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Pakistan Journal of Gender Studies
Vol. 24(1), 2024, pp.37-52
, ISSN:
This work is Licensed under a
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Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles
Attitude among Children: A Cross
Lahore College for Women University
Parenting is a strong institution of socialization and parents have an essential role in
transmitting gender roles and attitudes among children. Therefore, the present
research aimed to explore gender differences in parenting practices among parents
and th
eir effect on children's gender roles attitudes. The positivist approach was
followed in the present study and a cross
surveys. The sample comprised both parents (n=250 mothers, n=250 fathers) and
children (n=250 gir
ls, n=250 boys) from families of Lahore, the most populous city
and district of Punjab, Pakistan through a multi
technique. The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire and Gender Roles Attitude Scale
were used with the prior permis
techniques MANOVA, ANOVA, and frequencies/ percentages were applied to
analyze data. The findings revealed that mothers used 'involvement', and 'positive
parenting' to socialize children as compared to
influence their children's gender development through involvement and positive
parenting to construct egalitarian gender roles attitude
and daughters.
Keywords:
Gender, Parenting Practices, Gender
Traditional Gender Role
Introduction
The current family is a family living in novel socio
most flexible and changeable societal groups (Smirnova, 2005). Although many factors
can be taken into account in children's social behavior, interests, and inclinat
general, parents are considered to be the most important to influence them (Maccoby,
2002). Children's motivation changes with the involvement of parents and peers
(Kindermann, 2007). Family context is therefore vital to gender development and
provides the early gender-
related experiences that are embedded among teenagers in their
ideas about gender (Bem, 1981).
Pakistan Journal of Gender Studies
, ISSN:
2072-0394(Print), ISSN: 2663-8886(Online)
Creative Commons Attribution
-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles
Attitude among Children: A Cross
-
Sectional Study
Farah Adil
Gender and Development Studies
Lahore College for Women University
Raana Malik
Gender Studies
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Abstract
Parenting is a strong institution of socialization and parents have an essential role in
transmitting gender roles and attitudes among children. Therefore, the present
research aimed to explore gender differences in parenting practices among parents
eir effect on children's gender roles attitudes. The positivist approach was
followed in the present study and a cross
-
sectional design was applied to conduct
surveys. The sample comprised both parents (n=250 mothers, n=250 fathers) and
ls, n=250 boys) from families of Lahore, the most populous city
and district of Punjab, Pakistan through a multi
-
stage stratified random sampling
technique. The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire and Gender Roles Attitude Scale
were used with the prior permis
sion of the authors to collect data. The statistical
techniques MANOVA, ANOVA, and frequencies/ percentages were applied to
analyze data. The findings revealed that mothers used 'involvement', and 'positive
parenting' to socialize children as compared to
fathers. Therefore, parents can
influence their children's gender development through involvement and positive
parenting to construct egalitarian gender roles attitude
s
, and behaviors among sons
Gender, Parenting Practices, Gender
Roles Attitude, Egalitarian,
Traditional Gender Role
The current family is a family living in novel socio
-
economic conditions and is one of the
most flexible and changeable societal groups (Smirnova, 2005). Although many factors
can be taken into account in children's social behavior, interests, and inclinat
general, parents are considered to be the most important to influence them (Maccoby,
2002). Children's motivation changes with the involvement of parents and peers
(Kindermann, 2007). Family context is therefore vital to gender development and
related experiences that are embedded among teenagers in their
ideas about gender (Bem, 1981).
Parenting practices comprise several important
37
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles
Sectional Study
Parenting is a strong institution of socialization and parents have an essential role in
transmitting gender roles and attitudes among children. Therefore, the present
research aimed to explore gender differences in parenting practices among parents
eir effect on children's gender roles attitudes. The positivist approach was
sectional design was applied to conduct
surveys. The sample comprised both parents (n=250 mothers, n=250 fathers) and
ls, n=250 boys) from families of Lahore, the most populous city
stage stratified random sampling
technique. The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire and Gender Roles Attitude Scale
sion of the authors to collect data. The statistical
techniques MANOVA, ANOVA, and frequencies/ percentages were applied to
analyze data. The findings revealed that mothers used 'involvement', and 'positive
fathers. Therefore, parents can
influence their children's gender development through involvement and positive
, and behaviors among sons
economic conditions and is one of the
most flexible and changeable societal groups (Smirnova, 2005). Although many factors
can be taken into account in children's social behavior, interests, and inclinat
ions in
general, parents are considered to be the most important to influence them (Maccoby,
2002). Children's motivation changes with the involvement of parents and peers
(Kindermann, 2007). Family context is therefore vital to gender development and
related experiences that are embedded among teenagers in their
Parenting practices comprise several important
38
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles Attitude among
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study
parenting paradigms, such as parental potentials and beliefs (Jeynes, 2010). The parenting
practices also include explicit discipline practices (use of punishment), use of positive
parenting approaches (rewarding pro-social behaviors), and consistency in parenting,
appropriate management, and monitoring of the child's behavior (Spera, 2005). Parenting
practices are thought to play an important role in child development and encompass a few
basic categories; positive parenting, involvement, inconsistent discipline, and poor
supervision (Harvey, Stoessel, & Herbert, 2011).
Adolescence is a period of rapid physical, sexual, and intellectual growth, as well as the
intensification of gender beliefs and attitudes that can have long-term implications
(Kågesten et al., 2016). Similarly, children are influenced by how they are treated and
expected to behave, as well as the responsibilities of their male and female family
members. Studies have traced the influence of parents and families on the process of
gender socialization at several levels in early childhood, beginning with children's play
and participation in sports, family division of labor, media interactions,
knowledge/engagement with social media norms, gender stereotypes, and other socio-
structural factors (Leaper & Farkas, 2014).
Children first learn what it means to be a male or female through parental influence, and
these concepts generally persist throughout life (Howard, 2000). It has been found that
educated fathers, working mothers, and fathers who show egalitarian gender role attitudes
in the division of housework and decision-making are decisive factors for egalitarian
gender role attitudes in children (Kulik, 2005). Following the modeling principle of social
learning theories, it is reasonable to assume that a child's experience of a non-traditional,
non-gendered parenting relationship could result in a child with fewer gender stereotypes
(i.e., possessing gender-neutral attitudes) and more egalitarian gender roles than a child's
experience of a traditional gendered parenting relationship. Taking it a step further, it can
be said that the more gender-equal the parental relationship, represented by the nature and
division of housework, child care, employment, decision-making powers, and the gender
role attitudes the family will be, the more egalitarian the children will be ( McHale et al.,
2003). Focusing on the concept of parenting practices and gender roles attitudes among
children the present study was designed to analyze parenting practices and their effect on
children' gender roles attitude among Pakistani families.
Objectives of the Study
The following were the objectives of the present research:
1. To analyze differences in parenting socialization practices between fathers and
mothers.
2. To find out how parenting practices contribute to different gender roles and
attitudes adopted by children.
Farah Adil & Raana Malik
39
3. To investigate the effect of parenting socialization practices on gender roles
attitudes among children.
Review of the Literature
Local and transnational literature was analyzed to understand parenting practices and
their effect on children's gender roles and attitude formation. The cross-sectional study
was conducted in Lahore, Pakistan, the second-largest city and has socio-economically
diverse educational centers. The sample included 816 motivated young male students.
According to the findings, apparent parental rejection explains 40.3% of the variance in
the outcome of violent behavior, whereas warm parenting actions account for 48.2% of
the variance in student certainty. According to the study, the need is to encourage positive
parenting like improving awareness, knowledge, and attitudes among parents. Parent-
child interactions and parental attitude can lead to an improvement in current parenting
socialization practices and a reduction in the risk of developmental factors outcomes
among children (Raza, Abbasi, & Habib, 2020).
Hussain et al. (2015) conducted a study to investigate the function of the family in
transferring gender stereotypes into Pakistani society and its influence on the progress of
gender roles. Gender stereotypes and the establishment of gender roles are socio-cultural
and relational constructions that develop and are introduced in the organized framework
and social interactions, particularly in the family. The study showed that gender roles are
the result of gender socialization, different family environments, and the different roles of
parents with children.
Similarly, a study included mothers, fathers, and first two children from 358 working and
middle-class white families in the United States. The findings of the cluster analysis
found three gender-related attitude patterns including traditional parents and children,
egalitarian parents and children, and a diverging array of parents who have both
traditional and egalitarian children. According to ANOVA results, these family patterns
were associated with socio-economic position, parents' time spent on home tasks by
gender, and time spent with children. Traditional households were reported to have the
most family conflicts (Marks et al., 2009).
Kilsby (2014) found that girls and boys were socialized as women and men with limited
and culturally prescribed gender roles. Men were observed as leaders and fathers with
protective and decision-making obligations, whilst women were largely characterized as
spouses and mothers, with attendant care and home activities; in general, they were also
of lesser status. In some cases, mothers were held accountable for both sons and
daughters in their childhood, whereas fathers were only liable for children when they
reached early adolescence.
40
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles Attitude among
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study
Similarly, a study looks at how parental background characteristics affect parent-child
variations in gender and employment in a sample of Israeli parents and their adolescent
children (n=134 in each group). Mothers were typically more open with their children,
whilst males looked to be the more traditional. Mothers' and fathers' education, as well as
mothers' employment status, had a significant impact on parents and children's attitudes
toward gender roles. Fathers with higher levels of education and households with full-
time working mothers tended to be more liberal. The mother's birthplace, the family's
level of religiosity, and the number of children influenced parental opinions (Kulik,
2002).
In terms of socioeconomic engagement, a study found that girls and boys have very
diverse perspectives on gender roles, with girls being significantly more egalitarian than
boys (58 vs. 19%). According to the results of the multivariate linear probability model,
girls, and boys who finished at least grade 10 were 31% and 15% more likely,
respectively, to have egalitarian views on gender roles than girls and boys with
elementary or lower education. Individual attitudes of adolescent girls and boys toward
gender roles are closely tied to their community peers' perspectives. Egalitarian beliefs
were also 5% higher in females and 6% higher in boys who belonged to social groups
versus those who did not. Television viewing influenced females' egalitarian attitudes but
not boys'. Both males and females must adopt enlightened gender roles to establish an
equal society (Streatfield et al., 2023).
Cordero-Coma and Esping-Andersen (2018) argue that sons can learn egalitarian gender
views and practices not only by copying egalitarian parents but also by interpreting their
parents' beliefs and attitudes toward egalitarian activities. This is especially true for males
whose mothers have more education. It was asserted that more gender egalitarian
parenting practices and ideas could help to close the gender gap in housework,
particularly for boys. The research on children's gender socialization by their parents
yields conflicting results on a parent's multidimensional gender schema about a child's
conceptualization of gender and development of their gender schema. These conflicting
findings necessitate a more in-depth study of how a parent's multidimensional gender
schema operates and how it is performed for their children's socialization.
Fulcher (2010) discovered that when middle-class mothers held more traditional views on
their children's gender roles, their children (ages 7 to 12) reported higher gender-
stereotyped job goals. Specifically, when mothers expected their children to be interested
in typically gendered occupations, the children indicated a greater interest in careers that
reinforced gender stereotypes. Gender identity is a conscious and significant formative
process for children that necessitate family teaching and the effect of societal goodwill. It
is commonly known that the family is a child's first educational environment and has a
significant impact on their early identification with the world, including their gender
Farah Adil & Raana Malik
41
identity. Following in-depth investigation and comparison, it is found that diverse
patterns of family formation, parents' emotional states, and gender identity influence
children's attitudes toward gender and gender choices. Children's gender identity is built
on the foundation of their parents' education, and they require parental supervision and
understanding (Chen, 2021).
The preceding literature reviewed and identified parenting methods in terms of positive
parenting, engagement in encouraging children's gender roles, attitudes, and other
beneficial behaviors. Similarly, the literature emphasized parental gender roles attitude,
the role of mothers, parents' socioeconomic backgrounds, and the function of media in
shaping children's gender roles attitude. Keeping the preceding literature in mind, the
current study seeks to examine the role of parental techniques in shaping children's
gender roles and views. Children in two-parent families had their own gendered identity
rearing from an early age, and they learned individual gender role information from their
parents about the proper behaviors and activities of males and females (Chen & Zou,
2003).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical background of the present study is based on the following theories:
Social Learning Theory
It sees children as passive learners in the educational process, who more or less acquire
their gender in response to external stimuli such as rewards and punishments by their
parents and others around them. There are many gender-related materials that children
can watch and practice in the family environment. For example, parents model gender
behavior through their occupations, occupations, and hobbies. Children can learn male
and female behavior by observing the difference between mother and father. Although
gender roles have become more balanced in recent decades, the traditional separation
between housewife and breadwinner is still visible in families today. Learning about
gender roles and gender-responsive behaviors is influenced by modeling, enactive
experience, and direct instruction (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). According to this
perspective, children are both positively and negatively reinforced for gender-specific
and inappropriate behavior (Burn, 1996; Wharton, 2005). Therefore, they started learning
what society expects of their gender, and most of them chose to act according to society's
views on gender.
Gender Schema Theory
[Another important theory for understanding the formation of gender role attitudes in
children is gender schema theory, which focuses on the age of gender formation in
42
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles Attitude among
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study
children and examines how gender identity develops through gender schemas. Schema
refers to a mental structure that contains expectations and knowledge about the world.
These schemas can include expectations and perceptions about people, social roles,
events, and behavior in a situation (Bem, 1981). According to Bem's gender scheme
theory, men and women act according to their respective learned cultural definitions of
gender. Parents expect sons to be the main breadwinners and daughters to be caregivers.
Mothers and fathers can encourage different behaviors in their sons and daughters
according to their gender schema (Eckes & Trautner, 2012). Parents with egalitarian
gender role attitudes strive to avoid passing on gender stereotypes to their children by
creating a non-stereotypic environment (Bem 1983), and egalitarian parents are more
equitable in sharing housework and treating sons and daughters similarly than traditional
parents (Updegraff et al., 1996).
The role of the family and in particular the fulfillment of the parents' role as role models
in the child's life affects the development of the child's character and personality,
especially concerning the perception of gender. The role of the family in introducing
children to gender identity is therefore very important as a first step so that children can
be properly aware of gender identity and thus be able to develop and optimize their
potential appropriately in the future. Furthermore, social learning theory believes that
children acquire many of their gender roles by imitating the conduct of adults and older
children, forming notions about what behaviors are suitable for each gender. According
to gender schema theory, once children have established their core gender identity, they
begin to construct gender schemas. Gender schemas are formed through children's
interactions with others, observations of their surroundings, and cultural influences.
Keeping in view the lenses of the above-mentioned theories, the present conducted to
analyze parenting practices and their impact on gender roles attitude formation among
children. According to social learning theory, children learn gender roles through rewards
and punishment, as well as observation and imitation of adult models; on the other hand,
gender schema theory claims that children learn gender roles through social learning and
active cognitive processing of gender-roe information, which leads to gender
development.
Significance of the Study
Gender-sensitive parenting has numerous challenges, but it ultimately contributes to the
development of a more sympathetic and understanding society free of gender stereotypes
and standards. The current study will be peculiar in that it will look at the disparities in
parenting socialization strategies used by parents in Pakistani society. The study's
findings may assist gender specialists, family counselors, psychologists, and teachers in
incorporating gender ideas into community-level practices, which can increase
Farah Adil & Raana Malik
43
consideration for empowering people to accomplish equitable gender socialization among
children and promote gender equality.
Hypotheses of the Study
The following were the hypotheses of the present research:
H1: There is a significant gender difference in parenting practice to socialize children.
H2: There is a significant gender difference in the traditional and egalitarian gender roles
attitude among children.
H3: There is a significant difference in traditional and egalitarian gender roles attitudes
of children with parenting practice of involvement.
H4: There is a significant difference in traditional and egalitarian gender roles attitudes
of children with parenting practice of supervision.
H5: There is a significant difference in traditional and egalitarian gender roles attitudes
of children with parenting practice of inconsistent discipline.
H6: There is a significant gender difference in traditional and egalitarian gender roles
attitudes of children with parenting practice of corporal punishment.
Method
Following the positivist approach, the present study was quantitative and based on a
cross-sectional survey design that compared outcomes and exposure at one time.
Population and Sample: The study population included families of the city of Lahore,
the second largest, second most populous city, and the provincial capital of Punjab,
Pakistan. The sample of the present study was estimated through Yamane's formula
(1973) and a sample of N=250 families including N=500 parents and N=500 children was
collected using a multi-stage stratified random sampling method from respondents both
parents and children.
Sampling Procedure: In the first phase, six strata of the city of Lahore were identified,
secondly, twelve schools were selected, and two schools from each stratum, one girls'
higher secondary school, and one boys' higher secondary school were randomly selected
from the list of Govt. higher secondary schools for boys and girls found at Department of
Secondary Education of Lahore. In the last step, taking into account the inclusion criteria
of the study, the sample of parents (mothers and fathers) with their children both son and
daughter, similarly students both girls and boys from schools aged 14 to 18, those who
had a sibling (sister or brother) aged 13 to 18, and their parents were randomly selected
as study participants.
44
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles Attitude among
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study
Data Collection Instruments: The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Frick, P., 1991)
has been used as a data collection tool with the prior permission of the authors. Its items
are based on the five subscales (APQ): involvement, positive parenting, supervision,
inconsistent discipline, and corporal punishment. Parents completed each item with a 5-
point Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always) considering their children, both sons and
daughters, aged 13 to 18 years. The internal consistency or average reliability of the APQ
scale is Cronbach's α 0.68, showing that the overall reliability of the scale is acceptable.
Similarly, in the present study, the Gender Roles Attitude Scale (Zeyneloğlu &Terzioğlu,
2011) was used after obtaining approval from the authors. The two dimensions of the
scale i.e. Egalitarian [A] and Traditional [D] gender roles were completed by high school
students (Mage = 15.87, SD = .06). All statements of the two subscales above were
translated into Urdu and were verified by English-Urdu language experts that had
psychology and gender studies backgrounds. Egalitarian gender roles subscale had
moderate internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = .78) and so did traditional gender roles
(Cronbach alpha = .78) however overall internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = .92).
Procedure: Permission is obtained from the higher authorities of the schools to collect
data from teachers and students. Respondents were also assured that they would maintain
the confidentiality of the information they provided through questionnaires and were
informed that the purpose of the data was educational perspective only. Ethical
considerations were also taken into account in the daily collection of questionnaires, and
respondents were appreciated for their timely participation and patience in providing
family information. Male and female teachers from Govt. Higher Secondary Schools
Lahore for boys and girls were selected having 13-18 years-old children and they were
asked to complete the questionnaire from their son and daughter and spouse. Similarly,
children from Govt. higher secondary schools for girls and boys attending matriculation
were selected and asked to complete the questionnaire from their parents, and a sibling
(13 to 18 years). The questionnaires were collected daily bases by visiting the schools
and homes of the participants.
Data Analysis: Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was applied to test the
mean differences of four dependent variables, with follow-up univariate ANOVA
analysis. Similarly, one-way, three-way ANOVA, and simple percentages and
frequencies were used to analyze data.
Descriptive of Demographics
Demographic characteristics in the examination of the parents included gender, age,
family system, and family income level. It was determined the age of parents was in 45-
60 years. Family structure also influences parental socialization practices, hence family
Farah Adil & Raana Malik
45
structure was selected as a variable in this study, which included 26.2% of families living
in a nuclear family system, and 23.8% sharing a joint family system, while extended
families were not selected in this sample as a limitation of the study. The sample was
distributed into three family income levels and the majority in the sample (48.8%) earned
more than PRs.50, 000/- per month, 22.8% sample comprised family income level
PRs.25,000-50,000, and 28.4% had monthly family income level PRs. 76,000-100,000.
Therefore, it is clear that the sample represented the working/middle class of Pakistan. It
was also taken into account that 46% of the mothers participating in the present study
were employed while 54% were housewives. Similarly, children 50% of boys and 50% of
girls in the age range 13-18 participated in this study.
Results
Study I: One-way between-groups multivariate analysis MANOVA was performed to
examine gender differences in parenting practices. Dependent variables included
'Involvement', 'positive parenting',' inconsistent discipline', 'supervision', and 'corporal
punishment', and the independent variable was gender. There was a statistically
significant difference between scores of fathers and mothers on the collective dependent
variables F(5,491)=3.10,p=.009; Wilks’ Lambda=.97; partial eta squared=.031. When
the results for the dependent variables were considered separately, the differences to
reach statistical significance were ‘involvement’ p=.012 and ‘positive parenting’ p=.032.
An analysis of mean score differences showed that mothers were more concerned about
involvement and positive parenting to socialize their children as scores were reported for
mothers (M=37.8, SD=6.85) for’ involvement’ and (M=16.52, SD=2.88) for ‘positive
parenting’ than scores of fathers on ‘involvement’ (M=36.35, SD=5.92), ‘positive
parenting’ (M=16.52, SD=2.88) respectively.
Study II: Significant main effect of gender collapsed over gender roles, F(1, 498) =
2546.01, p< .000, η2 = .84 revealed girls (M = 43.21, SD = 16.02) had significantly higher
attitudes than boys (M = 22.41, SD = 6.78). A significant main effect of gender roles
collapsed over gender, was also found F(1, 498) = 495.65, p< .000, η2 = .50; attitudes
towards traditional gender roles (M = 37.22, SD = 21.62) were higher than egalitarian
gender roles (M = 28.40, SD = 3.62). A significant interaction between gender and gender
roles was also found F(1, 498) = 2315.99, p< .000, η2 = .82. Post-hoc Tukey analysis
revealed attitudes of girls (M = 29.26, SD = 3.31) was significantly (p< .001) higher than
boys (M = 27.53, SD = 3.72) for egalitarian gender roles, and attitudes of girls (M =
57.15, SD = 10.63) was significantly (p< .001) higher than boys (M = 17.28, SD = 5.06)
on traditional gender roles.
46
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles Attitude among
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study
Table 1: One-Way ANOVA for traditional and egalitarian gender roles attitude of
children with parenting practices
Variables I Variables IISS df MS F p
Egalitarian Involvement
“You help your child
with his/her homework”.
Between Groups 155.23 2 38.80 3.00 .02
Within Groups 6371.99 494 12.89
Total 6527.22 498
“You ask your child what
his/her plans are for the coming day”.
Between Groups 251.25 4 62.81 4.91 .00
Within Groups 6330.55 495 12.78
Total 6581.80 499
Egalitarian Positive parenting
“You reward or give
something extra to your child for
obeying you or behaving well”.
Between Groups 259.26 4 64.81 5.07 .00
Within Groups 6322.5 495 12.77
Total 6581.80 499
“You hug or kiss your child
when he/she does something well”.
Between Groups 223.81 4 55.95 4.37 .00
Within Groups 6357.99 495 12.84
Total 6581.80 499
Traditional Inconsistent Discipline
“You threaten to punish your
child and then do not actually
punish him/her”.
Between Groups 261.86 4 65.46 3.60 .01
Within Groups 8982.14 495 18.15
Total 9244.00 499
*p<.05
The cross-section of the variables was conducted through one-way ANOVA with
traditional and egalitarian gender roles attitude of children and parenting practice
'involvement'. Was statistically significant difference was found in two factors of
parenting socialization practice 'involvement' 'You help your child with his/her
Farah Adil & Raana Malik
47
homework’ F(4,495)=3.00, p=.018 and ‘You ask your child what his/her plans are for the
coming day’ F(4,495)= 4.91, p=.001 with egalitarian gender roles attitude of children.
Similarly, the one-way ANOVA was performed with traditional and egalitarian gender
roles attitude of children and gender socialization practice 'positive parenting'. There was
statistically significant difference was found in two factors of parenting socialization
practice, "You reward or give something extra to your child for obeying you or behaving
well” F(4,495)=5.07, p=.001 and “You hug or kiss your child when he/she does
something well” F(4,495)=4.37, p=.002 with egalitarian gender roles attitude of children.
Additionally, the one-way ANOVA was performed with traditional and egalitarian
gender roles attitude of children and gender socialization practice 'inconsistent discipline'.
There was a statistically significant difference was found in one factor of parenting
socialization practice “You threaten to punish your child and then do not punish
him/her”F(4,495)=3.60, p=.007 with traditional gender roles attitude of children.
Discussion
The current study showed differences in parenting socialization practices between
mothers and fathers to socialize their children. The parenting practices in terms of
'involvement',' and 'positive parenting' were found to differ significantly from other
parenting practices among parents. In addition, the findings reveal that mothers were
more concerned about these parenting practices for socializing their children as compared
to fathers. Furthermore, it was found that mothers in Pakistani culture were more
concerned since they spent more time at home with their children. Hence, mothers have a
significant influence on the formation of children's gender roles and attitudes. Moreover,
the findings also support the study's conclusion that the familial structure provides
considerable evidence that mothers have a distinct influence on the creation of daughters'
and sons' gender ideas (Carlson & Knoester, 2011).
The study's findings revealed significant gender variations in high school students'
opinions about egalitarian and traditional gender roles, with female students showing
greater attitudes toward gender roles than male students. This finding implies that female
students had stronger opinions toward egalitarian or traditional gender roles than male
students. The reason for girls' egalitarian and traditional attitudes towards gender roles
depends on their relationship with their parents since girls spend more time with their
mothers at home; therefore, the role of parenting, especially the mother-daughter
relationship, has a greater influence on the formation of attitudes towards gender roles.
As shown in a previous study, mothers had a greater impact on gender attitudes among
children as compared to fathers. Thus, when parents reported a specific gender attitude
48
Role of Parenting Practices to Construct Gender Roles Attitude among
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study
(discriminatory or egalitarian), their children were 11% more likely to have the same
attitude (Dhar et al., 2018).
Egalitarian gender roles are based on positive pro-social behaviors. The above findings of
the study were also supported by the previous literature that found positive parenting was
associated with positive outcomes among children, such as warmth and being caring, and
supportive parenting practices. Which were significantly predicted as positive or
prosaically behavioral outcomes and were less likely to be associated with risky or
negative behavioral outcomes in children (Nelson et al., 2001; Laible et al., 2017).
Similarly, the parenting practice of 'inconsistent discipline' leads to traditional gender
roles attitudes among children. Inconsistent interactions with parents may influence
children's self-perceptions, leading to insecurity, self-doubt, and low self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1977; Luxton, 2008).
Conclusions and Suggestions
The current results of the research are interesting because they suggest certain types of
parenting practices, such as 'involvement' and 'positive parenting', associated with
children's egalitarian gender roles attitude. Similarly, certain types of parenting practices
'inconsistent discipline' associated with traditional child gender role attitudes. The
findings may have an important social implication, as it is possible to encourage a
reduction in the traditional gender role adjustment by providing parents and families with
information and services that promote better parenting practices from a gender
perspective to reduce traditional gender role attitudes among adolescents. Findings from
various studies showed that parents are more persuasive in the process of gender
socialization, therefore taking into account the findings of the present study following
implications were put forward to promote positive parenting practices that affect gender
roles attitude formation among adolescents. The majority of current research focuses on
the perception of gender roles in family socialization, gender identity theory, and the
social problems and parental attitudes of non-binary children, but few studies have
looked at parental education and influence on children before they form a gender identity.
Effective parental involvement and education throughout the child's gender awareness
period can help steer his or her development and prevent family conflict.
• Encouraging fathers to participate in gender socialization is crucial at the
household level.
• School-based group interventions can teach adolescent boys and girls about
egalitarian gender roles.
• National collaboration between the government and private sector is crucial for
implementing gender-responsive and family-friendly policies, social protection
Farah Adil & Raana Malik
49
programs, and service delivery, including public childcare benefits, and
parenting education.
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__________________________
Farah Adil is a Lecturer, Gender and Development Studies, Lahore College for Women
University
Prof. Dr. Raana Malik is a Chairperson in the Gender Studies, University of the Punjab,
Lahore.
