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E-ISSN 2240-0524
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Vol 14 No 2
March 2024
11
.
Research Article
© 2024 Ioannis Tsartsapakis and Aglaia Zafeiroudi.
This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
Received: 16 October 2023 / Accepted: 20 February 2024 / Published: 5 March 2024
Personality Traits and Healthy Eating Habits and Behaviors:
A Narrative Review
Ioannis Tsartsapakis
1
Aglaia Zafeiroudi
2
1
Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Serres, Greece
2
Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences,
University of Thessaly,
Trikala, Greece
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr-2024-0022
Abstract
‘Findings from many interdisciplinary studies have revealed the important roles of nutrition in improving
people’s physical mental and social health. Among other factors, personality influences the type of food
consumed and consequently is predictive of health-related state. The aim of this review is to appraise the
available scientific evidence regarding the effect of personality on eating habits, and whether personality
traits are associated with behaviors that are conductive to a healthy lifestyle in general. A total of 2237
relevant articles were identified through a literature search, 21 of which were included in this review. Articles
involving studies in only children, animal studies, studies on eating disorders, studies with specific types of
diets that were clearly unrelated to health issues and studies conducted for marketing purposes were
excluded. A variety studies have indicated that personality traits affect both the eating habits and types of
diets chosen by individuals, including the preference for healthy or unhealthy foods. The analysis of
personality traits indicated that conscientiousness is associated with healthy eating and maintaining health-
promoting habits in general. Openness is positively associated with variety in food consumption and
negatively associated with "food neophobia". Agreeableness is associated with low meat consumption.
Extraversion is associated primarily with the consumption of sweet and salty foods, meat and soft drinks.
Finally, neurotic and emotionally unstable people appear to have emotional dietary patterns, which are
associated with unhealthy eating habits, such as relatively low fruit and vegetable consumption, and high
sugar and saturated fat consumption. However, contradictory results have been found among studies.
Interpretation of these results should be weighed against the different cultural environments in which the
studies were taken place, and the extremely high heterogeneity among the instruments used to measure
personality and eating habits. Future research should clarify whether personality influences eating habits in
specific populations, such as individuals with eating disorders.
Keywords: social wellbeing; healthy lifestyle; physical activity; personality; nutrition; food choices
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1. Introduction
Eating habits are the sets of choices and/or decisions that people make about the food they eat. These
decisions typically include what, when, how much and where to eat (Mahmood et al., 2021).
Individuals’ physiological processes (such as hunger, fullness, innate desire for sugared food and
brain systems) and psychological mechanisms (such as learned food desires, knowledge, motivation,
attitudes, benefits, personality, cognitive procedures, and self-regulation) influence eating behavior
and food selection. In the field of behavioral psychology, research on eating behavior has focused on
the analysis, prevention and therapy of fatness and eating disarrays. The main aim of those studies
has been to promote healthy eating habits to manage and prevent diseases, such as diabetes and
hypertension, and follow a “healthy diet.” No specific scientific definition of a “healthy diet” exists;
however, many nutritionists emphasize fresh fruits, fibers and vegetables when using this term.
Eating fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and low-fat dairy products has been shown to protect
against obesity and many chronic diseases (Meyer et al., 2011). In contrast, several factors have been
associated with a tendency to develop inappropriate eating habits, such as changes in residence, poor
time management, eating away from home, financial constraints, family influence, obsession with
weight control and poor dietary perception (Deliens et al., 2014a; Deliens et al., 2014b; Ganasegeran et
al., 2012). Several biological predisposition models of eating behaviour have shown that genetic
factors influence taste and satiety in addition to the above factors (Bouchard, 2007). Kiple and
Ornelas (2000) have suggested that individuals learn to make food choices through observation of
the behaviors of their peers and personal experience. In this sense, eating habits are part of culture
and are “inherited” along with other cultural elements (Kittler & Sucher, 1998; Willett, 2006). Studies
have also shown that personality, thought to be largely heritable (Benis, 2018), may be linked to food
preference. People with certain personality traits may be more likely to make healthier food choices
(Machado-Oliveira et al., 2020).
Each individual’s personality is characterized by both uniqueness (different hereditary and
environmental origins) and stability (basic characteristics difficult to change) (Mischel & Shoda,
1995). Specifically, according to McGue et al. (1993), the part of the personality that remains stable
appears to be associated primarily with genetic factors, whereas personality changes reflect
environmental factors. Moreover, personality traits are manifestations of neurobiological
mechanisms but have strong genetic components (DeFruyt, et al., 2006; Loehlin, et al., 1998;
Rothbart, et al., 2000).
In a recent review, Fagan (as cited in Machado-Oliveira, et al., 2020, p. 92) has concluded that 1)
openness and conscientiousness are positively associated with the tendency to eat healthy foods and
2) that the positive association between eating beneficial foods and openness mirrors that the
personality trait of openness is positively correlated with the tendency to eat different and new foods,
as well as with self-awareness. Conscientiousness is also positively associated with healthy eating:
individuals who are more conscientious is expected to follow more easily rules and recommendations
(Fagan as cited in Machado-Oliveira, et al., 2020, p. 92). Conner et al. (2017) have concluded that the
consumption of plant foods is positively associated with openness, extraversion and
conscientiousness. Similar results have also been found in a study in middle-aged and older adults by
Weston et al. (2020), in which healthy food consumption was positively associated with openness,
agreeableness and conscientiousness, but negatively associated with neuroticism. These findings are
broadly consistent with the conclusions of many of the studies reviewed below.
This review examines whether personality is associated with healthy dietary behaviors, such as,
eating more fruit and vegetables, and following dietary recommendations. First, the concept of
personality is examined, and its definition and methods of assessment are discussed. Next, on the
basis of findings from studies with different theoretical underpinnings, the influence of the "big five”
personality factors on food choice is examined. Evidence from current studies on the associations
between the five personality factors and their relationship with the adherence to dietary
recommendations is presented in the following sections. Finally, the possible multifactorial basis of
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causal factors in the personality-eating relationship is explored.
2. Methods
2.1 Article selection
The focus of this review was the correlation between the big five personality factors and dietary
habits in the general population. Articles for this review were retrieved via the Hellenic Academic
Libraries Link from the following databases: Scopus, PubMed, Wiley Interscience, EBSCO, Elsevier,
JournalSeek, PsychARTICLES, psychEXTRA, Medscape, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences
Collection, psychINFO and SPORTDiscus, in which full-text articles were available. For inclusion in
this review, articles were required to meet the following criteria: original research, publication in a
reputable scientific journal in English, and a primary aim of investigating associations or
relationships between the big five personality factors and eating habits. Articles were then selected
manually to ensure that only those associated with the topic of this review were examined. The
exclusion criteria were studies: 1) examining the relationship between personality and eating
disorders or other related or unrelated conditions (diabetes, heart disease, etc.); 2) examining eating
habits not clearly associated with health outcomes (e.g., protein consumption); 3) examining food
preferences for marketing purposes; 4) using questionnaire types other than those for the big five
factors; and 5) examining children and adolescents, given that personality has been demonstrated to
play a subordinate role to other factors, such as parental influence, in adolescents.
A secondary search was conducted to identify studies relating personality to adherence to
health-related dietary recommendations. The following keywords were used: personality traits, big
five, five factor model (FFM), openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism,
diet, dietary intake, food intake, fruit, vegetables, compliance, adherence, health and health behavior.
The preliminary search was conducted by determining which articles in the main databases met the
inclusion and exclusion criteria. The screening process was performed by one of the researchers and
was double-checked by a second one. As shown in Figure 1, the initial search identified 2783 studies,
546 of which were duplicates. For selection, the titles and abstracts of the remaining 2237 articles
were examined. In this way, 55 articles were identified. These articles were read in full to select those
that were relevant to the topic, 21 of which were included. The search was performed for the first time
in May 2022 and was repeated in May 2023. Most studies to be reviewed were published from 2000 or
thereafter, although we did not set a specific cutoff for the publication date.
Figure 1. PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) diagram of the
association between personality traits and dietary patterns. FFPM = Five Factor Personality Model.
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3. Results
3.1 Personality
Personality can be defined as dynamic and organized sets of characteristics of individuals that
uniquely influence their perceptions, motivations and behaviors in different circumstances, according
to Ryckman (2012). Bergner (2020), in an essay on defining personality, has given the following
definition: “An individual's personality is the persistent set of characteristics and styles exhibited by
the individual, which are (a) predispositions (natural inclinations) of the individual, and (b) ways in
which the individual is different from the "standard" individual in his/her society.” Studies of the
structure of personality have used factor analysis to reduce the number of factors to five,
encompassing all characteristics and aspects of behavior, in the Five Major Factors of Personality or
the FFM (McCrae & Costa, 1987). Over the past four decades, relevant personality research has
reached the consensus that adult personality can be reliably described by these five basic factors
(McCrae & Costa, 1987). As explained by John and Srivastava (1999), these personality characteristics
are referred to as the big five factors because they are each broadly conceptualized (Table 1). To be a
key factor, a factor must be present in all genders, races, age groups and cultural settings.
Considerable research evidence has validated the five-factor model in teachers’ ratings of children
(Digman & Inouye, 1986), in students (Tsaousis, 2002) and in adults (Costa Jr & McCrae, 1992). High
rates of agreement have also been found between males and females, adolescents and adults, and
people with Black and white ancestry (Costa Jr et al., 1991). Notably, the big five traits are not merely
another theory of personality but are an assessment of the structural relationships between
personality traits (McCrae & Costa, 2008). Despite the critical treatment of Eysenck (1992) and
McAdams (1992), this model is one of the most established in the field of personality, largely because
of its long history, multidimensional evidence, and thorough validation across methods and
instruments (Benet-Martínez & John, 2000; Digman, 1989, 1990; Goldberg, 1992; McCrae & Allik,
2002; McCrae & Costa, 1987; McCrae & John, 1992). Some of the most commonly used personality
measurement instruments are 1) the Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness-Five Factor Inventory
(NEO-FFI 60-items) by Costa and McCrae, (Costa & McCrae, 1989), which has been translated into
several languages, and tested for both validity and reliability, and is one of the most widely used
instruments in the Five Factor Model (Zillig et al., 2002); 2) Goldberg's 100-item questionnaire
(Goldberg's 100-item), which contains 20 items for each of the five factors (Goldberg, 1992); 3) the
NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (240-item NEO-PI-R) by Costa and McCrae, which includes eight
items in each of the six subscales of the Five Big Factors (Costa & McCrae, 1992); 4) IPIP-NEO-300
(Goldberg, 1999), a 300-item inventory that measures constructs similar to those in the NEO
Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R; Costa Jr, 1992); and 5) IPIP-NEO-120 (Johnson, 2014), the 120-item
IPIP-NEO, which compares with the properties of the longer form. Several personality traits, with
high and low scores for each separate factor, are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Personality factors in relation to Costa & McCrae's (1992) five-factor model.
Personality factor Personality traits of people with high scores Personality traits of people with low scores
Extraversion (E) is related to interpersonal
behaviour. The degree to which people like to be
all alone or with others. Experience positive
feelings. Positive affect: Intense, energetic ability.
These individuals are socially active, talkative,
outgoing and optimistic. They love fun and a lively
social life. They express their feelings openly. They
engage in dangerous sports.
These individuals are reserved and submissive
people, who are usually quiet, reserved and
sober; keep others at a distance; and are goal-
oriented. They avoid dangerous situations.
Neuroticism (N) refers to an individual's
emotional life. Evaluates how well a person fits in
and feels stable. Tendency towards the exposure
in negative emotions.
These individuals have emotional instability,
psychological stress, maladaptation, nervous
tension, susceptibility to clinical syndromes,
feelings of inadequacy and hypochondria.
These individuals have adaptability, emotional
stability, a sense of calm and composure,
toughness, courage, and a sense of security
and contentment.
Openness (O)
refers to individuals valuing experiences for their
own reasons.
These individuals are "seekers" who enjoy
exploring the unknown and new experiences.
These individuals are curious, creative and full of
ideas. They have a creative imagination and are
original in everything they do. They are interested
in a wide range of experiences and are not
“traditional” types.
These individuals are conventional, with a
lack of analytical thinking and a lack of artistic
sensitivity. Their interests are few and specific,
without any deviation.
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Personality factor Personality traits of people with high scores Personality traits of people with low scores
Agreeableness (A)
refers to an individual’s interpersonal behavior
and views toward others.
These individuals are open to others. They have
altruistic attitudes and trust in human
relationships, and are compassionate, warm, good
and kind people.
These individuals have a sense of cynicism
and interventionism. They are rude,
suspicious, uncooperative, vindictive and
irritable, and attempt to “manipulate” others.
Conscientiousness (C)
refers to the way in which an individual carries
out individual tasks: attentive, hardworking,
neat, organized, persistent, etc.
These individuals are organized, reliable, hard-
working and self-disciplined. They are persistent
and committed to achieving their goals.
These individuals are inconsistent and
careless. They are unwilling, untrustworthy,
careless and weak-willed, and have no specific
purpose in life.
Each of the five personality factors is associated with a different set of health-related practices
(Raynor & Levine, 2009). For example, studies have shown that neuroticism negatively predicts
physical health and subjective well-being, whereas extraversion positively predicts social competence
and having a social network (Friedman et al., 2010). Different factors have been found to mediate the
influence of personality on health. Gender differences in personality have been reported in the
literature. For example, whereas women tend to score higher on specific personality traits (e.g.,
conscientiousness), men tend to score higher on other traits (e.g., openness), (Carrillo et al., 2012;
Costa Jr et al., 2001; Kikuchi et al., 1999; Schmitt et al., 2008). These gender variations may be crucial
in investigation of the effect of personality factors on attachment to dietary guidelines.
3.2 Personality and eating habits
The present narrative review considered all data, primarily those from research studies, on the
relationship between personality and healthy eating. Most studies sampled adult individuals (De
Bruijn et al., 2005; Vollrath et al., 2012), due to research on kids and young people has shown that
personality appears to be less important than other factors, for example the influence of parents.
Therefore, studies with adult participants were the focus of this review. Table 2 presents data from 21
studies that examined the relationships between the FFM personality traits and healthy eating habits.
In summary, across populations of different ages and ethnicities, conscientiousness and openness are
positively associated with healthy eating habits. Neuroticism has a negative association with healthy
eating and healthy body weight, and a positive association with convenience eating.
Table 2. Studies examining the relationships between personality traits and healthy eating habits
Authors,
country
Participants Personality
assessment
Eating habit
assessment
Analysis Conscientiousness
(C)
Openness
(O)
Neuroticism
(N)
Extraversion (E) Agreeableness
(A)
Adherence to health-
related dietary
recommendations
(Kikuchi et
al., 1999)
Japan
942 students at
Tokyo University
NEO Five-
Factor
Inventory
(NEO-FFI)
Questionnaire including
14 questions on
lifestyle and health
consciousness
Student t-test.
χ2-test.
Dietary habits, regular
eating time, avoidance
of salty foods
NA# NA# Smoking habit
associated with
high E
scores
NA# High scoring groups of
E and C: high HC; high
N and O groups: low
HC
(Kikuchi &
Watanabe,
2000) Japan
76 male and 394
female college
students
NEO-FFI 40 item self-
administered
questionnaire
JPHC study
Pearson's
correlation
coefficient
analysis
High C scores
associated with
discrepancies between
HC and dietary habits
High O associated
with dislike of
salty taste
High N
promotes salty
and sweet taste
preferences
E associated with
lack of interest in
developing
healthy habits
A associated with
dislike of salty
tastes
Receptive to dietary
advice groups with
high scores for groups
A and C
(Goldberg &
Strycker,
2002) USA
470 women and
380 men
NEO-PI-R,
16PF, CPI, HPI,
CISS and TCI
20-item KFHQ
17-item Bfat and Bfib
Intercorrelations
among
factors
NA High O promotes
consumption of
fiber
NA NA# NA O and C associated
with measures of
health-related
practices
(Brummett et
al., 2008) USA
850 couples who
remained married
to each other
NEO-PI-R Modified Health Eating
Index
Pearson's
correlation
coefficient
analysis
NA High O associated
with healthy
eating habits
NA NA NA Findings
may affect disease
prevention during
midlife
(Elfhag &
Morey, 2008)
Netherlands
442 patients with
a mean BMI of
40.5± 5.3 kg/m2,
range 30–68
kg/m2
NEO PI-R DEBQ Dutch Eating
Behaviour
Questionnaire
Pearson
correlation
Low C associated with
emotional eating; high
C associated with
restrained eating
High O associated
with restrained
eating
High N
associated with
emotional
eating; low N
associated with
restrained
eating
Low E associated
with emotional
eating; high E
associated with
restrained eating
NA NA
(de Bruijn et
al., 2009)
Netherlands
405 respondents
(233 females; age
range 26–87
years)
Dutch
translation of
Goldberg's
adjective list
TPB fruit consumption Structural
equation
modeling. χ2-
test
Direct effect of high C
on fruit consumption
mediated by attitude
and perceived BC
NA High N
associated with
low fruit
consumption
NA NA Intentional fruit
consumption
dependent on low N
Authors,
Country
Participants Personality
assessment
Eating habit assessment Analysis Conscientiousness (C) Openness
(O)
Neuroticism
(N)
Extraversion (E) Agreeableness (A) Adherence to health-
related dietary
recommendations
(Raynor &
Levine, 2009)
USA
583 college
students
International
Personality
Item Pool Big
Five short-
form
National College
Health Assessment
Multiple linear
regression
High C associated with
consumption of fruits
and vegetables
NA NA High E associated
with consumption
of alcohol, binge
drinking
NA High C associated with
wearing seat belts,
alcohol-related harm
reduction, exercise and
sufficient sleep
(Mõttus et al.,
2012) UK
1,691 Estonians 18–
89 years old
NEO PI-3;
(McCrae et al.,
2005))
Measured by asking
participants to
rate the frequency of
consumption of 15 food
items/week
Correlation
coefficient
analysis
NA High O associated
with healthy food
consumption
High N
associated with
meat and
carbohydrate
consumption
NA NA Lower N and higher E,
C and O associated
with health aware diet
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Authors,
country
Participants Personality
assessment
Eating habit
assessment
Analysis Conscientiousness
(C)
Openness
(O)
Neuroticism
(N)
Extraversion (E) Agreeableness
(A)
Adherence to health-
related dietary
recommendations
(Mottus et al.,
2013) UK
1091 people (548
males), 67.7–71.3
years old
NEO-FFI
(Costa &
McCrae,
1992)
168-item Food
Frequency
Questionnaire (FFQ)
version 7.0
Correlation
coefficient
analysis
High C associated with
health aware diet; low
C associated with high
BMI
Low O associated
with convenience
diet and
preference for
sweet foods
High N
associated with
convenience
diet
NA High A associated
with health aware
diet
Mediterranean style
diet associated with
high O and E, and low
N.
(de Bruijna,
2013)
Netherlands
443
undergraduate
students, mean
age 21.45 (SD =
2.96) years, 68.7%
Goldberg’s
adjective list
Big five
personality
dimensions
Fruit consumption
assessed with a validated
questionnaire
Stepwise
regression
analysis
High C associated with
consumption of more
fruits
NA NA NA NA Action planning
mediates the
conscientiousness–
fruit consumption link
(Keller &
Siegrist, 2015)
Switzerland
951; 468 men,
mean
age 56 years (SD =
15)
German
version NEO-
FFI
DEBQ Dutch Eating
Behaviour
Questionnaire
FFQ
Comparative Fit
Index, Root
Mean Square
Error of
Estimation
(RMSEA) and
Good Fit Index.
C encourages eating
fruit and discourages
eating meat, sweet and
savory foods and sugar-
sweetened soft drink
NA N promotes
consumption
of sweet and
savory foods
E encourages
eating sweet and
savory foods,
eating meat and
drinking soft
drinks.
NA C encourages
restrained eating and
reduces outward,
emotional eating; N
encourages emotional
and outward eating.
Authors,
Country
Participants Personality
assessment
Eating habit assessment Analysis Conscientiousness (C) Openness
(O)
Neuroticism
(N)
Extraversion (E) Agreeableness (A) Adherence to health-
related dietary
recommendations
(Jaworski &
Rozenek,
2016) Poland
55 young women,
18 and 23 years,
mean age 19.3 (SD
= 0.96) years
NEO-FFI Health Behaviour
Inventory (HBI)
Spearman’s rank
correlation
coefficient
High C associated with
healthy eating
behaviors but not
consumption of
products containing
preservatives
NA N not
associated with
fruit, vegetable
or whole-grain
bread
consumption
High E associated
with whole-grain
bread
consumption
Negative
correlation
between A and
avoidance of salty
foods
Both agreeableness
and conscientiousness
negatively correlated
with behaviors
connected to body
mass control
(Sutin &
Terracciano,
2016) USA
15.669; M age =
29; 53% female;
40% ethnic/racial
minority
International
Personality
Item Pool
(Mini-IPIP-20
item)
Multivariate
analysis of
covariance
(MANCOVA)
Higher C associated
with healthier BMI as a
consequence of
compliance with
healthy eating rules
NA N in women
associated with
higher
adiposity
E in men
associated with
higher adiposity
NA Similar associations
across racial/ethnic
groups; personality
associated with
objective and
subjective adiposity in
young adulthood
(Conner et al.,
2017) New
Zealand
1073 young adults
17–25 years old
NEO-FFI Daily servings of fruit,
vegetables and two
unhealthy foods for
comparison purposes
Hierarchical
multiple
regression
Higher C associated
with greater fruit and
v
egetable consumption
Higher O
associated with
greater fruit and
vegetable
consumption
N unrelated to
fruit and
vegetable
consumption
High E associated
with greater fruit
and vegetable
consumption
Unrelated to fruit
and
vegetable
consumption
Personality is
important in
establishing healthy
dietary habits in young
adulthood
(Pfeiler &
Egloff, 2018b)
Germany
Germany (N =
13,062)
and Australia (N =
15,036) 21–102
years old
Big Five
Inventory
(BFI-S)
Measured by asking
participants to indicate
consumption frequency
Hierarchical
regression
analyses
NA Higher O
negatively
associated with
red meat, and
positively
associated with
fish consumption
and no poultry
consumption
NA Higher E
associated with
more
consumption of
each individual
type of meat and
all meat
consumption
NA
Authors,
Country
Participants Personality
assessment
Eating habit assessment Analysis Conscientiousness (C) Openness
(O)
Neuroticism
(N)
Extraversion (E) Agreeableness (A) Adherence to health-
related dietary
recommendations
(Pfeiler &
Egloff, 2018a)
Germany
German
representative
sample N = 4496
and N = 5125
15-item
German short
version of BFI-
S
Trust, Patience &
impulsivity, Risk
aversion, life-
satisfaction, well-being
Stepwise
hierarchical
regression
analyses
Higher C and
conservatism
associated with lower
likelihood of being
vegetarian
Higher O and
political interest
associated with
higher probability
of being
vegetarian
NA NA NA Individual differences
observed between
vegetarians and meat
eaters in socio-
demographic,
personality traits and
political attitudes
(Intiful et al.,
2019) Ghana
230 males and 170
females, mean age
21.19 ± 1.96 years
50-item IPIP
tool
Three-Factor Eating
Questionnaire (TFEQ)-
18 items
χ
2analysis,
independent T-
test
High C positively
correlated with variety
in food consumption
and sugar moderation
High O positively
correlated with
food interest
NA High E positively
correlated with
acceptance of
taste experiences
and food interest
High A positively
correlated with
acceptance of
taste experience,
skipping of meals
and variety
(Pfeiler &
Egloff, 2020)
Germany
13,892
participants,
mean age 44.70
(18.40) years
36-item Big
Five
Personality
Inventory
FFQ by HILDA Hierarchical
regression
analyses
High C positively
associated with
consumption of plant
and fish products, and
emotional stability, and
negatively associated
with carbohydrate
consumption
High O positively
associated with
consumption of
plant and fish
products, and
emotional
stability, and
negatively
associated with
meat
consumption
NA High E positively
associated with
meat
consumption and
negatively
associated with
carbohydrate
consumption
NA Carbohydrate based
food negatively
associated with C, E
and emotional stability
Authors,
Country
Participants Personality
assessment
Eating habit assessment Analysis Conscientiousness (C) Openness
(O)
Neuroticism
(N)
Extraversion (E) Agreeableness (A) Adherence to health-
related dietary
recommendations
(Weston et al.,
2020) USA
665 participants
(48% female,
mean age 44.09
years)
120-item NEO
International
Personality
Item Pool
Hawaii Quantitative
Food Frequency
Questionnaire
Correlation
coefficient
analysis
High C associated with
eating healthy foods
High O associated
with eating
healthy foods
NA NA High A associated
with eating
healthy foods
(Golestanbagh
et al., 2021)
Iran
224 healthy
female students
18–30 years old
NEO-FFI, 60
item
Dietary habit
questionnaire, 20 items
Pearson’s
correlation
coefficient,
Spearman’s
correlation
coefficient,
stepwise
multiple
regression
High C positively
associated with
preference for dairy
products, vegetables,
nuts and salty foods,
and negatively
associated with
preference for biscuits
Higher O
correlates
favorably with
meat and biscuits
and negatively
with fruit.
High levels of
N are positively
associated with
a likelihood of
eating salty,
sour and fatty
foods, and
negatively
associated with
dairy products
Higher E
correlates
positively with a
preference for fast
food, ice cream,
chocolate and
cocoa, and is
negatively
correlated with a
preference for
meat.
High A positively
associated with
consumption of
soft drinks and
sugary fruit juices
Personality traits may
aid in identifying
young women at risk
of unhealthy d ietary
habits
(Pristyna et
al., 2022)
Indonesia
14,473 men and
16,467 women 15–
101 (mean = 37.34;
SD = 14.916) years
old
Big Five Index
15 (BFI
15)
Obtained through
interviews
(Strauss et al., 2016)
Correlation with
binary logistic
regression
High C associated with
eating only healthy
foods
High O associated
with consumption
of both healthy
(recommended)
and unhealthy
(non-
recommended)
foods
High N
associated with
consumption
of only
unhealthy
foods
High E associated
with consumption
of both healthy
(recommended)
and unhealthy
(non-
recommended)
foods
High A associated
with eating
healthy foods and
only one non-
recommended
food
NA = not associated; HC = health consciousness; BC = behavioral control; IPIP = International Personality Item Pool; NEO-FFI = Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness – Five Factor Inventory; FFQ = food frequency questionnaire; BFI-S = Big Five Inventory – Short; NEO-PI-3 = Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness – Personality Inventory – 3; FFM, Five-Factor Model.
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3.3 Relating the Five Factor Model to eating habits
Behaviors that have been shown to be healthy and to contribute to improving public health include
physical activity, avoiding smoking and alcohol, and eating diets rich in fruits and vegetables (Mujcic
& J. Oswald, 2016; Ocean et al., 2019). To encourage such behaviors, studying the factors that
determine these behaviors is essential. Over the past 20 years, all developed nations have considered
the ability of individuals to access information promoting healthy food choices (Conner et al., 2017).
The big five personality factors have been identified as potential determinants of eating behavior,
alongside religious, environmental, cultural, social and economic factors (Wilsher, 2013). In contrast
to tendencies and behaviors, which are specific, personality refers to broader traits that aid in
understanding of why some people behave in healthier ways than others, beyond explanations
provided by social factors. Studies have shown that agreeableness and conscientiousness are
positively associated with healthy eating (De Bruijn et al., 2005). Specifically, people with high
conscientiousness have healthier behaviors, including adherence to healthy diets, particularly those
high in fruit and vegetable fibers, and low in fat and salt (Golestanbagh et al., 2021; Weston et al.,
2020). Openness has been positively associated with fruit and vegetable consumption in several
studies (Pristyna et al., 2022). Social factors and goals influence the relationships between personality
and behavior (Tsartsapakis et al., 2023; 2024). The association between personality and fruit and
vegetable consumption provides information about whether social factors influence personality and
other healthy behaviors, such as diet (Intiful et al., 2019).
3.4 Conscientiousness and healthy eating
Conscientiousness is a personality trait defined as "a tendency to react in certain ways in certain
circumstances" (Roberts et al., 2009). According to Bogg and Roberts (2013), conscientiousness is
defined as the relatively stable pattern of individual differences in the tendency to follow socially
imposed norms of impulse control, goal orientation, planning, delaying gratification, and following
norms and rules. People with high conscientiousness scores tend to have healthier eating patterns
than people with low scores. Conscientious people are also more likely to follow dietary guidelines,
avoid unhealthy foods, plan meals and resist temptation. A study by Intiful et al. (2019) has found an
association of conscientiousness with variety and sugar moderation in dietary habits among students
at a Ghanaian University. The authors concluded that personality traits were associated with certain
diets, but more research is needed to identify individuals at risk of diet-related illnesses and to
develop appropriate interventions. Mõttus et al. (2012) have claimed that the relationship between
conscientious and healthy eating is due to some individuals being willing to try new food options. In
contrast, most studies have proposed that individuals who score high in conscientiousness are more
possible to appear healthy dietary behaviors, because of their general attitudes toward following a
healthier lifestyle, such as avoiding risky behaviors, engaging in regular physical activity, and eating
fruits and vegetables regularly (Raynor & Levine, 2009). In support of this view, two studies from
Japan (Kikuchi et al., 1999; Kikuchi & Watanabe, 2000) examining the relationship of the FFM with
health and healthy habits found that participants with higher conscientiousness scores were more
likely to maintain a regular meal plan, avoid salty foods, and be more open-minded to
recommendations to eat green and yellow vegetables (Kikuchi et al., 1999; Kikuchi & Watanabe,
2000). In a sample of 13,982 Australian adults, Pfeiler and Egloff (2020) found that conscientiousness
was positively associated with vegetable, plant and fish consumption, and emotional stability, but
negatively associated with carbohydrate intake. Golestanbagh et al. (2021) found that
conscientiousness was positively associated with eating dairy, vegetables, nuts and salty foods and
negatively associated with eating biscuits. Pristyna et al. (2022), in a longitudinal study of 30,900
Indonesians, found that conscientiousness was positively associated with the consumption of
recommended healthy food. From the review of the above studies, the FFM is clearly predictive of
individuals' dietary habits (Keller & Siegrist, 2015; Raynor & Levine, 2009). However, beyond the
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ability of individuals to adhere to healthy eating guidelines, determining whether personality traits
are associated with healthy eating habits in the long term is essential. Intiful et al. (2019) found a
positive association of conscientiousness with dietary variety and sugar moderation, such that people
with greater conscientious tended to eat more diverse diets and limit their sugar intake. The study
also found that conscientiousness was negatively associated with disinhibition: more conscientious
people were less likely to overeat in response to emotional or situational cues. In addition, Pristyna et
al. (2022) found that conscientiousness and openness were positively associated with physical
activity; that is, people who were more conscientious and open to experience were more likely to
engage in moderate or vigorous physical activity across all domains. Moreover, conscientiousness was
found to be negatively associated with obesity, as measured by body mass index (BMI). In contrast,
Dumitrescu and Iacob (2021) investigated the incremental validity of conscientiousness over the
components of the Health Belief Model (HBM) in the prediction of students' eating habits. Self-
efficacy for healthy eating was found to be the only significant predictor of students' eating habits,
and conscientiousness did not add any predictive value to the HBM components. These studies have
not yielded scientific agreement among findings. Their differing theoretical frameworks and methods
(e.g., sample, measurement tools, evaluation methods) are at the heart of this scientific disagreement.
3.5 Openness and healthy eating
Openness to experience, or simply openness, is a basic personality trait reflecting how open-minded,
imaginative, curious and creative a person is. People who score high on openness tend to have a
broad range of interests, enjoy new experiences, appreciate art and beauty, and pay attention to their
inner feelings. People who score low on openness prefer familiar routines, people and ideas, and may
be perceived as closed-minded or conventional (Lounsbury et al., 2009). Overall, the studies reviewed
(Table 2) indicated that high levels of openness are associated with greater fruit and vegetable
consumption (De Bruijn et al., 2005; Mottus et al., 2013; Mõttus et al., 2012), and with the adoption of
healthy diets in middle and old age (Brummett et al., 2008; Mottus et al., 2013). In a study in 1073
young adults in New Zealand (Conner et al., 2017), extraversion and openness were the most
compatible personality predictors of high fruit and vegetable consumption. Moreover, self-control of
food intake was to be positively associated with high scores in openness, and with low scores in
neuroticism, in a study by Elfhag and Morey (2008). In contrast, no association was found between
openness and emotional food intake or extrinsic food intake. In the study by Intiful et al. (2019),
openness was positively associated with a strong preference for food; i.e., open individuals had no
problems with eating, whereas other individuals felt guilty about eating or simply ate to acquire
necessary energy. Pfeiler and Egloff (2020) found that openness had a negative association with meat
consumption and a positive one with vegetable and fish consumption. These findings are consistent
with the results of previous studies (Goldberg & Strycker, 2002; Mõttus et al., 2012). Golestanbagh et
al (2021) observed that openness was positively associated with preferring meat and biscuits and
negatively associated with fruit consumption. Finally, in a study by Pristyna et al. (2022), openness
was associated with consumption of both recommended (healthy) and non-recommended (mainly
unhealthy) foods. These studies imply that people who are more open to experience may have a more
varied and nutritious diet than people who are less open.
3.6 Neuroticism and healthy eating
The research evidence reviewed herein (Table 2) suggests that high levels of neuroticism are
negatively associated with health-promoting behaviors (Carrillo et al., 2012; de Bruijn et al., 2009;
Elfhag & Morey, 2008; Keller & Siegrist, 2015; Mottus et al., 2013; Provencher et al., 2008). The
neurotic aspect of personality in obese individuals is associated with emotional food intake as well as
food intake due to extrinsic factors (Elfhag & Morey, 2008; Provencher et al., 2008). The studies by de
Bruijn et al. (2009) and de Bruijna (2013) found a negative relationship between high neuroticism
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scores and fruit consumption, while Mottus et al. (2013) found a negative relationship between
neuroticism and adherence to the Mediterranean diet, and a positive relationship between
neuroticism and convenience foods (fast food and sweets). Furthermore, neuroticism was negatively
associated with physical activity and positively associated with the development of mental disorders
in another study (Wilson & Dishman, 2015). Neuroticism was positively associated with the
preference for salty, sour and fatty foods, and negatively associated with dairy consumption,
according to Golestanbagh et al. (2021). Finally, neuroticism was associated with eating only
unhealthy foods in the study by Pristyna et al. (2022). Intiful et al. (2019) observed that neuroticism
was not significantly associated with dietary patterns. In contrast, Carrillo et al. (2012) reported
opposite results from those in the above studies; in their study, neuroticism was positively associated
with healthy behavior and with weight control.
4. Study Limitations
Personality has been found to be a cause factor of human behavior. Considerable evidence links
personality and eating habits (Carrillo et al., 2012; de Bruijn et al., 2009). Eating habits play essential
roles in individuals' health and overall quality of life (Kikuchi & Watanabe, 2000). The results of
studies investigating the relationship between personality and dietary habits have not led to a
scientific consensus in the fields of psychology or of nutrition. The different theoretical frameworks
and methods used across studies (e.g., sample, measurement tools, scoring methods) are at the heart
of this scientific disagreement. We initially included only studies using questionnaires associated
with the model of the five major personality factors, to facilitate comparison of results among studies.
However, this restriction resulted in a lack of representation of all studies on personality and eating
habits. Regarding eating habits has been approached from only the perspective of personality.
Despite the importance of personality factors, eating habits are dependent on, and influenced by,
other factors, including social, economic, environmental, cultural and religious factors. Additionally,
several methodological problems were identified in the studies reviewed. Many studies included
participants who were students (Conner et al., 2017; de Bruijna, 2013; Golestanbagh et al., 2021; Intiful
et al., 2019; Jaworski & Rozenek, 2016; Kikuchi et al., 1999; Kikuchi & Watanabe, 2000; Raynor &
Levine, 2009); consequently, the relatively low socioeconomic status and changes in places of
residence among students would be expected to substantially influence their eating habits beyond
the effects of personality. In the study by Goldberg and Strycker (2002), the participants were paid,
thus potentially affecting the results of the study, given that people who participate in surveys tend to
score high in agreeableness (Carlo et al., 2005), whereas the incentive of payment was likely to have
motivated participation among people with different personality traits. The tools used to record
participants' eating habits were another important methodological issue identified herein. Most
studies used a questionnaire that was constructed to meet research needs or some type of food
frequency questionnaire. If a 24-hour diary or even a 3-day diary had been used, the results would
have been much more reliable. This review was not a systematic review and consequently lacks the
rigor expected of such study designs. Therefore, the full range of articles on the relationship between
personality and healthy eating habits could not be included.
5. Implications and Applications
The findings of the present study could have several theoretical, research and practical applications
in the field of nutrition, health and sport psychology:
Theoretical Applications: The findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of the
relationship between personality traits and eating behaviors. They highlight the importance of
considering personality traits when studying eating behaviors and suggest that different traits may be
associated with different dietary patterns. This could lead to the development of new theories or
models that integrate personality traits into the understanding of eating behaviors.
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Research Applications: The findings suggest several directions for future research. For instance,
researchers could investigate the mechanisms underlying the relationships were found. It would be
interesting to explore how psychological factors like self-control and impulsivity or social influences
like peer norms and family environment mediate the relationship between personality traits and
eating behaviors. Longitudinal studies could also be conducted to examine how these relationships
evolve over time.
Practical Applications: The findings suggest that interventions aimed at promoting healthy
eating habits could be tailored based on individuals’ personality profiles. For example, interventions
for individuals high in conscientiousness might focus on leveraging their natural tendency towards
self-discipline and healthy behaviors, while those for individuals high in neuroticism might focus on
managing emotional eating and promoting healthier coping mechanisms. This personalized approach
could potentially lead to more effective interventions and ultimately contribute to the promotion of
healthier eating habits and better health outcomes.
6. Conclusion
The studies reviewed herein demonstrated relationships between conscientiousness and healthy food
choices; healthy body weight, as a result of adherence to healthy food rules; and the tendency to
adhere to healthy behaviors in general. Openness is positively associated with the consumption of
fruits and vegetables and with a general tendency to improve healthy eating habits in general.
Neuroticism, in contrast, is associated with the consumption of convenience foods, obesity and
behaviors inconsistent with the development of healthy habits. Extraversion is associated with
participation in physical activity. People with high extraversion tend to make unhealthy food choices
because they believe they are perfectly healthy and also tend to participate in high-risk activities.
Interpretation of these results should be weighed against the different cultural environments in
which the studies were taken place, and the extremely high heterogeneity among the instruments
used to measure personality and eating habits. Assessing personality traits may aid in identifying
people potentially at risk of developing unhealthy eating habits. Therefore, to improve the health of
individuals, and prevent behaviors that lead to inappropriate eating habits and practices, we propose
personalized nutrition education based on appropriate approaches that consider individual
differences in personality traits, to modify eating habits and dietary preferences. Future research
should clarify whether personality influences eating habits in specific populations, such as individuals
with eating disorders.
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