The Role of Media Ethics in Shaping Public Perception: A Critical Analysis of Biased Reporting and Its Impact on Public Opinion

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The Role of Media Ethics in Shaping Public Perception: A Critical
Analysis of Biased Reporting and Its Impact on Public Opinion
*Awofadeju Peter Olayinka, PhD & **Sawyerr Odunayo
*Department of Mass Communication, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji
Arakeji, Osun State. **Mass Communication Department, Elizade University,
Ilara-Mokin, Ondo State, Nigeria.
poawofadeju@jabu.edu.ng
Abstract
This paper examines the role of media ethics in shaping public perception, with a
specific focus on biased reporting and its impact on public opinion in Nigeria.
Through a comprehensive literature review and analysis of case studies, the paper
provides an overview of media ethics, highlighting the fundamental principles of
objectivity, fairness, accuracy, and accountability. It emphasizes the essential role
that these ethics play in ensuring the provision of unbiased and reliable
information to the public. Furthermore, the paper explores the significant
responsibility that media organizations hold in safeguarding the public's right to
accurate and impartial news reporting. Drawing on extensive research, the paper
delves into the concept of biased reporting and its potential effects on public
opinion. The paper explores the methods used by media outlets to manipulate
public opinion, including agenda-setting, framing, and selective exposure of facts
and how this can reinforce existing beliefs and polarize society. In conclusion, this
paper sheds light on the crucial role of media ethics in shaping public perception,
critically analyzes the impact of biased reporting on public opinion, emphasizing
the need for media organizations to adhere to ethical principles of objectivity,
fairness, accuracy, and accountability. The paper gives an in-depth understanding
of the implications of biased reporting, encourages and highlights the importance
of ethical journalism in maintaining a healthy society. The paper stressed the
strategic role of the government and regulatory bodies at ensuring ethical conduct
in the media to combat biased reporting and among other recommendations called
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for self-regulation in the media to maintain the integrity and credibility of
journalism.
Keywords: Media Ethics, Public Perception, Biased Reporting, Public Opinion,
Role of Media, Nigeria
Introduction
In a diverse country like Nigeria, the
media serves as a crucial platform for
information dissemination and public
engagement. The ethical conduct of
journalism and the accurate portrayal of
information are fundamental in ensuring
that the media is objective as rightly put
by Nkwachi (2015), cited in Pepple &
Acholonu (2018, p.57) that “as an
institution bestowed with the
responsibility of protecting public
interest, the mass media strive to play this
noble role which the society bestowed on
them, that is to be socially responsible”.
This article critically examines the role of
media ethics in shaping public
perception, with a specific focus on
biased reporting and its impact on public
opinion in Nigeria.
The ethical principles that underpin
journalism are essential for safeguarding
the integrity and credibility of the media.
Ethical reporting upholds the public's
right to accurate, balanced, and fair
information and that is why Nasidi (2016,
p.1) expatiates that “media can contribute
a lot to a society, it can change opinions
because they have access to people and
this gives it a lot of strength, this strength
can either be used constructively by
educating the people or it can be used
destructively”.
In Nigeria, the prevalence of biased
reporting across various media platforms
has raised significant concerns about its
implications for public opinion and
democratic governance, it further
endorsing the submission by Ajia (1994)
cited in Tsegyu & Asemah (2014, p.7)
that “Nigerian journalists have been
found wanting, both in expertise and in
credibility; several people who are
practicing journalism in Nigeria did not
receive adequate training due to lack of
manpower in the media industry in
Nigeria”. According to Tsegyu &
Asemah (2014, p.2) citing Asemah
(2011), most of the unethical problems
are associated with bribery, corruption,
sycophancy, conflict of interest,
sensationalism, character assassination
and lots of other ethical issues. This paper
aims to provide a comprehensive
examination of the relationship between
media ethics, biased reporting, and public
opinion in Nigeria. By critically
analyzing pertinent case studies and
theoretical frameworks, the study
endeavors to elucidate the impact of
biased reporting on public perception and

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seeks to underscore the imperative of upholding ethical standards in journalism to
mitigate the adverse effects of biased reporting and engender a more informed and
discerning public.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The objective of this paper is to critically analyze the role of media ethics in shaping
public perception through a study of biased reporting on public opinion in Nigeria.
Key Objectives:
1. To understand the concept of media ethics and its importance in journalism.
2. To analyze the impact of biased reporting on public opinion formation in
Nigeria.
3. To identify the factors contributing to biased reporting in Nigerian media.
4. To examine the consequences of biased reporting on public perception.
5. To propose strategies for promoting media ethics and reducing biased reporting
in Nigeria.
6. To provide recommendations for media organizations and regulatory bodies
on ensuring ethical journalism practices to enhance public trust and perception.
Literature Review
The relationship between media and ethics is crucial in shaping public discourse,
influencing societal values, and promoting well-informed citizens as emphasized by
Merrill, (2011) that media ethics concerns right and wrong, good and bad, better and
worse actions taken by people working in the field of journalism and mass
communication while reporting on issues in Egbulefu & Adeyeye (2018). Black,
Steele and Barney (1995) observed that “for excellent journalism practice, ethical
issues must be considered paramount by journalists to stem the tide of mounting
resentment from a highly critical public. The approach is doing ethics, a belief that
good ethical decision making in journalism is a craft and skill comparable to good
writing, good photography and good editing. If done it will ensure that journalists can
maximize the truth telling obligation, while minimizing harm to vulnerable news
sources and consumers”.
Good ethical decision making is crucial for maintaining the profession’s integrity and
trustworthiness. In journalism, ethics has to do with duty to self and to others, Merrill
(2011) cited in Egbulefu & Adeyeye (2018) as Enobakhare (2013) pointed out in
Egbulefu & Adeyeye (2018) that “journalists should realize that their social
responsibility requires them to always act within the ethics of their profession”.

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Theoretical Framework
Media organisations influence what people see, hear and read and the role of media
ethics in public perception is intertwined with various communication theories that
address how bias in reporting can impact public opinion, hence this paper is anchored
on the communication theories; the agenda-setting, framing, and cultivation.
The Agenda-Setting Theory
First coined by Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw in 1972, the agenda-setting
theory suggests that media has the power to influence public opinion by determining
the importance of topics and issues through extensive coverage, elaborating the
connection in terms of relationships between the emphasis that the mass media put as
an issue and the media audiences or the public’s reaction or attributes to such issue,
Littlejohn and Foss (2009) as cited in Zain (2014). When media outlets heavily focus
on certain topics, they direct the public attention towards those issues while ignoring
others. This theory can be applied to understand how certain issues are framed in a
biased manner, leading to distorted public perception and influencing what the public
considers important, thereby shaping their opinions and attitudes.
The Framing Theory
The concept of framing focuses on how media content can shape the way audiences
perceive and interpret information. Arowolo (2017) said “framing is related to the
agenda-setting theory but focuses on the essence of issues at hand rather than on a
particular topic”. Biased reporting can manipulate the framing of news stories to favor
certain viewpoints, thereby shaping public perceptions in a particular direction,
leading to a distorted understanding of events or issues. Media organizations may use
selective reporting, emphasis on certain aspects, or specific language to shape
perceptions and generate desired reactions from the public. Such framing can lead to
highly polarized or one-sided views among the public.
Cultivation Theory
Cultivation is a sociocultural theory regarding the role of television in shaping
viewers’ perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and values Gerbner & Gross (1976) in Shrum
(2017). Shrum further notes that as cultivation is a sociocultural theory, the three
components—media institutions, message production, and message effects on
viewers—are inextricably intertwined. In the context of biased reporting, persistent
exposure to biased content can cultivate specific beliefs and opinions among the
public. For example, if media disproportionately focuses on crime committed by a
specific demographic, it can create an impression that this group is more prone to
criminal activity among the public, leading to prejudice and discrimination.

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Understanding Media Ethics
Every profession has its ethics; they are the code of conduct, set of moral principles or
values that guide a profession, the behavior and actions of individuals in a particular
profession.
Plaisance (2021) points out that “in journalism, truth is considered an “absolute” rather
than an instrumental value: it is important not only for what it does but as an end in
itself. Truth seeking is what sets journalism apart from all other forms of
communication” Therefore, as an institution with the responsibility of protecting
public interest, the mass media strive to play this noble role which the society
bestowed on them, that is to be socially responsible Nkwachi (2015) cited in (Pepple
& Acholonu, 2018).
In Ifedayo (1999), “the thrust of ethics is on individual culpability. He notes that while
law emphasizes accountability, ethics emphasizes responsibility”. Professional ethics
in journalism serves as a framework for professionals to make informed decisions and
choices based on the best interests of the society, that is why the importance of
impartiality, accuracy, transparency, and fairness in reporting cannot be overlooked in
engendering a well-informed society.
1. Impartiality: Impartiality means presenting information without bias or
favoritism towards any particular individuals, groups, or ideologies. Impartial
reporting helps build trust with the audience and maintains the integrity of the
news media.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy involves reporting information that is factually correct,
reliable, and free from errors or misinformation. Journalists have a
responsibility to verify their sources, cross-check information, and present it in
a manner that reflects the truth.
3. Transparency: Transparency in reporting means being open and honest about
the sources, methods, and motivations behind the information being presented.
Transparency enhances the credibility of journalists and media organizations.
4. Fairness: Fairness requires presenting a balanced and inclusive perspective on
an issue by representing all relevant viewpoints, even if they conflict with one's
own beliefs. Fair reporting helps avoid misrepresentation, and ensures that all
affected parties are treated justly.
By adhering to the principles of impartiality, accuracy, transparency, and fairness in
reporting, journalists contribute to the public's trust in the media.
Biased Reporting and Its Impact on Public Opinion
Journalists, may intentionally or unintentionally, favor one perspective over others,
resulting in a skewed presentation of the news. This bias can manifest itself through
selective coverage, framing, or even omission of certain facts or viewpoints.

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According to Gordon, Kittross, Merrill, Babcock and Dorsher (2011), "media ethics is
not an oxymoron- a contradiction in terms -nor is it a fixed set of rules or laws as in
medicine or theology neither is it a clear list of do's and don'ts or blacks and whites,
instead it is believed that media ethics is an essential process that evolves with the
world in which media operate, and on which the media report- a seemingly endless
array of grey areas where issues and appropriate courses of action aren't always
obvious”.
Different scholars and researchers have come up with different meanings of who a
journalist should be and what they should represent.
The Reuters Handbook (2008) gives a succinct outline of who a journalist is, It
includes: always holds accuracy sacrosanct, always corrects an error openly, always
strives for balance and freedom from bias, always reveals a conflict of interest to a
manager, always respects privileged information, always protects their sources from
the authorities, always guards against putting their opinion in a news story, never
fabricates or plagiarize, never alters a still or moving image beyond the requirements
of normal image enhancement, never pays for a story and never accepts a bribe as cited
in Andrew Ali Ibbi (2016). However, Ward (2011) notes that the media revolution is
causing a simultaneous revolution in media ethics. He mentions that professional
journalists who once dominated the media sphere now share the space with tweeters,
bloggers, citizen journalists and social media users around the world hence challenging
the foundation of media ethics.
Media bias in journalism however has been in public discourse for decades
highlighting the tendency for journalists and news organizations to present news in a
way that aligns with their own personal beliefs or the interests of the organization. This
bias can manifest in a variety of ways, including the selection of which stories to cover,
the framing of those stories, the language used, and the emphasis placed on certain
aspects of a story over others. For instance, if a news organization consistently reports
on a particular political issue from only one perspective, it may lead viewers to believe
that this is the only valid interpretation of the situation thereby creating a polarized
public opinion and contribute to a lack of understanding or empathy for alternative
viewpoints. This situation has also led to the shaping of public trust in news
organizations. When individuals perceive that the news they consume is biased or
untrustworthy, they may become less likely to engage with news media or to believe
the information presented.
It is important to note that media bias is not necessarily always intentional as Bozell
and Baker (1990), in Rodrigo- Gines (2023) reference that “the media bias is not
intentional, but rather depends on the background of the journalists”. Journalists and
news organizations are human and may be influenced by their own biases, the
pressures of deadlines, and the need to attract and retain audiences.

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Relationship Between Media and Ethics
The relationship between media and ethics encompasses various key relationships.
These relationships are crucial for understanding the impact of media on society and
the ethical considerations that arise in the realm of media and communication.
a. Truth and Accuracy: Journalistic integrity demands that media professionals
strive to present information that is truthful, verified, and free from bias. The
relationship between media and ethics is therefore based on the responsibility
of the media to provide the public with factual and reliable information.
Accuracy must be a central norm in journalism, this stance according to
Poriezza (2019) is central in the Reuters Handbook of Journalism as it declares:
“Accuracy is at the heart of what we do, it is our job to get it first, but it is
above all our job to get it right. Accuracy as well as balance, always takes
precedence over speed”. Historical facts on the aspect of journalism norms
according to Poriezza was the establishment of the fact-checking practice by
Time Magazine in 1923. Hence accuracy is about information that has been
thoroughly checked to ensure its credibility.
b. Objectivity and Bias: The relationship between media and ethics is evident in
the need for journalists and media outlets to present information in a fair and
impartial manner, without allowing personal or organizational biases to
influence the content. In this respect Yat (2007) points out that the “success of
objective journalism depends on the integrity of the practitioners and the norms
to which they are committed”.
c. Privacy and Intrusion: Media and ethics involves a delicate balance when it
comes to respecting individual privacy. Media professionals must navigate the
ethical considerations of privacy rights when reporting on public figures and
private individuals. This relationship is defined by the need to uphold the
public's right to information while respecting the privacy and dignity of
individuals involved in news stories. Therefore, to guarantee this privacy
Lukacs (2021) and Thomson (2018) in Nyitse, Odeba & Ogbu (2023, p.145)
asserts that the “right to be left alone” is intended to guarantee protection
against the uninvited or unlawful disclosure of private information, including
facts, ideas and emotions hence some information is personal and should be
handled as such.
d. Sensationalism and Responsible Reporting: Sensationalism, which involves
the use of exaggerated stories to capture attention, often conflicts with the
ethical obligation of media to report responsibly and without causing harm.
The media's choices in content and presentation directly impacts the society.
Journalists should avoid sensationalising news stories, though they are

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gatekeepers, whatever they select to put out should be objectivity-based which
is against sensationalism (Iyorkyaa, Bo &Tine 2020, p.12).
e. Influence and Accountability: The relationship between media and ethics
highlights the influence of the media on public opinion and societal attitudes.
The media is accountable for the impact of its content on individuals and
communities, and ethical considerations encompass the need for transparency,
accountability, and the promotion of public interest. The media must treat their
various stakeholders responsibly so that journalism can fulfill its manifold
social functions without external control (McQuail, 2013 in Fengler, 2019).
f. Diversity and Representation: Striving for more inclusive and collaborative
community journalism is a pragmatic and journalistic imperative Ford,
Gonzales & Quade (2020, p.59). Ethical considerations emerge when media
fails to represent marginalized voices and perpetuates stereotypes or
discrimination. The relationship between media and ethics requires a
commitment to inclusivity, fairness, and accurate representation of diverse
perspectives in media narratives.
g. Corporate Interests and Independence: Media organizations are often
driven by commercial pressures and corporate agendas, which can pose ethical
challenges. Media ethics demand a delicate balance between financial
sustainability and editorial autonomy and the International Press Institute
believes that innovation empowers media outlets to achieve editorial
independence and financial sustainability (IPI, 2023).
h. Social Responsibility and Public Interest: Media professionals have an
ethical obligation to serve the public by providing information that is in the
best interest of society. This relationship ensures that the media acts as a
responsible watchdog. The public’s expectation from the media is high, hence
the code of ethics of the Nigeria Press Council which among other things states
that there is the need for a journalist to promote universal principles of human
rights, democracy, justice, equity, peace and international understanding while
striving to enhance national unity and public good.
The Nigeria Press Code of Conduct
The Nigerian press code of ethics was adopted in 1978 by the Nigerian press
organization. Three media bodies in Nigeria subscribed to the code of ethics and
conduct which is today being enforced by the Nigerian Press Council. These are the
Nigerian Guild of Editors (NGE), the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) and the
Newspapers Proprietors Association of Nigeria (NPAN). The Guild of Editors monitor
the ethical behaviors of journalists; the Nigeria Union of Journalists is the professional

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as well as trade union arm of professionals and the Newspaper Proprietors Association
of Nigeria is association of employers in the print media (Ifedayo,2014).
In the Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ) code of conduct, decisions concerning the
content of the news should be the responsibility of professional journalists and this
includes the public’s right to factual, accurate, balanced and fair reporting. The code
went further to say that a journalist should reframe from publishing inaccurate and
misleading information and where such information has been inadvertently published,
prompt correction should be made; and lastly in the course of his duties, a journalist
should strive to separate fact from conjecture and comment as cited in (Ifedayo,2014,
p.108).
An ethical code is without doubt a sine qua non in any profession. the code of ethics
is therefore, the companion of the practicing journalist in providing ethical guidelines
by which practitioners can judge and be judged.
Causes and Motivations Behind Biased Reporting
Biased reporting in journalism can stem from the nature of the media industry, the
influence of individual journalists' beliefs, external pressures, among others. Key
factors causing and motivating biased reporting media ownership and financial
pressures, journalists’ bias, political pressure, competition and ratings and pressure to
meet deadlines among others:
1. Media Ownership and Financial Pressures: Research has established a
relationship between media ownership and funding. Media organizations are
often profit-driven entities, and their ownership structures can influence the
type of reporting that is produced. Owners may have political or financial
interests that shape the editorial stance of the media outlet. McQuail (2010)
postulates that media contents always reflect the interests of those who fund
them and to give credence to this, a research study was conducted by
Nwanyanwu (2009) on the constraints of journalistic practice in government-
owned media organisations in the south-south geopolitical zone of Nigeria
found out that government officials and agents interfere with state-owned
media operations, as such they are made to protect government interests at all
times (Dogari, Shem & Apuke,2018, p.232).
2. Journalists' Bias: Journalists, like all individuals, have their own beliefs,
values, and biases. These beliefs can influence the way they select stories,
frame issues, and interview sources., as Pate (2002) cited in Omebije
Abdulhasir & Maichiki (2023, p.9) remarked that “nothing defines the
character of the media establishment more sharply than any crisis that pitches
nation against nation or one section of society against another. In times of
conflict the responsibility of the media is magnified ten folds by society

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demand for more news information and analysis, and therefore its increased
capacity to inform, debate and shape public opinion. Every opinion written or
spoken by the media is a potential machete, bullet or bomb in the hands and
mind of victims and perpetrators”.
3. Political Pressures: Journalists may face pressure from political groups that
seek to shape media narratives in their favor. This may lead journalists to self-
censor or tailor their reporting to align with the viewpoints of powerful interest
groups. An example of the pressure journalists/media face from the political
arena was evident in 1984, precisely February at a press conference where the
then military regime headed by General Buhari lashed out at the press and
threatened to tamper with the press freedoms enshrined in the 1979 constitution
over articles in the press which had claimed that 2.8 million naira had been
found missing in the oil ministry which he headed (Seng & Hunt, 1986, p.95).
4. Competition and Ratings: If competition affects media bias, competition can
also affect media performance via media bias, Wellbrock & Kure (2020,
p.6159). In a highly competitive media environment, where audience ratings
and clicks are paramount, there is a tendency to prioritize stories that are
attention-grabbing or controversial, even if they are not fully balanced or
represent the issue at hand.
5. Pressure to Meet Deadlines: In the fast-paced world of journalism, pressure
to meet deadlines and produce content rapidly can sometimes lead to shortcuts
in fact-checking and verification, which in turn can lead to biased or inaccurate
reporting. The lack of time according to Harro-Loit & Josephi (2020) in
Himma-Kadakas & Ojamets (2022) is one of the key factors that influence how
information acquired by journalists affects their work practices.
Case Studies
This article brings forward two case studies on the agenda- setting and media framing
reporting in the Nigerian context that has led to media bias.
Agenda-Setting Reporting
• The Niger Delta region has been the center of unrest due to disputes over oil
revenue, environmental degradation, and political marginalization. Media
coverage of the conflict has often been agenda setting as certain aspects of the
conflict receive more attention while others are overlooked. In many instances, the
Nigerian media has focused on the violent aspects of the conflict, portraying the
militants as the main drivers of the crisis, while neglecting the underlying socio-
economic and environmental issues that have contributed to the unrest. This biased
agenda-setting has led to a skewed public perception of the conflict, with many

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Nigerians viewing the militants as the sole instigators of the unrest. According to
Amenaghawon (2016), “the choice of words that the media used in portraying the
Niger Delta conflict had a great effect on how the people, the government, the
international community, the oil companies etc., perceived the region”.
• During political campaigns and elections, agenda setting by the media in Nigeria
has contributed to bias through selective reporting and framing of political
candidates and parties. In many instances, media outlets have been accused of
favoring certain candidates or parties, thereby shaping public opinion in their favor
while sidelining opposing viewpoints as Adebanwi (2016) notes in Demarest &
Langer (2019, p.86) that “despite the heroic efforts of the press in ensuring the
restoration of democratic rule and its critical role in monitoring democratically
elected officials and institutions, on a few critical occasions, the Nigerian press
renders itself totally captive to ethno-regional and ethno-religious passions and
calculations”.
These case studies illustrate how agenda-setting reporting in Nigeria has shaped public
perception and influenced attitudes towards critical issues such as conflict, ethnicity,
and politics. It underscores the importance of balanced and objective reporting to
ensure that the media fulfills its role as a watchdog and facilitator of informed public
discourse.
Media Framing and Reporting
Media framing and reporting in Nigeria has been observed in various forms, including
political, economic, and social issues. These biases influence the way stories are
presented, the perspectives that are highlighted, and the voices that are amplified in
the media. Social issues, including matters related to gender, ethnicity, and religion
suffer from media bias in Nigeria. Stories about social issues are often framed in a way
that reflects prevailing societal attitudes and stereotypes, leading to the perpetuation
of harmful narratives and the marginalization of certain groups.
• One study is the farmer-herder crisis in Nigeria. Studies have shown that although
there are two actors - farmers and herders, herdsmen are more negatively framed
and labeled than farmers in the media. Generic labeling and episodic framing of
herdsmen as killers, attackers, violent invaders and rapists (Abdulbaqi & Ariemu,
2017; Ciboh, 2017; Igwebuike, 2020; Kolawole, 2021; Nwachukwu et al., 2021;
Nwankwo, 2021) are frames capable of inducing fears in people whenever they
come in contact with a herder, whether he is a Fulani or he is from other ethnic
affiliation. In another instance, the media succeeded in framing farmers as innocent
and defenseless (Gever & Essien, 2019; Igwebuike, 2020), cited in (Ajetunmobi
2023, p.95).

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• Another study conducted by Ajetunmobi (2023) on Independent People of Biafra’s
Call for Biafran Republic found out that one voice which comes from the
government through newspapers’ reports demonizes IPOB as “armed agitators,
abductors, murderers, terrorists, criminal agitators, militants, and separatists”
(Akanni & Ibraheem, 2018; Chiluwa, 2018; Ezu, 2019; Folayan et al., 2021; Jimoh
& Abdul-Hameed, 2017; Nwabueze & Ezebuenyi, 2019). The study found that
these negative labels raise the prominence of IPOB in manners that portray every
member as an armed and criminal agitator even if only few of its members are
criminals.
Influence of Social Media and Digital Platforms on Media Ethics
The social media are online platforms and websites that allow people to create and
share content and even interact with others through messaging, sharing photos and
videos. Some popular social media platforms include: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter,
LinkedIn, Snapchat among others. The social media has become an integral part of
modern society, and has enabled people to stay connected, share information and even
express themselves as Boyd &Ellison (2008) defines social media as a website that
gives the audience the opportunity to share profiles and create visible relationships
among fellow users” cited in Gbadeyan (2021, p.390).
According to Kietzmann et al. (2011), “Social media is a honeycomb of seven
functional building blocks: identity, conversations, sharing, presence, relationships,
reputation, and groups”, while Kapoor et al. (2018) says “social media is made up of
various user-driven platforms that facilitate diffusion of compelling content, dialogue
creation, and communication to a broader audience. It is essentially a digital space
created by the people and for the people, and it provides an environment that is
conducive for interactions and networking to occur at different levels (for instance,
personal, professional, business, marketing, political, and societal)” both cited in
(Aichner, Grunfelder, Maurer & Jegeni, 2021).
Arising from the social media is citizen journalism which has undeniably transformed
the media landscape, allowing individuals to report, analyze, and disseminate news
and information in ways that were once the exclusive domain of professional
journalists and traditional media organisations. One of the key criticisms leveled
against citizen journalism is that it can sometimes lead to the debasement of
conventional journalism because anyone with an internet connection and a smartphone
can now act as a reporter, analyst or even a news anchor, reaching potentially massive
audiences with their content. This proliferation of unvetted, unverified, and sometimes
biased information has led to a dilution of the standards and practices that have
traditionally governed professional journalism. Banjo & Jiboku (,2023) in Banjo &
Oduwobi (2023) adduces that the fundamental norms that guide journalism practice

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around the world are the ethical principles in journalism. They are the basis around
which the journalism profession is built and without their application to the news-
gathering and producing process, the profession will collapse”.
The alarming proliferation of fabricated news, falsehoods, hate speech, and other
unethical activities represents the central ethical challenges in Nigerian journalism and
the influence of social media and digital platforms on media ethics is both positive and
negative. On one hand, it has increased transparency, accountability, and audience
participation, on the other, it has introduced new challenges such as the spread of
misinformation and the erosion of traditional ethical standards.
Media Ethics in Countering Biased Reporting
Journalists must adhere to principles of fairness, accuracy, balance, and integrity in
their reporting to counter biased reporting and media ethics play a crucial role in
achieving this. According to Christian (2012), “Journalists need to carefully examine
their own cultural biases and the key for journalists is being aware of what contributes
to one’s own biases. Learning about one’s own biases is essential to truly accurate
journalism”.
Blackwell, (2013, p.55) quotes Martin Bell (1997) of the BBC who notes that “a
journalism that cares as well as knows; that is aware of its responsibilities; and will
not stand neutrally between good and evil, right and wrong, the victim and the
oppressor. This is not to back one side or faction or people against one another; it is to
make the point that we are in the press, and especially television which is its most
powerful division, do not stand apart from the world”. Overcoming bias in reporting
is crucial for maintaining the integrity and accuracy of news and information.
To address bias in reporting, journalists and news organizations can take several steps:
a. Acknowledge and Understand Bias: The first step in overcoming bias in
reporting is to acknowledge its presence and understand its nature. By
recognizing the existence of bias, journalists can begin to address it effectively.
b. Diverse perspectives: Media organizations should promote diverse
perspectives and voices in their coverage. This means actively seeking out
different viewpoints, and experiences to ensure balanced reporting.
c. Implement Editorial Standards and Guidelines: News organizations should
establish clear editorial standards and guidelines to ensure fair and accurate
reporting. These standards should emphasize the importance of neutrality,
objectivity, and balance in news coverage.
d. Encourage Critical Thinking and Fact-Checking: Journalists should
approach their reporting with critical thinking and skepticism. Fact-checking
is a crucial part of the journalistic process, and it helps in verifying the accuracy
of information and minimizing the impact of bias.

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e. Monitor and Review Reporting Practices: News organizations should
regularly monitor and review their reporting practices to identify and address
bias. This can involve internal audits, reader feedback, and critical assessments
of news coverage.
f. Encourage Audience Engagement: Engaging with audiences can provide
valuable feedback on news coverage and help in identifying potential biases.
News organizations can encourage audience participation through feedback
mechanisms, reader surveys, and public forums.
g. Hold Journalists Accountable: News organizations should hold journalists
accountable for not adhering to ethical standards and addressing bias in their
reporting. By fostering a culture of accountability, news organizations can
reinforce the importance of unbiased reporting.
h. Editorial independence: Journalists should have the freedom to report
without undue influence or pressure from external sources, including
advertisers, owners, or political interests.
It is important to note that countering biased reporting requires the active engagement
of journalists, media organizations, and the public.
Examples of Successful Media Accountability Initiatives in Nigeria
Nigeria has seen several successful media accountability initiatives emerge in recent
years, aimed at ensuring journalists and media organizations adhere to professional
standards and ethics.
One notable initiative is the Premium Times Centre for Investigative Journalism
(PTCIJ), established in 2014. Now known as the center for journalism innovation and
development (CJID), Premium Times (2022), it has played a pivotal role in promoting
media accountability in Nigeria. One of the key successes of CJID is its fact-checking
and verification project known as Dubawa. This initiative focuses on verifying and
debunking misleading information, especially in the context of elections and political
discourse. The investigation by the CJID into the Pandora Papers is one of the
successes. The investigation by Premium Times uncovered a complex web of tax
havens and offshore accounts that hide the true ownership of billions of dollars of
assets. It revealed the covert dealings and hidden assets of over 330 politicians and
high-level public officials in over ninety nations and territories, including thirty-five
country leaders (Mwansat, 2022).
Furthermore, the Media Rights Agenda (MRA), a non-governmental organization, has
been actively involved in advocating for press freedom and media accountability in
Nigeria. MRA has been instrumental in challenging laws and policies that impede
journalists' ability to operate freely and hold power to account. A 2021 law suit filed
by the Media Rights Agenda (MRA) against the National Broadcasting Commission

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for the fines they issued in the 2019 general elections finally yielded a positive result
on May 10, 2023. In its decision a federal high court ruled in favour of MRA, declaring
the fines unconstitutional. The court issued an order of perpetual injunction,
restraining the commission from imposing further fines against the broadcast sector in
Nigeria (Okonkwo, 2023).
Additionally, the Code of Ethics of the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) has served
as a guiding framework for promoting media accountability in the country. The NUJ's
code outlines professional standards and ethical principles that journalists are expected
to uphold in their reporting. By adhering to this code, journalists and media
organizations can demonstrate their commitment to accuracy, fairness, and integrity
in their work, thereby fostering greater trust and credibility with the public.
Ethical Challenges for Nigerian journalists
Ethics in journalism makes up the moral principles and values that guide journalists in
their work and according to Nasidi (2016, p.4), the responsibility for serving the public
rests squarely on individual reporters and their editors. Akinfeleye (2003) in Nasidi
(2016, p.4) observes that the challenge facing journalists has less to do with the failure
to abide by the ethics of the profession, but of doing a good job of informing and
educating the Nigeria public. However there is a great damage done when the reporter
or editor fails in his/her editorial judgements by publishing or reporting inaccurate
news and to guide against this Risley (2001) cited in Nasidi (2016,p.4) says when a
journalist is confronted with ethical problems he or she should consider the following
principles: when there are two extreme positions in a situation, he or she should seek
the middle ground known by Aristotle as the “Golden mean”, act only as you would
wish others would act, consider the utilitarianism of our actions, which means that a
journalist’s action is considered morally right if it produces the greatest amount of
good for the greatest number of people, taking into account the interests of all
individuals affected by the action, apply the veil of ignorance by minimizing the
impact of their own perspectives on the stories they cover and aim to provide a neutral
and balanced account of the issues and events they report on and finally treat people
in the same way they would expect to be treated.
Citing Dare (2010), Banjo & Oduwobi (2023) posits that “what appears on the
newspaper's pages can be decided by politicians who have the funds to operate a media
organization” exemplifying the adage that “he who pays the piper dictates the tone”.
There are several ethical challenges that journalists in Nigeria face while performing
their duties. Some of these challenges include:
1. Press freedom: Journalists in Nigeria often face restrictions on their freedom
of expression and the right to report without censorship or interference. The
government and powerful individuals can pressure or intimidate journalists to

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suppress certain stories or narratives further adduced by Ibbi (2016, p.1) that
“ownership and control play very strong roles in defining what becomes news
in the country thus a well written story no matter how well investigated it may
be may not see the light of the day if it continuously steps on the toes of the
government in power or the rich in society who constitute those that place
advertisements in the newspaper or broadcast organization”. According to Ojo
(2003).in Demarest & Langer (2019, p.88) Moshood Abiola, the winner of the
aborted 1993 presidential elections, also saw the ownership of a newspaper as
an important tool for a political leader.
2. Threats and violence: Nigeria ranked 123 out of 180 countries on the 2023
press freedom index of the Reporters without Borders. Though Nigeria
improved six places over its previous ranking in 2022, Reporters Without
Borders affirmed that “Nigeria is one of West Africa’s most dangerous
countries for journalists who are often monitored, attacked and arbitrarily
arrested as was the case during the 2023 elections”. In Demarest & Langer
(2019, p.88) Freedom House (2016) confirmed that press media and journalists
also face harassment and violence from disgruntled politicians and their
supporters. Journalists in Nigeria are frequently subjected to intimidation,
threats, or physical attacks, especially when investigating sensitive issues such
as corruption, human rights abuses, or political scandals. Some even lose their
lives in the course of carrying out their duties.
3. Corruption: Nigeria ranks poorly in global corruption indices and it is the 150
least corrupt nation out of 180 countries. According to the 2022 Corruption
Perceptions Index reported by Transparency International, journalists often
face challenges when reporting on corruption scandals involving influential
individuals or government officials. They may encounter bribery giving rise to
the brown envelope syndrome and subtle coercion. Ibbi (2016, p.4) postulates
that the Nigerian journalist deals on a daily basis with strong tempting reasons
to encourage this unethical practice. Some of these reasons include: poor
remuneration, nonpayment of salaries as and when due, pressure from friends
and families through comparison and the economic situation of the country.
4. Bias and objectivity: Maintaining objectivity and impartiality can be
challenging for journalists in Nigeria, especially when there are significant
political or tribal divides. Balancing reporting perspectives while avoiding
favoritism or polarizing narratives can be an ethical tightrope for journalists.
According to Demarest & Langer (2019, p.89) “political influences have also
arisen during election times. This has already been shown for media coverage
of parties and candidates. While the Electoral Act requires equal media
coverage for all political parties, there is generally an incumbent advantage in

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coverage” In the run-up to the 2011 elections, for instance, about forty
broadcasting stations were fined for violating the Electoral Act (NDI 2011).
Government-owned media clearly represented the incumbent party in a
favorable light, but even private media gave greatest coverage to the ruling
party. The same patterns were observable in the run-up to the 2015 elections
(EU election observer mission 2015) as cited by Demarest & Langer (2019,
p.89).
5. Financial Challenges: Many Nigerian media organizations struggle to sustain
themselves due to limited resources, low revenue generation, and a weak
advertising market. Journalists may face ethical questions regarding accepting
gifts, sponsorships, or engaging in practices that compromise their
independence or integrity especially with poor pay packages in countries like
Nigeria and that is if the salaries ever come in time notes (Ibbi,2016).
The Role of Government and Regulatory Bodies
Nigeria, like many other countries, grapples with the challenge of balancing press
freedom with the need for ethical standards in the media industry. The government
and regulatory bodies have a responsibility to create an environment that promotes
ethical journalism and holds media organizations accountable for their actions.
a. The government plays a key role in establishing a legal framework that upholds
media ethics. This includes enacting laws that protect press freedom while also
outlining the responsibilities and ethical guidelines for media professionals. Such
laws should also hold media organizations accountable for unethical practices,
such as libel, misinformation, and invasion of privacy. Article 39 of the Nigerian
Constitution guarantees press freedom, a cornerstone of responsible journalism
and the balancing Act in the constitution is formulated to give Freedom of
Expression subject only to the laws of the country such as libel, slander, injurious
falsehood etc. Despite the constitutional provision, limitations on press freedom
exist to prevent abuse and safeguard other rights (Okoro, 2004, p.147).
b. Regulatory bodies, such as the Nigerian Press Council (NPC), formed by the
Nigerian Press Council Act No.85 of 1992 (as amended in Act 60 of 1999) and the
National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), the NBC Act are responsible for
overseeing the media industry and ensuring that ethical standards are upheld.
These bodies play a critical role in setting and enforcing codes of conduct for
journalists and media organisation. Olagoke, Olatunji & Najeem (2021, p.35). By
establishing guidelines for fair and accurate reporting, protection of sources, and
respect for privacy, regulatory bodies can help foster a culture of ethics within the
media.

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c. Government and regulatory agencies also have a role in promoting professionalism
and ethical training within the media industry. Nigerian academic institutions,
media organisations are contributing to the process of training media professionals,
examples of such are the TV College, Jos, the Nigerian Institute of Journalism and
the Radio Nigeria Training School, Lagos (Rauf, Ojo, Akinreti, Odegbenle, Jegede
& Nwaolikpe 2013, p.12). They can and are supporting initiatives aimed at training
journalists on ethical reporting, fact-checking, and responsible use of media.
d. In addition to setting ethical guidelines, the government and regulatory bodies
must also create mechanisms for accountability and redress. This includes
establishing avenues for the public to lodge complaints against media
organizations for ethical violations. To provide the public with an independent
forum for resolving complaints about the press, the office of the Ombudsman was
established by the Newspaper Proprietors’ Association of Nigeria (NPAN) to offer
speedy, satisfactory solutions to many of the complaints launched by the Nigerian
public on ethical infractions by journalists. (Onayinka, 2015, p.56).
It is essential that this oversight is carried out in a manner that respects and
upholds press freedom. Heavy-handed regulation and censorship can stifle freedom of
expression and limit the ability of journalists to hold those in power accountable,
therefore, the balance between regulation and freedom is crucial in fostering ethical
media practices.
Conclusion
The impact of biased reporting in Nigeria clearly underscores the ongoing importance
of media ethics in shaping public perception. This critical examination has revealed
the profound influence that biased reporting can have on public attitudes, social
cohesion, and political stability. By perpetuating misinformation, inflaming tensions,
and breeding distrust, biased reporting threatens to undermine the foundations of a
healthy and robust society.
There is the urgent need for media professionals, regulatory bodies, and civil society
organizations to uphold and promote ethical standards in journalism. It is imperative
that media professionals adhere to principles of accuracy, fairness, balance, and
independence in their reporting, as these ethical standards are essential for cultivating
an informed and engaged public.
Moreover, this also serves as a call to action for policymakers and stakeholders to
foster an environment conducive to ethical journalism. Ensuring press freedom,
supporting media literacy initiatives, and establishing robust regulatory mechanisms
are key steps toward mitigating the detrimental effects of biased reporting and
enhancing the quality of public discourse.

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Recommendations for Promoting Media Ethics and Combating Biased Reporting
in Nigeria
Promoting media ethics and combating biased reporting in Nigeria will require
collaboration between media organizations, regulatory bodies, civil society, and the
government. Here are some recommendations for addressing these issues:
1. Media Literacy Programs: Introduce media literacy programs in schools and
communities to educate citizens about identifying biased reporting,
understanding media ethics, and critically evaluating news sources.
2. Capacity Building for Journalists: Provide training and capacity building
programs for journalists and media professionals on ethical reporting practices,
conflict-sensitive journalism, and professional standards. This can be done
through partnerships with international organizations, media institutions, and
press associations.
3. Strengthening Regulatory Framework: Strengthen the regulatory
framework for media in Nigeria to ensure that there are clear guidelines and
consequences for unethical journalism and biased reporting. This may involve
reviewing and updating existing media laws and regulations to align with
international best practices.
4. Encourage Self-Regulation: Encourage media organizations to develop and
adhere to their own codes of ethics and standards of practice. Industry-led
initiatives can promote self-regulation and accountability within the media
sector.
5. Engage Civil Society Organizations: Partner with civil society organizations
and media watchdog groups to monitor and report on instances of biased
reporting and ethical breaches. This collaboration can help hold media
organizations accountable and raise awareness about media ethics issues.
6. Collaboration with International Partners: More Collaborations with
international organizations, media development agencies, and foreign
governments to share best practices, technical assistance, and support for
promoting media ethics in Nigeria should be encouraged.
These recommendations, if implemented in a coordinated and sustained manner, can
contribute to promoting media ethics and combating biased reporting in Nigeria. It is
important to recognize that addressing these issues will require long-term commitment
and collaboration among various stakeholders to create a media environment that is
conducive to ethical and unbiased journalism.
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