen gardening based on their Indigenous knowledge
and skills. They have been practising mixed farming by integrating crops, fish and
livestock. The local communities have also evolved some methods for managing the
natural settings to sustain their agriculture and livelihoods. This study is an attempt to
investigate the methods of traditional farming system of Khonoma, a mountain village in
the Eastern Himalayas. This study is based on primary data/ information collected
through household survey using semi-structured household survey schedule,
participatory rural appraisal (PRA), focus group discussion (FGD), and interviews with
key informants and personal field visit in early 2021. The terrace-based
panikheti
,
adopted by the people of Khonoma village, has been proved a location specific eco-
friendly method for soil and water conservation. The
Alder
tree-based
jhum
practice, as
opined by the villagers, is a sustainable livelihood option in the context of the mountain
ecological setting and unique cultural values of the people.
Keywords
Ecological farming, Agrobiodiversity; Ethnic community; Mountain environment;
Eastern Himalaya
1. Introduction
The ecological farming practices have been gaining popularity as an
alternative to the conventional modern farming system due to its minimum
environmental impact, ecological adaptability and affinity to cultural values
(Deka, 2012; Schoonhoven and Runhaar, 2018). Extensive use of agro-
ISSN 2564-4653 | 03(02) Dec 2023
AGROBIODIVERSITY & AGROECOLOGY | 03(02) DECEMBER 2023
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Published by The Grassroots Institute (Canada) in partnership with University "Lucian Blaga" from Sibiu
(Romania) and Fondacija Alica Banja Luka (Bosnia i Herzegovina). Website: https://grassrootsjournals.org/aa
Traditional Ecological Farming Practices in the Eastern Himalayan Mountain
Environment: Case of a Naga Village, Nagaland (India)
Sourav Saha1*, Saddam Hussain2, Nityananda Deka3, Ratul Mahanta4, Abani Kumar Bhagabati5
1Department of Geography, Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya, Nagaon-782001, Assam, India.
Email: sourav.saha626@gmail.com | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8093-9023
2Department of Economics, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong-793022, Meghalaya, India.
Email: saddam2014bhu@gmail.com | RCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9876-2502
3Department of Geography, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014, Assam, India.
Email: Nityageog@yahoo.co.in | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3428-6712
4Department of Economics, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014, Assam, India.
Email: rmeco@gauhati.ac.in | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2502-9320
5Department of Geography, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014, Assam, India.
Email: abhagabati01@gmail.com | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9319-4405
*Corresponding author
M 00372 | Research Article
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chemicals, HYV seeds and irrigation in modern agriculture temporarily triggers
the productivity of certain crops, but their impact on the ecosystem and peasant
society is far reaching (Altieri and Koohafkan, 2008; Conway, 1987). Modern
agricultural practices have now proved to be responsible for the degradation of
the associated ecology, declining natural fertility of soil, depletion of ground
water (Shetty, Ayyappan and Swaminathan, 2013), loss of local crop diversity,
and disappearance of agriculture related cultural attributes (Deka and Bhagabati,
2010; Gliessman, 2007). In comparison to diversified cropping and integrated
farming, monocropping is given more importance in the modern farming
taken over by external agencies and, thus, agriculture has become increasingly
capital intensive (Dorin, 2022). Thus the modern agricultural methods, where
substantial amount of money is needed for procuring agricultural inputs and
implements, have posed a challenge to the farmers, particularly the small and
marginal farmers, in the developing countries. These challenges have become
more and more acute under the influence of climatic change and other associated
phenomena. These are now facing frequent crop loss due to some climate related
phenomena like drought, floods and other extreme weather events and certain
newly appeared diseases, pests and insects.
Traditional agro-ecosystem in the marginal environment provides various
ecosystem goods and services such as regulation of soil and water quality,
biological pest control, pollination, support to biodiversity, etc. for sustaining
the life and livelihoods of the local communities (Power, 2010; Gauchan
et al.,
2020; Sharma and Rai, 2012). The diverse agriculture and the associated
Indigenous knowledge and skills practised by the Indigenous communities across
the world have been reckoned essential climate resilient agriculture (Bisht, 2021;
Erisman
et al
., 2016; Mekbib
et al.
, 2017). Diversification of agriculture by
integrating crops, livestock and fishes is considered as an important strategy to
adapt to the climate change risk (Aiman Raza, 2007; Altieri and Koohafkan,
2008; Karki, Burton, and Mackey, 2020). It has been observed that many
traditional crop varieties under traditional farming methods have higher
productivity, nutritive value and give stable production (Bisht, 2021; DeLonge,
Miles and Carlisle, 2016; Maikhuri, Rao and Saxena, 1996.; Khumairoh
et al.
,
2021) and resistance to pests and diseases (Mulumba
et al.,
2012). Moreover,
the ecological farming practices are very rich in agrobiodiversity, which ensures
stable production and food and nutritional security (Erisman
et al
., 2016;
Swaminathan, 1986). Unlike modern agriculture, the traditional farming is based
on organic inputs, biological pest management system, local crop varieties, self-
seed conservation and locally invented soil and water management systems.
Therefore, these farming practices are considered as ecologically sustainable,
economically viable and culturally acceptable (Deka, 2012; Sharma and Rai,
2012). It also provides scope for development of agro- and ecotourism as an
alternative opportunity for livelihood (Amloy
et al.
, 2024; Ba
et al.
, 2018).
Several studies claimed that the rate of environmental destruction in primitive
methods of subsistence farming like shifting cultivation is very limited than the
monoculture of plantation farming (Henley, 2011; Morton, Borah and Edwards,
2020). In shifting cultivation, farmers maintain forest cover by a short cropping
period and long fallow phase for forest regeneration (Kerkhoff and Sharma,
2006). The long fallow period has high potential for carbon sequestration and
36
Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
ISSN 2564-4653 | Agrobiodiversity & Agroecology | Vol.03, No.02 (Dec 2023): 34-58 | Doi: https://doi.org/10.33002/aa030203
forest recovery (Thong
et al
., 2020) and also helps in maintaining organic
carbon and nitrogen stocks in soil (Terefe and Kim, 2020).
The tribal communities inhabiting the Himalayan mountain environment of
North-East India have been practising some Indigenous farming systems (IFS) such
as paddy-cum-fish farming of Apatani community of Arunachal Pradesh, bamboo
drip irrigation-based farming in Meghalaya, wet rice cultivation in Assam,
Zabo
irrigation-based wet rice cultivation in Nagaland, and so on. Shifting cultivation,
locally called
jhum
, is one of the dominant forms of agriculture practiced in the
hilly areas of this region. Several studies show that the shifting cultivation
practices of North-East India is rich in crop diversity (Asati and Yadav, 2014;
Payum
et al
., 2021).
Alder-
based
Jhum
cultivation, terrace-based
Panikheti
and
kitchen gardening of Khonoma village in Nagaland are century-old ecological
farming practices where the farmers developed unique system for soil, water and
agrobiodiversity conservation based on their Indigenous knowledge and skills
(KTDB 2009; Roy, Debnath and Nautiyal, 2020).
2. Objective of the Study
This study has been carried out with the following objectives:
1. To investigate nature and types of traditional farming practices and
crop cycles developed by the Indigenous communities based on the
local climate, ecology and indigenous knowledge system.
2. To study the traditional strategies adopted by the hill farmers for soil
conservation and water management in different farming practices.
3. Geographical Background of the Village
This study has been carried out in a typical Naga village called Khonoma,
located in Sechü-Zubza sub-division of Kohima district, Nagaland (Figure 1).
The village is located at 25039'21.20'' N latitude and 9401'18.27''E longitude at a
distance of 20 km from Kohima town and around 80 km from Dimapur town. It
is surrounded by Jotsoma village on the north, and Mezoma village on the west.
Being located at the foothill of the Barail range, the village is a part of the
Eastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot (Chase and Singh,
2012). The physiography of the village is hilly ranging from gentle slope to steep
rugged hillsides. The village is drained by a small stream called Dzüza and its
tributary Khurü forming a valley plain with moderate slope. The average
elevation of the Khonoma is around 1,455 m from the mean sea level.
The area receives an annual rainfall of 2,000 to 2,500 mm and most of the
rainfall occurs during May to September. The area experiences cold and winter
season from October to March. Temperature varies from 150C to 300C during
summer and 50C to 250C during winter. The village is inhabited by the Angami
Naga tribe. It has 424 households with a total population of 1,943 as per 2011
Census. The old people reported that the village is about 700 years old. The
village is divided into three clans, called
Khel
-Merhüma (M-Khel), Semoma (S-
Khel) and Thevoma (T-Khel). Literacy rate is 83.41%, which is higher than
illage is rich in forest resources,
agriculture is the main source of livelihood of the people.
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Figure 1: Location of Khonoma village in Nagaland
3. Methods
Descriptive and qualitative methods were followed in conducting this
study. Data were collected through purposively designed household survey
schedule, intensive field observation, interviews and focus group discussion
(FGD) with the local communities following Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) approach (Figure 2). Household survey was conducted covering 50
selected households (12% of total households) during the month of February
2021. Simple random sampling procedure was followed for the selection of
households. Out of the total respondents, 60% were males and 40% were
females. In addition to household survey, several stakeholders, including
Secretary of Khonoma Village Development Board (BDV), members of women
self- lub were interviewed.
Participatory resource map of the village has been prepared to understand
the agricultural land use pattern of the village and the associated problems.
Local people were asked to draw their village map on the ground. They drew the
map on the ground using sticks and placed different colour powder (
ranguli
) to
indicate agricultural lands (both the terrace fields,
jhum
fields), irrigation canals,
kitchen gardens, fish ponds, forests etc. of their village. After the completion of
drawing, a stick was handover to a senior participant to explain their village
map. A transact walk was performed along with the farmers in order to verify
the prepared map with the existing agricultural land use pattern and the
associated problems. A small group consisting of 6-7 villagers, including the
village headman and women farmers, were asked to participate in the transact
walk in order to investigate the Indigenous land use pattern and its relations
with the existing irrigation system, soil quality, forest cover and regenerated
forest growth after
jhum
(shifting cultivation) cycle completed.
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A crop calendar was prepared with the help of villagers to study the
seasonal cycle of crop farming and associated agriculture activities in Khonoma.
A chart was drawn on the ground with the time scale (month wise) in horizontal
direction and the type of agriculture, crops and farming activities on the vertical
axis. The participants were asked to place some materials such as stones, stick,
etc. on the ground chart as per the activities required during different season for
jhum
cultivation, terrace farming and kitchen gardening different months.
Figure 2: Focus group discussion and interview (Photo Credit: Sourav Saha)
5. Results and Discussion
5.1 Socio-economic Condition of the Village
The household level data on socio-economic background of the farmers,
farming types, land size, farm income and food security of the farmers of the
village provide an idea about the farming practices and its role on the livelihood
sustainability of the villagers. The sample survey shows that only 4% of the total
households of the village are engaged in the service sector and the rest 96% is in
agriculture. Average family size of the sample households is 6 persons. Among
the sample households, as many as 127 members are found to get involved
continuously in agriculture where 73 (57.48%) are female farmers clearly
indicating the dominant role played by the females in farming. During the off-
farm season (January-February), some farmers are engaged in other activities like
wage labour (14%), basketry (8%), honey collection (4%), driving (4%),
masonry (6%), weaving (10%), gardening (4%) and petty vending (7%). It is
also found that 66% of the surveyed households have livestock, mainly piggery
and poultry. Table 1 gives a brief description of the methods of farming in
Khonoma village.
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Table 1: Households involved in different methods of cultivation
Method of cultivation
No. of households
Percentage
Only alder base
jhum
2
4%
Only terrace (wet rice) cultivation
16
32%
Both
jhum
and terrace
32
64%
Kitchen garden
34
68%
It has been reported that the majority of the households (86%) of
Khonoma village are self-sufficient in food production for the entire year, while
14% households need to purchase rice for some months of the year.
5.2 Agricultural System
The natural landscapes of Khonoma have been used by the villagers
through generations based on their Indigenous knowledge and skills; and, as
such, they have developed a sustainable land use system (Figure 3). The farming
system operated by the villagers facilitated conservation as well as sustainable
use of the natural resources. Three distinctive agricultural systems namely, alder
based
jhum
, terrace farming and kitchen gardening are observed in the village.
The cropping cycle of each of the farming systems is closely associated with the
rhythm of monsoonal rain (Figure 4).
Jhum
cultivation begins in winter season
(December-January) with the process of slash and burn. Sowing of seeds starts
during pre-monsoon period (April-May). The Eastern Himalayan region
generally receive good amount of rainfall during the pre-monsoon period, which
favours the growth of
jhum
crops. Transplantation of wet rice is done during the
month of June-July. Post-monsoon is the season of harvesting when the farmers
remain busy in harvesting crops from both the
jhum
and terrace fields. Cropping
during the winter season is very limited due to scarcity of water in the hill slopes.
Vegetables are grown in the kitchen gardens and some parts of the terrace fields
with the help traditional system of irrigation.
There is no use of modern agricultural inputs and implements in farming
carried out in the village. Human labour provided by the family members is the
villagers have their own method of seed conservation. Only a small section of the
farmers is found to purchase seeds of certain crops such as potato, carrot,
cabbage, etc. from the market. The villagers follow a unique land tenure system.
Lands used both for terrace and
jhumming
are owned individually. The farmers
have no land records and they do not follow any standard land measurement.
Most of the farmers have agricultural land both for
jhumming
and terracing.
Every household on an average have 3.3 terraced plots and 2.4
jhum
plots. The
size of plots in terracing is very small as compared to the
jhum
fields. It is
noteworthy here that the decision for selection of land for
jhum
cultivation,
irrigation management, etc. is taken by the people collectively.
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Figure 3: Pattern of Land use and land cover of the study village
5.3 Alder-Based
jhum
Farming
The Himalayan Alder tree (
Alnus nepalensis
) naturally grows throughout
the Himalayan countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, India,
Myanmar and China (Kehie, Khamu and Kehie, 2017). Several studies have
shown that the
A. nepalensis
has been widely used in traditional agroforestry
system for hill slope land management and soil conservation (Huber, Matiu, and
Hülsbergen, 2018; Rana
et al
., 2018). This tree hosts nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
which help in enhancing soil fertility (Kehie, Khamu and Kehie, 2017; Rana
et
al
., 2018; Rathore, Karunakaran, and Prakash, 2010; Sharma
et al.,
2008).
Alder tree-based agroforestry, mixed with various commercial crops like
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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cardamom, oranges, tea, etc., has been found economically helpful for the
farmers (Mortimer
et al
., 2015; Sharma
et al.,
2002). The Himalayan Alder is
also a native plant to Khonoma village, which grows at an elevation of above
1,000 metres. The luxuriant growth of Alder trees in the mountains provides
necessary base for the development of a unique system of shifting cultivation.
Unlike the traditional
jhum
cultivation of North-East India, the villagers of
Khonoma practise
jhum
cultivation in a different way. They cultivate a number
of crops integrating with the Alder tree (Cairns, Keitzar and Yaden, 2010).
Before or after the slash and burn operation, the Alder trees are pollarded
at the height of 2 meters from the ground. The vertical growth of the tree is
restricted by pollarding the main trunk, leaving only few branches for apical
growth. This practice not only keeps the crops underneath the trees from being
shaded but also provides the benefit of fuel wood and organic manure. They use
the pollarded branches as firewood and timber and the leaves and ashes of small
tree branches as manure. As the growth of Alder tree is very fast, the branches
become mature enough for
jhumming
within 5-6 years from the time of
pollarding. Therefore, the farmers of this village can manage their
jhum
cycle
within 5-6 sites of the forest patches without destroying the new forest lands. It
is estimated that more than 80% of the firewood requirement of the village is
met from the trees obtained from the
jhum
fields, which greatly reduces the
pressure on the natural forest for firewood. Thus, the Alder-based
jhum
cultivation in Khonoma village sets a unique instance of ecological farming
which, unlike the common
jhum
practice, does not cause forest loss and
ecological imbalance in the mountain landscape of the Eastern Himalayas.
Figure 4: Farming cycle in Khonoma village
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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The villagers usually follow 5-6 years
jhum
cycle. After the pollardition and
clearance of forests, they cultivate the land for two consecutive years. During this
time, the growth of pollarded tree branches is restricted by cutting them carefully,
and then for the next 3-4 years these are allowed to grow freely during the fallow
period (Figure 5). Thus, the tree branches get enough time to grow and produce
wood within the 5-6 years of
jhum
cycle. The farmers of Nagaland have also been
practising various Indigenous soil conservation techniques for
jhum
land
management (Singh, Devi and Singh, 2016). Usually during the rainy season, top
soil of
jhum
fields, which contain enormous nutrients, gets eroded by the surface
runoff (Yadav
et al
., 2006). To check such top soil erosion the villagers of
Khonoma adopt the technique of contour bund using locally available natural
materials such as stones, tree branches, log, bamboo, etc. The series of parallel as
well as random bunds constructed by them across the hill slope minimize the
speed of surface runoff and thus help in soil conservation.
The process of
jhum
cultivation begins with the clearing of forests by
pollarding the Alder tree branches in the months of December and January. In
January, they collect the dried branches for firewood and burn the slash (Figure
5). The activities such as digging of land for ploughing, mixing of ash and final
preparation for sowing seeds are done in February and in the month of March
generally seeds are sown. A number of crops such as potato, maize, bean, yam,
pumpkin, cabbage, gourd, cucumber, etc. are grown together as mix-cropping.
Coix lacryma-jobi
L.) is sown in the month of April. Thus, the
farmers apply intercropping methods in
jhumming
. July-August is the main
harvesting season. In the second year, the same fields are used for cultivation of
various cereal crops such as millet, sesame, etc. At present, farmers of the village
have started cultivating large cardamom in some selected
jhum
fields
5.4 Terrace Farming
Like other communities of Nagaland, the Angami Naga farmers of
Khnoma village have also some specific terraces for wet rice cultivation. Based
on their Indigenous ecological knowledge and skills they have developed the
terrace landscape in the valleys of the Dzüza and Khurü streams. These valleys
are surrounded by hills and forests playing a significant role in the terrace
farming. Besides these main streams, there are several small streams and springs
originating from these hills, which provide necessary water to the fields. The soil
characteristics and water quality of the terrace fields of the village are largely
influenced by the natural forests around. Residual ash and other organic
materials from
jhum
fields of the surrounding hills are drained to the valley to
enhance the soil fertility. Therefore, the terrace fields adjacent to the hills have
rich humus content that favours luxuriant growth of the crops. Based on the
location the terrace fields of the village are divided into 14 units and each unit is
identified with specific name like Ketsazhu, Keyafa Phi, Kenofú, Kelizü,
Tehuphi, Chadaphi, Jüpfüzhu, Rülie liezú, Kerükhú, Nyúzekú, Púcha, Púgú,
Mechakha, and Sikha liezú. Among these fields, Ketsazhu, Kerükhú, Chadaphi
and Kenofú are the cold water fields, meaning the water of these fields remain
cool as these are shadowed by the forests of the hills. Wet terraced paddy is the
major crop of the village. The farmers cultivate various traditional rice varieties
depending upon the suitability land (Table 2). In the cold-water fields, they plant
the varieties suitable for cold-water environment. Similarly, the fields where the
surface water becomes relatively hot due to direct sunshine insolation the
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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villagers cultivate certain rice varieties that can tolerate warm water. Thus, the
farmers of the Khonoma have been preserving several traditional rice varieties
through generations. Each rice variety has unique aromatic and morphological
characteristics. In Khonoma village, as many as 20 local varieties of rice have
been in use. The farmers are very sincere in conserving the seeds of the local rice
varieties. The farmers also collect seeds from other farmers of the village or the
neighbouring villages in exchange to their seeds. They do not use any kind of
chemical fertilizer and pesticides. Cow dung, pig dung, chicken privy, rice husk
and ash are mainly used in the terrace fields as manure.
Figure 5: Alder based
jhum
farming practices at Khonoma village (Photo Credit:
Sourav Saha)
Note: A-Alder tree in fallow
jhum
field; B- Burning after pollarding; C-Soil
protection bund suing stone; D- Tree branches lying on hill slope to minimize
flow speed and top soil erosion; E- Branches growing out after pollarding; F-
Mixed crop in
jhum
field
The farmers begin the process of field preparation in the months of
December and January by ploughing the lands, which thereafter involve different
stages of cultivation (Table 3). During February and March, they level the
surface of the field by breaking the large pieces of soil called
Chickro
and then
keep the field fallow until the arrival of monsoon. In the meantime, during
January-February, the seedlings are raised in the fields over adjacent high lands
adjacent. Irrigation canals are cleared with the onset of monsoon and water is
drained to the fields during April-May. The sides of the plots are plastered with
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soil paste to prevent water leakage except for the outlet point. The surface soil is
turned and mixed so that the weeds get decomposed. Then the soil is levelled
and bunds are plastered finally. During June-July, the rice seedlings are
transplanted. Weeding is done after two-three weeks of transplantation. In
October, again weeding is done before harvesting the crops. Some paddy fields
are used for cultivation of potato, garlic and other vegetables during the
rabi
(December-March) season (Figure 6). However, large parts of the terrace fields
remain fallow during this period due to scarcity of water.
Table 2: Traditional rice varieties cultivated in Khonoma village
Variety
(Vernacular name)
Morphological
characteristics
Field condition
Uses
1. Thevürü
Small, red,
Warm water
Food
2. Thevürü
Medium, round,
white
Both cold and warm
water
Food
3. Thevürü
Round and long,
little tail, white
Both cold and warm
water
Food
4. Ngoba
White
Warm and excess
water
Food
5. Ngoba
Red
Warm and excess
water
Suitable for
eating
6. Ngodi
Red
Excess water
7. Üisevolhunya
Cold water
Food, local
beer
8. Rheninya
White
Cold water
Snakes and
local beer
9. Krumiavinya
White
Cold water
Snakes and
local beer
10. Dzükounya
Less production
(cultivate only in
one or two plots)
Cold water
Snakes and
local beer
11. Kenonya
Warm water
Food
12. Shünino
Less cultivated
now
Warm water
Food
13. Tsorenyü
White
Warm water
Food
14. Tekhwerü
White
Warm water
Food
15. Abor
White
Both cold and warm
water
Food
16. Rosholha
White
Warm water
Food
17. Akaülha
White
Local beer
18. Mekrielha
Red, small, sticky
Both cold and warm
water
Food
19. Mekrielha
White, long, less
sticky
Both cold and warm
water
Food
20. Mekrielha
White, long, long
stem, high
productive
Warm water
Food
Source:
Focus group discussion with the farmers of Khonoma, 24
February 2021
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Table 3: Works involved in terrace paddy field
Process
Period
Work
Tekhuhi
December-
January
Digging soil/ plough the field
Niekrovü
February-
March
Break the large pieces of soil into small size
Tekhunie
April
Watering the field first time through canal water
and plastering the raised bund of plots
Sepuhu
May
To mix soil and to hide the grasses bellow the
soil
Khopone
May
Final plastering the terrace
khupo
(bund) for
water storage and flow
Tekhuse
June-July
Transplanting of paddy
Dzüva
August
Release water from the field and keep the field
dry for 20 days to a month; weeding; shake the
rice plant and scratch the roots so that the plant
gets stronger and healthier
Khuporhe
August
Remove the grass from the border of the field
and ensure the free flow of water (mainly do by
women flock)
Thiphiviü
September
Remove the dry paddy leaves
Liekhro
October
Bind the paddy plants in bundles so that rice
can be harvest easily
Liere
October
Harvest
Source:
Focus group discussion with the farmers, February 2021
The farmers have traditionally developed a type of irrigation and water
management system in their terraced wet paddy fields, which they call
Panikheti
.
They channelize the hill stream water by constructing earthen canals and irrigate
the terrace fields. The excess amount of water is transferred from one plot to
khupo
(bunds).
Bamboo pipes are commonly used for inter-field water supply. It is found that
about 1/3rd of the terraced plots receive irrigation water throughout the year and
remained wet, while other plots remained dry during the winter season. The plots,
which receive water throughout the year, are more productive than the other
plots. Ponds/ fisheries are most common in the terrace fields of the village. The
farmers keep one or two
lha
(plot) of their wet plots as a pond for rearing fish and
irrigating crops in the dry season (Figure 7). During June-July, the farmers release
fish fingerlings in some paddy fields and harvest during October-November after
the harvest of paddy. The farmers get extra benefits from the integration of fish
farming in the paddy fields. It increases the soil fertility (adding nitrogen) and
provides additional benefit to the farmers (Halwart, 1998; Saikia and Das, 2008).
Some studies show that the rice yield is higher in fish-cum-paddy fields than the
normal paddy fields (Lu and Li, 2006; Tsuruta
et al
., 2011). In addition to
pisciculture, the practice of apiculture (rearing of bee) is very common in the
terrace fields of Khonoma. The farmers of Khonoma have skill of making beehives
boxes by using tree trunks. They keep the beehive boxes on the
bunds
of terrace
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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fields for honeybee and, thus, get honey as an additional product. Thus, the
farmers have skilfully used the
bunds
of the terrace fields for productive purposes.
Figure 6: Terrace fields during
kharif
(A,B) and
rabi
(C,D) season (Photo Credit:
Sourav Saha)
Figure 7: Dry and wet terrace fields (A), beehives (B) and fisheries (C & D) in the
terrace fields (Photo Credit: Sourav Saha)
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Figure 8: Kitchen gardens backside the residential plots (Photo Credit: Sourav
Saha)
5.5 Kitchen Garden
Kitchen gardening is also very common among the people of Khonoma
village. Besides
jhum
and terrace fields, the vegetable farming is done in the
small kitchen gardens located close to the residential areas. Average size of the
kitchen gardens varies from 0.012-0.017 acre. As the agricultural fields, both
jhum
fields and terraces are far from the residential area, the villagers cultivate
various vegetables for their daily consumption (Figure 8).
The villagers cultivate different season vegetables such as cabbage, king
chilli, tomato, chayote, spinach, mustard leaf, ginger, garlic, onion, eggplant,
potato, yam, pumpkin, etc. in their kitchen gardens. Like
jhum
and terrace
fields, the farming methods in kitchen gardens are purely organic. Fire wood ash
gardens. Kitchen gardens are mostly rain fed and sometime they irrigated from
their households. The women are mostly taking care about the kitchen gardens.
As the plots are tiny and much closed to residential area, they can nurture more
intensely.
6. Conclusion
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the indigenous
Angami Naga tribal community of Khonoma village of Nagaland has
successfully adopted micro-level location specific strategies for farming and
maintaining sustainable agriculture practices. Their farming practices are not
only ecologically adaptive but also economically sustainable. Except manual
labour, capital investment for other input budgets are very negligible. The
villagers do not use any chemical fertilizers and pesticides in their farmland.
The Alder-based shifting cultivation of the village demonstrates the
effective use and conservation of forest and soil by limiting the process of
deforestation. The practice of integrated pisciculture and apiculture in the wet
terrace paddy fields of the village is a sustainable and effective for land and
water management in the hilly environment. All the farming practices of the
village are cost effective and the farmers are self-sufficient in terms of seeds,
manure, etc. Maintenance of crop diversity through their age-old farming
practices not only helps in conservation of agrobiodiversity but also provide
scope for adaptation and development of climate resilient agriculture.
In the present context of climate change, rapid environmental degradation
and forest cover loss, the traditional farming system practiced by the ethnic
communities of the ecologically sensitive mountain areas of the Eastern
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Himalayas set a good example of sustainable agro-ecosystem evolved locally by
the people of the area. The traditional agricultural knowledge and skills of the
Indigenous communities that they developed through generations have, of late,
attracted attention of the ecologists, agricultural scientists and environmentalists
because of the negative effect of the modern agriculture on the environment.
This Alder based
jhum
and terraced paddy cultivation if diffused to other parts
of the Eastern Himalayan region, may help in mitigating the problem of
environmental degradation on the one hand and ensuring the livelihood
sustainability of the mountain-dwellers on the other.
7. Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Department of Science and
Technology (DST), Government of India, under Climate Change Programme -
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (Grant No.
DST/CCP/MRDP/191/2019 Dated 18/03/2020).
The authors are grateful to
Gauhati University for providing
a conducive environment for preparing the
manuscript during the period of research work.
Special thanks go to
Mrs.
Moonmon Googoi and Miss Thejanguno Peseyie for their help in field survey.
The authors are also thankful to the villagers of Khonoma village, Nagaland for
their generous support in collecting primary information.
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Contribution
Author
1
Author
2
Author
3
Author
4
Author
5
Conceived and designed the research
or analysis
Yes
Yes
Collected the data
Yes
No
Contributed to data analysis and
interpretation
Yes
Yes
Wrote the article/paper
Yes
No
Critical revision of the article/paper
Yes
Yes
Editing of the article/paper
Yes
Yes
Supervision
Yes
Yes
Project Administration
Yes
No
Funding Acquisition
No
No
Overall Contribution Proportion (%)
70
30
Funding
This research was supported by the Department of Science and Technology
(DST), Government of India, under Climate Change Programme - National
Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (Grant No.
DST/CCP/MRDP/191/2019 Dated 18/03/2020).
Research involving human bodies or organs or tissues (Helsinki Declaration)
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved any human
subject (body or organs) for experimentation. It was not a clinical research. The
contexts of human population/participation were only indirectly covered
through literature review. Therefore, an Ethical Clearance (from a Committee or
Authority) or ethical obligation of Helsinki Declaration does not apply in cases
of this study or written work.
Research involving animals (ARRIVE Checklist)
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved any animal
subject (body or organs) for experimentation. The research was not based on
laboratory experiment involving any kind animal. The contexts of animals were
only indirectly covered through literature review. Therefore, an Ethical
Clearance (from a Committee or Authority) or ethical obligation of ARRIVE
does not apply in cases of this study or written work.
Research on Indigenous Peoples and/or Traditional Knowledge
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has involved Indigenous
Peoples as participants or respondents. The contexts of Indigenous Peoples or
Indigenous Knowledge were also indirectly covered through literature review.
Therefore, copy of a Consent Form and a Self-Declaration in this regard are
appended along with this article.
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Sourav Saha, Saddam Hussain, Nityananda Deka, Ratul Mahanta, Abani Kumar Bhagabati
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Research involving Plants
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has involved the plants for
experiment or field studies. Some contexts of plants are also indirectly covered
through literature review. Thus, during this research the author(s) obeyed the
principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on the
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
Research Involving Local Community Participants (Non-Indigenous) or Children
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has directly involved local
community participants or respondents belonging to non-Indigenous peoples.
However, this study did not involve any child in any form directly. The contexts
of different humans, people, populations, men/women/children and ethnic
people are also indirectly covered through literature review. A sample copy of
the Consent Form implying prior informed consent (PIC) of the respondents is
appended.
(Optional) PRISMA
(Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses)
The author(s) has/have NOT complied with PRISMA standards. It is not
relevant in case of this study or written work.
Competing Interests/Conflict of Interest
Author(s) has/have no competing financial, professional, or personal interests
from other parties or in publishing this manuscript. There is no conflict of
interest with the publisher or the editorial team or the reviewers.
Attribution and Representation
institutions they represent. The publisher is also not responsible either for such
opinions and mistakes in the text or graphs or images.
Rights and Permissions
Open Access. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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***
To see original copy of these declarations signed by Corresponding/First Author
(on behalf of other co-authors too), please download associated zip folder
[Declarations] from the published Abstract page accessible through and linked
with the DOI: https://doi.org/10.33002/aa030203.
Page 1 of 2
INFORMATION AND CONSENT FORM FROM RESPONDENTS
(Non-Indigenous or Indigenous Respondents)
*This form was translated into local language for the respondents*
Title of the Research: Traditional Ecological Farming Practices in the Eastern Himalayan
Mountain Environment: Case of a Naga Village, Nagaland (India)
Principal Researcher: Dr. Sourav Saha, Department of Geography, Mahapurusha Srimanta
Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya, Nagaon-782001, Assam (India)
Research Supervisor: Dr. Ratul Mahanta, Dr. Nityanana Deka and Dr. Abani Kumar Bhagabati
Gauhati University, Guhahati-782001
A) INFORMATION TO PARTICIPANTS
1. Objectives of the research
The objectives of this study were to investigate the nature and investigate nature and types of traditional
farming practices and crop cycles developed by the indigenous communities based on the local climate,
ecology and indigenous knowledge system.
2. Participation in research
The researcher will ask you several pertinent questions. This interview will be recorded in written form and
should last about 50-60 minutes. The location and timing of the interview will be determined by you,
depending on your availability and convenience.
3. Risks and disadvantages
There is no particular risk involved in this project. You may, however, refuse to answer any question at any
time or even terminate the interview.
4. Advantanges and benefits
You will receive intangible benefits even if you refuse to answer some questions or decide to terminate the
interview. You will also contribute nature and types of traditional farming practices and crop cycles developed
by the indigenous communities
5. Confidentiality
Personal information you give us will be kept confidential. No information identifying you in any way will be
published. In addition, each participant in the research will be assigned a code and only the researcher will
know your identity.
Page 2 of 2
6. Right of withdrawal
Your participation in this project is entirely voluntary and you can at any time withdraw from the research on
simple verbal notice and without having to justify your decision, without consequence to you. If you decide to
opt out of the research, please contact the researcher at the telephone number or email listed below. At your
request, all information concerning you can also be destroyed. However, after the outbreak of the publishing
process, it is impossible to destroy the analyses and results on the data collected.
B) CONSENT
Declaration of the participant
I understand that I can take some time to think before agreeing or not to participate in the research.
I can ask the research team questions and ask for satisfactory answers.
I understand that by participating in this research project, I do not relinquish any of my rights,
including my right to terminate the interview at any time.
I have read this information and consent form and agree to participate in the research project.
I agree that the interviews be recorded in written form by the researcher: Yes ( ) No ( )
Signature of the participant : ___________________ Date : ____________21.07.2023________
Surname : ____________ ________________ First name : ______________ _____________
Researcher engagement
I explained to the participant the conditions for participation in the research project. I answered to the best of
my knowledge the questions asked and I made sure of the participant's understanding. I, along with the
research team, agree to abide by what was agreed to in this information and consent form.
Signature of the researcher : Date : 22-07-2023
Surname: Saha First name: Sourav
Should you have any questions regarding this study, or to withdraw from the research, please contact Dr.
Sourav Saha by e-mail sourav.saha626@gmail.com
If you have any concerns about your rights or about the responsabilités of researchers concerning your
participation in this project, you can contact the Dr. Ratul Mahanta, Department of Economics, Gauhati
University, Guwahati-781014 Assam, by email rmeco@gauhati.ac.in
SELF-DECLARATION FORM
Research on Indigenous Peoples and/or Traditional Knowledge
1. Conditions of the Research
1.1 Was or will the research (be) conducted on (an) Indigenous land, including reserve, settlement, and
land governed under a self-government rule/agreement or?
Yes
1.2 Did/does any of the criteria for participation include membership in an Indigenous community,
group of communities, or organization, including urban Indigenous populations?
No
1.3 Did/does the research seek inputs from participants (members of the Indigenous community)
regarding a community’s cultural heritage, artifacts, traditional knowledge, biocultural or biological
resources or unique characteristics/practices?
Yes
1.4 Did/will Aboriginal identity or membership in an Indigenous community used or be used as a
variable for the purposes of analysis?
No
2. Community Engagement
2.1 If you answered “Yes” to questions 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 or 1.4, have you initiated or do you intend to
initiate an engagement process with the Indigenous collective, community or communities for this
study? Yes
2.2 If you answered “Yes” to question 2.1, describe the process that you have followed or will follow
with to community engagement. Include any documentation of consultations (i.e., formal research
agreement, letter of approval, PIC, email communications, etc.) and the role or position of those
consulted, including their names if appropriate:
First of all, the village headman of the local community was approached and consulted about the
purpose of the study. Then with his help the other community members respondents were approached
for a PRA meting and group discussions. They were consulted during the meeting. Verbal agreement
was done for information use and analysis.
3. No Community Consultation or Engagement
If you answered “No” to question 2.1, briefly describe why community engagement will not be sought
and how you can conduct a study that respects Aboriginal/ Indigenous communities and participants in
the absence of community engagement.
Not Applicable
Name of Principal Researcher: Dr. Sourav Saha
Affiliation of Principal Researcher: Department of Geography, Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva
Viswavidyalaya, Nagaon-782001, Assam (India)
Signature:
Declaration: Submitting this note by email to any journal published by The Grassroots Institute is your
confirmation that the information declared above is correct and devoid of any manipulation.
