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Vol. 6 No. 2 (December, 2023)
Publisher: IAIN Langsa
pp. 52-67
Phases of human development: Comparing Western and Islamic
theories and the implication in Islamic education
Salami Mahmud1*, Nurul Fajri Ulfah2, Syiva Fitria3, Fatmawati4
1,2 Department of Islamic Education, Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry, Aceh, Indonesia
3 Department of Islamic Psychology, Institut Agama Islam Negeri Langsa, Aceh, Indonesia
4 School of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
*Corresponding e-mail: salami.mahmud@ar-raniry.ac.id
http://dx.doi.org/10.32505/atfaluna.v6i2.7192
Submission : October 24, 2023
Revision : December 15, 2023
Accepted : December 30, 2023
Abstract
The physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development determine every aspect of human life,
including education. Providing appropriate education for children is determined by the child's
developmental stage. The current study aims to describe the stages of human development according
to Western and Islamic concepts and their implications in Islamic education. To ensure a
comprehensive investment in human beings, attention to religious education and introducing
religious instruction from the prenatal stage is deemed necessary, as this period forms the foundation
for further development. The research methodology employed in this study is a Systematic Literature
Review (SLR). After reviewing various literature sources, the researchers selected several references
that were relevant to the topic. The study's results indicate that the prenatal phase in Islamic
psychology is more extended than Western psychology's. The tamyiz and amrad phases, viewed in
Islamic psychology as preparations for entering adulthood, correspond to the Western psychological
perspective of puberty. The futuh phase, or the phase of wisdom in Islamic psychology, occurs when
a person ages 40, whereas Western psychology labels this as the adult phase. The phase of the
Hereafter is considered crucial in Islamic psychology, while Western psychology lacks an afterlife
phase. Consequently, Muslims undergo lifelong education from early birth to death. In conclusion,
every phase of human life must be educated according to the level of maturity, starting from prenatal,
infant, early childhood, school age, adolescent, young adult, mature adult, to late adult.
Keywords:
human development; islamic theory; islamic education; islamic psychology; western theory.
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A. INTRODUCTION
The definition of human beings can be viewed from different perspectives due to
their complexity. Among these perspectives, one defines man as a thinking being (homo
sapiens), another as a shaped being (homo faber), and yet another as an educable being
(homo educandum). Regarding the significance of education, all these perspectives on man
can serve as a basis for determining the approach to educating him (Ilyas, 2019). This view
of man emphasizes the reality of man as a unity of individual and social creatures, a physical
and spiritual unity, and a creature of God. To effectively educate a man, it is necessary to
comprehend the processes of human development, as education takes into account the social
norms and behavioral traits appropriate for each developmental stage (Fadlullah, 2017).
Therefore, understanding human development holds significant importance.
Furthermore, according to Hurlock (1980), understanding developmental patterns is
fundamental to comprehending children fully and providing suitable education and
instruction at the appropriate times. The process of human growth is crucial for enabling
individuals to realize their full potential and achieve personal well-being, happiness, and self-
actualization (Zahid & Kassim, 2023). From birth, even in the mother's womb, man
continues to experience development and growth. Development is defined as a pattern of
change that begins at the time of growth and continues until the end of life. Development is
mentally oriented, while growth is oriented towards an increase in size and structure, and
thus, development persists throughout life while growth has a time limit (Dwiyono, 2021).
Human beings exhibit periodic differentiation in development and growth, along with
specific timing and rhythm.
According to Santrock (2011), development is described in terms of stages to
facilitate comprehension and organization, which refer to developmental periods. The
developmental period results from the interaction between biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional aspects of development. The developmental phase is a process experienced
by an individual toward a level of maturity that takes place systematically and continuously
in both physical and psychological aspects. Thus, a person's development is heavily
influenced by the maturity process (Jahja, 2011).
The level of an individual's abilities is determined by their age or the period of their
development, as it can determine the level of knowledge, intellectual capacity, emotional well-
being, talents, and interests of the student. This determination is observed from biological,
psychological, and didactic dimensions. Therefore, it can be formulated that this phase of
development is a process of qualitative change (related to functional perfection) and
progression due to changes in biological structures and learning processes (Samsudin et al.,
2016).
Several researchers have explored the phases of human development in Islamic
education. Ilyas (2019) stated that the phase of human development goes through various
educational processes, starting from the nutfah to becoming mudghah and eventually
becoming a baby. According to Islamic education, this process should encompass the period
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before birth, after birth, throughout one's life, and also address how the elderly should be
treated in accordance with Islamic values.
In contrast, Western theory, as articulated by Hurlock (1980), delineates stages of
human development from prenatal to late adulthood. However, research comparing Islamic
and Western theories remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to compare and identify the
similarities and differences between Western and Islamic concepts of human development
and how each phase of human development can be utilized in Islamic education. The study
posits that, despite the similarities in how humans develop, differences exist in each phase
depending on the approach used—whether Western or Islamic theory.
B. METHOD
The method employed in this research is the Systematic Literature Review (SLR).
The SLR method is used to individualize, study, evaluate, and interpret all available research
on phenomena related to relevant questions. The SLR approach allows for a systematic
review, the journal can be reviewed and systematically identified on each process following
the steps or protocols that have been established (Sutanto et al., 2021). The advantages of
SLR according to Lamé (2019) provide a structured approach to answer important research
questions. Kitchenhamn et al. (2009) stated that SLR assists in the creation of evidence-based
guidelines for practitioners, in addition to compiling all available data on a research subject.
This research also combines the SLR with the study of the library as a technique to collect
data by scanning books, literature, records, and reports related to solved problems (Zed,
2014).
Both electronic databases and printed resources were utilized in this study. The
electronic databases used include Scopus, ISI Web of Science, Google Scholar, Eric, etc.
Furthermore, printed resources such as books, literature, records, and reports related to
solved problems were also identified, and a screening process was conducted. The key words
used in searching the data are; Human Development, Islamic View of Human Development,
Psychological view of Human Development, Religious Education. The resources that met
the criteria were included in this study.
Picture 1.
Prisma Flowchart
Indentification
and Screening
•70 records (Electronic Databases and Printed
Databases) identified and some duplicated data removed
Eligibility
•50 records assessed for elibility
(some excluded due to not emperical
study )
Included •48 records
included in
this stuy
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C. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Development means a progressive and continuous change of orderly and coherent
change in the individual from birth to death (Hurlock, 1959). Development is divided into
two conflicting processes of development that occur simultaneously throughout life: growth
or evolution and regression or innovation. Santrock (2011) define development as the pattern
of motion or transformation that starts at conception and lasts the entirety of a person's
existence.
According to Makes (2004), Some characteristics must be understood to
comprehend human development. First, development is a lifetime involving a variety of
changes. Second, development is multidimensional and covers a wide range of areas of
development such as physical, intellectual, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social, and moral.
Third, development is multidirectional and changes in a certain direction. Fourth,
development is flexible and can be stimulated to develop to the maximum level. Fifth,
development is always inherent in history where individual development is influenced by
circumstances. And the last developments are contextual.
Besides those characteristics, Hartati (2005) argues that there are also some
developmental principles. First, development is a process that never stops. Second, every
aspect of physical, emotional, intellectual, and social development is a mutually influential
and positively correlated unity. Third, development happens regularly following a particular
pattern or direction. Fourth, each phase of development has its distinctive characteristics.
Fifth, every normal individual will go through a phase of development.
1. Theory of human development
The following are the theories that related to human development:
a.
Nativism Theory
The theory of nativism states that human development is derived from inside as
soon as he is born. The pioneer of this theory is Schopenhaeur, a German philosopher,
and his followers are Plato and Descartes. This theory is proven by day-to-day
experience of similarities between parents and children. For example, their parents are
musicians, so their children are also musicians.
b.
Empirical Theory
This theory states that development depends solely on environmental factors. The
pioneer of this theory is John Locke. He said that the behavior of a newborn child is
like a paper covered with white candles (tabula rasa). So, everything is shaped by the
environment, so this theory is also called tabula rasa theory.
c.
Convergence Theory
This theory was first formulated by William Stern. This theory argues that the
development of an individual is determined by both heredity and environment. Heredity
and environment work together to determine the direction of development. This theory
has been able to explain the situation in society. So, it is clear that heredity and the
respective environment are involved in determining the direction of development.
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d.
Interaction Theory
Interaction means mutual influence. The father of this theory is Piaget (1947). The
theory argues that development is not only affected by heredity and the environment
but also the interaction between the person and the world (Whildan, 2021).
2. Phases of human development
To find out the Phases of Human Development in the West and Islamic teaching,
the following chart will show you clearly:
Picture 2.
Phases of human development
From the chart above it can be seen that there are similarities and differences
about the stage of human development according to the West and Islam from birth to
adulthood (Purnami, 2008). The explanation of the chart is as follows. First, the prenatal
phase in Islamic psychology is longer than in Western psychology. Second, The tamyiz
phase and the amrad phase in the view of Islamic psychology as preparation for entering
Phases of Human Development
West
Islam
Pre-birth(Janin)
Pranatal
Shabiy
Neo natus
Baby
Thufulah
Early Childhood
Late Childhood
Tamyiz
Puberty
Amrad
Adolescence
Taklif
Early Adult
Futuh
Advanced age
Middle Age
After death
Advanced age
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adulthood in the Western psychological view there is a period of puberty. Third, The
futuh phase or phase of wisdom in the view of Islamic psychology is when a person
enters the age of 40, while Western psychology calls this the adult phase. Lastly,the phase
of the Hereafter, in the view of Islamic psychology, is very important whereas in Western
psychology there is no afterlife phase (Mudzakir, 2002).
3. The foundation phase of human development in the Islamic and western
perspective
a.
Pre-birth developmental stages
The beginning of human life can be seen psychologically and biologically.
Psychologically, human life begins when the fetus begins to react to external stimuli.
Biologically human life begins at the time when the egg and sperm meet together
(Hanafi, 2018). Pre-natal development is mentioned in the al-quran surah al-Mukminun
verses 12-14 as follows:
12
13
14
“Verily We created man from a dust, then We made the dust a stain in a secure place. Then We made
it a bite of flesh, and we made it a bite, then we made the bite a bone, and then we filled it with flesh
(lahm). Then We made a different form from the former. Blessed be God, the best of creators”.
In addition, the pre-birth developmental stages also mentioned in surah al-Hajj
verse 5 as follows:
...
“Verily We have made you of soil, then of a drop of semen, then from a clump of blood, and then of the
perfect clump and the imperfect clump, that We may make it clear to you; and We have set it in the
womb, as We will, until a fixed time”.
According to the Qur'anic verses above, the stages of prenatal development can
be sequentially described as sulalatin mintin, nutfatan, alaqatan, mudghutan, idhoman, lahman,
and khalqan akhar. On the other hand, in Western psychology, Hurlock (1980) grouped
the prenatal period into three parts; first, the zygote period that lasts from conception
to the end of the second week; second, the embryonic period lasts at the end of the
second month; and third, the fetal period lasts from the end of the second month until
birth (Purnami, 2008). While in the womb, the child must already be nurtured in his
sense of religion through appropriate approaches, because life in the womb is the chain
of the next life, namely life in the world or this realm of shahadah (Hasnawati, 2021).
According to the Islamic view, a baby in the womb already has life in which fate has
already been assigned to him, which according to hadith narrated by Bukhari ““Each one
of you is constituted in the womb of the mother for forty days, and then he becomes a clot of thick blood
for a similar period, and then a piece of flesh for a similar period. Then God sends an angel who is
ordered to write four things. He is ordered to write down his deeds, his livelihood, the date of his death,
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and whether he will be blessed or wretched. Then the soul is breathed into him (Sahih al-Bukhari:
3036)”. Similarly, according to Papalia et al., (2016), the fetus already has sensory ability
such as hearing. This means that both Islamic and Western theories agreed that baby
has life before birth. Furthermore, both Islamic and western theories agreed that
pregnant women's physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health has long been linked
to significant effects on the baby's development (Husairi, 2019).
b. The developmental phase of infancy
The infant period lasts from the age of 0 – 2 years, counting from the neonatal
period. It starts from 2 weeks up to 2 years. In Surah al Baqarah verse 233 mentions that
mothers should breastfeed their children for two full years, for those who wish to
breastfeed fully, and the father must provide for them and properly clothe them.
Similarly, western theory also emphasises the importance of breastfeeding instead of
bottle feeding. Breastfeeding and bottle-feeding have distinct effects on maternal
attachment, breastfeeding mothers display higher maternal attachment compared to
bottle-feeding mothers. Moreover, breastfeeding is associated with maternal attachment,
poor maternal attachment could result in insecure infant attachment (Muhammad &
Johnson, 2021; Linde et al.,2019).
Furthermore, the neonatal and infant period contains three developmental
aspects. First is physical development, which is during the first six months, growth
continues as fast as the prenatal period. The general pattern of growth and development
is the same for all babies, but there are still differences in height, weight, sensory
performance, and other physical areas. Second, the development of intelligence is that
cognitive abilities which enable the formation of understanding. Babies start their lives
without understanding everything around them. Babies gain understanding through the
process of maturation and learning. Third, the development of emotions at birth,
emotions appear in simple and almost indistinguishable forms. With age, emotions
change more and more and can be distinguished into pleasant and unpleasant emotions
(Hanafi, 2018). According to Santrock (2011), babies are already introduced to emotion
and can express basic emotions such as crying and smiling which facilitate the interaction
between babies and caregivers.
c. Early childhood development stage 2-7 years (early thufullah phase)
This phase is called shobiy phase, the breastfeeding phase from 0-2 years of age
and the early thufullah phase (Surawan & Mazrur, 2020). This phase is taken from the age
range mentioned by the Prophet Muhammad saw., "So teach your child to pray at the
age of 7 years."Also, the Quran put limits on breastfeeding time to 2 years, so based on
the Prophet's hadith and the Quranic verse can be concluded that the pre-tamyiz period
is from the age of 2 to 7 years. In this phase, children start to have an obligation to study
without compulsion and still have a chance to spend their time by playing.
According to Western theorists, this period is named the early childhood phase
from 2-5 years of age. While 7 years old is categorised as childhood. Around the age of
4-5 years, children can master their mother tongue and have an ego. At the age of 5
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years, their social feelings begin to rise and at the age of 7 years, children begin to grow
by learning (Fitriani et al., 2023). In educating children at this age, the Prophet SAW
recommend using the learning while playing method because it is in line with the level
of children's development at this age. Therefore, this phase is called the pre-school year,
where children begin to learn to be independent and look after themselves, as well as
develop school readiness skills, such as following orders and learning letters.
d. Late childhood development stage 7-14 years (late thufullah phase)
This phase is also known as the school period. Piaget, who was a pioneer of the
cognitive revolution which emphasized mental processes, argued that children can learn
to write, read, and count (Papalia & Feldman, 2016. According to theories of cognitive
development, this period is the concrete operation phase (7-11 years) and formal
operation (11-15 years). During the time of the Abbasid Caliphs, the state limited the
age of compulsory education for children to a minimum of 7 years because reading and
writing lessons for children younger than that age could weaken their physical and
mental abilities. This means that it is essential to pay attention to the child's development
phase as a didactic reference (Khaironi, 2018). The late thufullah or the tamyiz phase is a
phase of the child's mindset strength, where the child can find and determine several
meanings of words. Mujib and Mudzakir (2002) stated that in this period, children can
differentiate the good and the bad based on standard norms and laws. This period also
marked children's ability to accept the abstract concept of God, merit and sin, heaven
and hell, etc.
Nevertheless, many different opinions from scholars appeared regarding the signs
of the tamyiz phase. Some people think that the indicator of mumayyiz (someone who is
tamyiz) is being able to understand a conversation and answer questions from the person
they are talking to. In the tamyiz phase, the self is the center of attention so children
begin to pay attention to their surroundings objectively. Children are also no longer
egotistical, meaning that they have been groomed and prepared to carry out the role of
servant of Allah (Sundari, 2004). Children need to understand who Allah Swt. is through
monotheism and how Allah's rules apply on earth to maintain human survival.
e.
Developmental stages of the adolescent phase 10-17 years (amrad phase)
The periodization of adolescence (puberty, early adolescence, and late
adolescence) in Islamic psychology is called amrad. It is the preparatory phase for humans
to carry out their role as Allah's caliphs on earth, with an awareness of responsibility
towards fellow creatures, strengthening their devotion to Allah through the activities of
amar ma'ruf nahi munkar. In Islamic psychology, this period is characterized by someone's
ability to understand the burden of taklif, especially regarding the basics of religion, types
of obligations, and ways of implementing them (Mudzakir, 2002).
The amrad phase prepared a person to become a caliph on Earth. Therefore, the
basic thing that must be taught is awareness of responsibility towards creatures, because
humans are the representatives of God who will regulate, protect, and process everything
on this earth. In this phase, the Prophet Muhammad saw. also learned about financial
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management, practicing honesty and justice in trading, establishing communication and
interaction with other people, and of course learning about other business principles. In
this phase, a child needs to develop his potential to reach maturity and the ability to take
full responsibility. Children need maturity and trust training to become responsible
human beings as future adults. When they grow up, they must be able to be independent
supporting their own lives and those of their families (Ania, 2016). Thus, in this phase,
it is necessary to train abilities in life skills because a child will have to work one day.
Accordingly, western theories characterized this period with a dramatic change in
physical development or puberty (Papalia & Feldman, 2016b). Wuring this period, an
individual is moving from childhood to adulthood, which became a critical phase (Leung
& Shek, 2020). Additionally, According to Western views, adolescents are social beings
with feelings who are under societal and biological pressure to find emotional stability
and a purposeful sense of self (Miller, 1989). Thefore, Decisively, there is a similarity in
seeing this phase as the period of identity seeking, both in Islamic and Western theorists.
f.
Adult development phase
According to several developmental psychologists (Hurlock, 1980; Santrock,
2011; Papalia & Feldman, 2016), adulthood is divided into three phases, the first is the
early adult phase (taklif stage) at the age of 18-40 years, then middle adulthood with an
age range of 41-60 years, and late adulthood which is also known as old age at above 60
years old. At the taklif stage, humans are exposed to the obligation to be ‘abdullah (the
servant of Allah) and a good leader. It is hoped that the independence prepared at the
amrad phase can equip someone to become a multi-solution leader, understand various
problems, and have the ability to act and be a reliable leader. Furthermore, the provisions
that have been prepared at the tamyiz phase are expected to make him someone who
obeys Allah (Hanafi, 2018).
Meanwhile the middle adulthood stage, according to Nashori as quoted by
Purnami, is called the futuh phase when a person has matured spiritually. Mujib &
Mudzakir (2002) define futuh phase as an individual with a chronological age of 40 years
old and above. As described by the Prophet Muhammad saw., at the age of 40 he did a
lot of contemplation and meditation in the Hira cave to draw closer to Allah SWT
(Purnami, 2008). In the Qur’an, surah al-Ahqaf verses 15 and 16, mentioned that a man
has to be kind to his parents because his mother conceived him with difficulty, and gave
birth to him with difficulty. The period from conception to weaning is two years. So
that, when he reaches the age of forty, he will be grateful for all favors that Allah has
bestowed upon him and upon his parents, doing good things which Allah is pleased with,
granted him goodness which will flow down to his children and grandchildren. Indeed,
he repents to Allah, and indeed he is a Muslim. According to Asadollahi (2021), old age
is highly valued and respected in Islam.
In the late adulthood or elderly phase; age range of over 60, almost all physical
and sometimes psychological aspects of humans declined, such as reduced energy,
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reduced ability to see, experiencing delirium, Alzheimer's, etc. According to Quran Surah
Al-Ruum verse 54:
“He is the One who created you out of weakness, then He made you strong after you became weak, and
then He created you weak after you were strong. He creates what He wills. He is all-knowing, all-
powerful..” (Handayani, Wiji dan Purnami, 2008).
Similarly, Santrock (2011) also mentioned that late adulthood is characterized by
a significant decrease in physical and cognitive ability. At this phase, elderly people need
to attend formal activities, such as attending religious activities and gathering with family
and close friends. Activities are necessary to promote the elderly spiritual quality of life
and avoid loneliness (Setyowati, 2021). Additionally, Nashori (2016) also signify that
older people continue to strive to improve oneself to face life after death.
g.
Post-mortem stage
The post-death stage consists of the realm of barzah, doomsday, and life in heaven
or hell. The human condition during these times can only be known from the Qur'an
and hadith guidance (Handayani, Wiji dan Purnami, 2008). In contrast, there is no
afterlife phase according to western theories of development. Western theories focus on
the mourning phase of the grieving person considering the historical and cultural aspects
(Hurlock, 1980; Santrock, 2011; Papalia & Feldman, 2016).
Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that the phase of
development according to Western theory and Islamic theory is somewhat similar in
classification of each phase according to chronological age and every individual.
However, the difference lies on the aspect of development, western theories focus on
the three domains; physical, cognitive and socioemotional from prenatal to late
adulthood period. Contrarily, Islamic theories focus on how to live as an individual who
has the obligation of Abdullah and focus on belief in one God and life is preparation for
after death period because the phase of development starts from prenatal to after death
or akhirah.
4. The implications of human development phases in Islamic education
a. Implications of education in pregnancy
The prenatal education program is a program with aim to help parents and family
members provide a better environment for babies, provide opportunities for early
learning, and encourage positive development between parents and children that can
last forever (Carr, 1998). Prenatal development is a significant phase that determines
future development. Research in prenatal development showed that babies can learn,
feel, and know the difference between dark and light in the womb. When the pregnancy
is five months old (20 weeks), the baby's ability to perceive stimuli has developed well
enough so that learning games can be started (Samsudin et al., 2016). Papalia and
Feldman (2016) stated that the fetus can respond to the mother's voice, heartbeat and
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vibration inside the mother’s body. In addition, the fetal ear is fully formed and
completed by the time it enters 24 weeks of gestation and at 25 weeks of gestation, the
fetus in the womb can already hear sounds from outside, although the sound is
somewhat suppressed and more listening to sounds with low frequencies. Stimulation
for fetal hearing is easily to do because it automatically hears sounds inside the mother's
body (Sari, 2013). In Islam, if the mother recites the Qur’an every day, the baby can
listen to it and it is good for stimulating baby auditory development. Mujahidin &
Khoriyah (2018) stated that prenatal education is recommended to be carried out during
pregnancy since the soul is placed in the fetus and can be implemented through
performing shalah, reading and memorising the Qur'an, dzikir, conversation, attending
Islamic studies class (majlis ta`lim), acting morally, and being consistent.
Thus, parents' role in nurturing their children towards Islamic religious education
can start from introducing religious concepts or values to children through language,
such as when feeding or breastfeeding, bathing, powdering, and dressing children, by
reciting bismillah. Even when carrying or lulling him to sleep, say the thoyyibah
sentences.Also, by treating children with affection. It is keenly important because, at this
age, children's understanding of God's love has not yet developed. Through the love of
their parents, children will have a trusting attitude toward their parents and be positive
about what their parents say, furthermore, by providing examples of practicing religious
teachings well kids can imitate other people’s appearance and actions. According to
Bandura (1977), children learn through observation and modelled what they see.
Therefore, showing the appropriate and desired behaviour or in front of children is
encouraged for this reason, because children copy their surroundings.
b. Implications of Islamic religious education during the neonatal period
Developments during the neonatal period can be known when the hearing
function has begun. In this phase, according to Mujib & Muzakir (2002), Islamic
religious education can be practiced by parents to children through several activities,
such as reciting the call to prayer in the right ear and reciting the iqamah in the left ear at
the moment when the child is born. So that the first sound heard and recorded in the
baby's memory is the sentence that affirms Allah, acknowledges Muhammad's
apostleship, and invites prayer to become a lucky person. Slaughter the aqiqah, two goats
for a baby boy and one goat for a baby girl. Also, give the child a good name or a name
with good meaning. Get used to living a clean and holy life by practising when to urinate,
when to defecate in a certain place, and after finishing dousing it with water until it is
pure and provide breast milk for up to two years. Monks et al., (2004) also encouranging
sensory stimulation during this phase, as stated before during this stage baby already
gain their sensory ability.
c. Implications of Islamic religious education in the childhood phase
The development during early childhood is very critical for subsequent
development. To help children's physical development, educators should guide them so
that children will have an awareness of their sensory abilities and have a positive attitude
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toward themselves. The implications of this physical development at schools need to be
designed in a conducive educational environment (Bujuri, 2018). In order to facilitate
the development of emotional aspects, educators should encourage children to
recognize, accept, and talk about feelings and this will help children to understand their
own and others’ emotions (Santrock, 2011). This will also lead to promoting the ability
to express one's desires without hurting other people's feelings and be sensitive to the
feelings and needs of others. Also, guiding children to realize that there is a relationship
between emotions and social behaviour. (Khaironi, 2018).
Additionally, language development is also one necessary aspect to focus on
during this phase, since in this phase children enter pre-school and start interacting with
the community. Language skills are important and involve the ability to communicate
with other people. since in this phase, children entering preschool and start interacting
with the community. Language skills are important and involve the ability to
communicate with other people. Wely et al., (2013) suggested that speaking kind words
with children, listening to children's conversations., Answering the child's questions,
don't underestimate or judge them, Invite the child in dialogue on simple things and
accustom them to express their desires, memorizing, and reciting songs and poetry.
d. Implications of Islamic religious education in the late childhood phase
At this time children are in the operational (concrete) stage which takes place at
the age of 7-11 years. They can think logically about objects and events although they
are still limited in concreting described or experienced things. Even though they can
think logically, their way of thinking is still oriented towards the present (Syadzili, 2018).
In this stage, Islamic religious education can imply things such as practising giving orders
to carry out the five daily prayers, then educate the child with concrete procedures by
being the model and explaining them and using concrete materials like concrete items
or objects for children to have hands-on experience.
The tamyiz phase, according to Nashori (2016), is a sensitive phase where a person
is ready and prepared to play the role of "’abdullah". In this phase, the child has to learn
legal sciences about how to relate to Allah and the rules in society (Handayani, Wiji dan
Purnami, 2008).
e. Implications of Islamic education in the adolescent phase
According to Mohammad Ali and Mohammad Asrori, several efforts should be
made to be related to youth development. The rapid physical growth of teenagers often
leads to disturbances in regulation, behavior, and even alienation from oneself (Sundari,
2004). Regarding the development of intellectual aspects, the psychological conditions
that need to be created in the educational climate are accepting students for who they
are unconditionally since periods of development are different between individuals.
Create an atmosphere that makes students feel less judged by individualising their needs
according to their developmental phase and lastly, understand the students' mindset and
help them to increase their empathy (Lestarina et al., 2017).
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f. Implications of religious education at the adult to elderly stages
At this phase, a person already has a deep level of moral, spiritual, and religious
awareness. Therefore, Islamic religious education at this time, according to Mujib, is an
effort to implement the characteristics of the apostle such as being honest, trustworthy
when given responsibility (amanah), conveying the truth (tabligh), and having spiritual
intelligence (fatanah). Education that can increase devotion and taqarrub or closeness to
Allah Swt., and prepare the self as best as possible (Samsudin et al., 2016).
g. Treatment of the elderly according to Islam
Older people are categorized as people who are no longer productive since their
average physical condition has deteriorated so that disease can easily attack them. In
contrast to the Islamic concept, the treatment of elderly parents is borne by their
children; not by agencies, orphanages, or nursing homes. Abdullah (2016) suggested that
Islamic law considers older people to be among the most vulnerable categories, and
taking care of them is a basic requirement of Muslim morality and religion. Treatment
of parents according to Islamic guidance begins at home. Kulaini in Asadollahi (2021)
emphasized Muslims' obligation to honour older parents. Allah Swt. mentions special
care for elderly parents by ordering their children to treat their parents with love.
Moreover, the treatment of elderly people according to Islam is a religious obligation, it
is very reprehensible and considered disobedient if a child places his parents in a nursing
home, this treatment is not accepted for whatever reason (Hurlock, 190).
D. CONCLUSION
Based on the discussion above, there is a difference between the period of human
development between Islamic and Western theories. In Islamic psychology, the stage of
human development includes the pre-birth, infant, childhood, tamyiz, amrad, adult, future, old
age, and post-death phases. The stage of development according to Islam has been described
in detail in the Qur'an and Hadith. The Islamic psychologist creates a stage of human
development based on the soul. In Islam, a child is the result of marriage because marriage
is the only way in responsibility to the offspring. The phase of development should begin
from the moment the soul is breathed into the human body. Therefore, Islamic education
also begins from that moment until the death of the human being.
Differently, In Western psychology, the Western psychologist creates a stage of
human development based on physical development. human development occurs in several
phases: before birth, postnatal, early childhood, middle childhood, late childhood, early
adolescence, late adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. The
transition from one phase to the next is based on age limits as well as characteristics at each
age. To sum up, it can be seen that there are some similarities and differences between
Western and Islamic psychologists’ points of view on human development.
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