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Mobility-as-a-service and unsustainable travel behaviour: Exploring MaaS’ car ownership and public transport trip replacement side-effects
... One of the earliest reasons for promoting MaaS was the possibility to reduce private car ownership [36]. However, several studies [2,13,38] have highlighted that MaaS should be regarded as a complement of private car use rather than a substitution. In this collection, Smith et al. [34] agree that multi-modal travelers are likely early adopters of MaaS and MaaS can be positioned as a competitor to the second car. ...
... The above review suggests that simulating MaaS programs to understand how users are willing to change their car-owned choice towards shared travel solutions is a key factor for the successful implementation of MaaS systems [36]. In this perspective, agent-based models (ABMs) might be used to simulate the dynamic behavior of users and transportation fleets in an MaaS context. ...
In recent years, mobility as a service (MaaS) has been thought as one of the opportunities for shifting towards shared travel solutions with respect to private transport modes, particularly owned cars. Although many MaaS aspects have been explored in the literature, there are still issues, such as platform implementations, travel solution generation, and the user’s role for making an effective system, that require more research. This paper extends and improves a previous study carried out by the authors by providing more details and experiments. The paper proposes a diachronic network model for representing travel services available in a given MaaS platform by using an agent-based approach to simulate the interactions between travel operators and travelers. Particularly, the diachronic network model allows the consideration of both the spatial and temporal features of the available transport services, while the agent-based framework allows the representation of how shared services might be used and which effects, in terms of modal split, could be expected. The final aim is to provide insights for setting the architecture of an agent-based MaaS platform where transport operators would share their data for providing seamless travel opportunities to travelers. The results obtained for a simulated test case are promising. Particularly, there are interesting findings concerning the traffic congestion boundary values that would move users towards shared travel solutions.
... MaaS provides users the ability to compare modes, find the most efficient routes, and even consider sustainability factors like CO2 emissions, encouraging greener trips [13]. Moreover, the service is considered to reduce travel costs, congestion, and air pollution, while at the same time improves the quality of travel time, increases accessibility [9,[14][15][16][17], and provides services the opportunity to penetrate into new markets, creating a more competitive environment among transport operators [18]. ...
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a new mobility solution that brings together different modes of transportation, such as car-sharing, public transport, taxis, and bicycles, to create personalized service packages for commuters. The present study aims to identify key factors affecting the adoption of a Mobility as a Service system, and to explore the extent to which a local community is ready to accept the implementation of MaaS. The case study investigates the city of Thessaloniki, which is the second largest urban agglomeration in Greece. This study applies a triangulation approach by combining quantitative and qualitative analysis, providing a comprehensive understanding of the opportunities and the challenges arising with the implementation of a MaaS system in the city of Thessaloniki. Furthermore, the utilization of MaaS as a tool for vulnerable people, a crucial aspect that has not been analyzed properly in the existing literature, is examined. A quantitative survey analysis was conducted, inferential statistics were applied, and a binary logistic regression model was developed to determine the significant characteristics that most affect citizens’ willingness to use a MaaS system. In addition, stakeholders were interviewed to examine their readiness to promote and collaborate for the development of a MaaS system. Results showed that age, driving license, daily time spent on urban trips, the frequency of commuting as car passenger or by public transport (PT), previous usage of a MaaS system, and the number of family members seem to be the most influential factors of citizens’ choice to adopt MaaS. For stakeholders, the quality of service provided, and the user friendliness of the system are necessary prerequisites. The findings reveal that the views of residents and stakeholders provide some positive foundations for the development of a MaaS system in the city.
... Similarly, the MaaS concept has the potential to reduce car dependencies (Hasselwander et al., 2022;Alyavina et al., 2024). Its core objective is to offer seamless, intermodal travel options by integrating various public and private transportation modes within a single, on-demand platform (Lopez-Carreiro et al., 2020). ...
In this perspective paper, we propose to integrate the concepts of Mobility-as-a-Feature (MaaF, an extension of MaaS) and the 15-minute city (15mC). The 15mC concept maintains that daily necessities and services, such as shopping, healthcare, and leisure should be accessible without private cars within 15 minute. In line with MaaF, these services could be integrated with a variety of mobility options into a single app. This novel approach is poised to offer a seamless customer experience, better resource utilization, enhanced urban mobility, improved and more inclusive access to services, and greater community connectivity. We call them local super apps: a new model to drive equitable and sustainable urban transitions. We substantiate this preliminary idea with evidence from literature, practical applications, and a user survey (N = 1,019), while also discussing future research avenues to further develop the concept of local super apps.
Incentive-based strategies tailored to individual preferences can motivate commuters to adopt public transit, potentially easing road congestion and fostering ecofriendly urban travel. However, understanding diverse responses to these incentives has been challenging due to low survey participation and certain homogeneity assumptions, limiting our knowledge of individuals’ preferences for using public transit in different cities. To address this, our study employs a latent class choice model and mixed logit model to analyze individual responses to incentives and identify key factors that influence the effectiveness of these incentives. Data for this analysis was sourced from a mobile navigation application, covering 34 cities within China, thereby enabling the analysis of individuals within each latent class to reveal their diverse preferences for using public transit within different cities. Our findings indicate significant individual differences in response to incentives, categorized into three main latent classes: Class 1 individuals exhibit minimal influence from incentives; those in Class 2 demonstrate moderate responsiveness, especially to food and shopping coupons; and Class 3 individuals, whose decision-making is significantly affected by education level, gender, and travel mode preference, show a high degree of responsiveness to incentives. These insights are invaluable for policymakers seeking to design more effective, tailored incentive schemes to encourage public transit adoption.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) can potentially create positive impacts for sustainability and social equity: MaaS could steer user choices away from the private car, and increase access to transport options for all social groups. Though MaaS is not an entirely new concept anymore, in terms of user numbers, it remains a niche phenomenon. We aimed to identify factors that support or hinder MaaS use by focusing on the perspectives of both users and non-users, considering their personal situations, preferences, and needs. Specifically, we investigated under which circumstances MaaS can convince individuals to reduce the use of or discard their private car, using the theory of material possessions which asserts that the motives for (car) ownership are not only of an instrumental nature, but can also be symbolic and affective. We employed a qualitative research approach, focusing on the MaaS case in Berlin, Germany. Data was collected in 12 focus group sessions of 3 to 5 users and non-users, following a semi-structured guideline. The sessions were recorded, transcribed and analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Results show that socio-economic factors play a smaller role than expected, and use cases center around non-habituated trips. The added value of MaaS compared to regular transit apps was often difficult to discern or irrelevant. Even if MaaS provided perfect service and functionality, certain groups of car users would still not consider it, due to the vehement symbolic and affective motives associated with the private car. However, we found that individuals can associate symbolic and affective motives with MaaS as well. The most prominent lever for MaaS to contribute to a more sustainable mobility system seems to be emphasizing these MaaS related motives as well as the car as a burden, a burden which can be lifted by using MaaS.
Undertaking various activities aimed at sustainable development, especially energy conservation, is becoming one of the challenges of modern economies, including developing urban areas. One of the most widely promoted activities is designing and implementing energy-conserving solutions for urban mobility. People play a vital role in this regard, especially young people, represented here by Generation Z. Their attitudes and behaviours regarding sustainability can significantly impact the effectiveness of energy-efficient technological solutions. The purpose of this article is to examine the nature of the relationship between the assessment of the importance of energy-efficient transportation solutions available in the city and the attitudes and behaviours of representatives of Generation Z relating to the idea of sustainability, broken down into two categories, i.e., energy-conserving behaviour and mobility. In this study, a diagnostic survey method was used. Based on the literature review, we designed a research tool in the form of a questionnaire. Four hundred and ninety representatives of Generation Z participated in the study. To verify the hypotheses, first, a qualitative analysis was carried out for the three study areas using measures of central tendency; then, a correlation analysis was performed based on Pearson’s chi-square independence test, and to determine the strength of the relationship, the following symmetric measures were used: Cramer’s V and the Contingency Coefficient. The normalisation of the data, giving them a quantitative character, allowed the possibility of examining the correlation using Pearson’s test and the directionality of the analysed relationships based on simple and multiple linear regression results. Ananalys is of the obtained results allows us to conclude that energy-related sustainable behaviours in the acquisition of electrical appliances, their use and disposal, and mobility-related energy-conserving behaviours, resulting from the choice of means of transportation for moving in the city, influence the assessment of the importance of available energy-efficient mobility solutions. City administrations could use the study results as a guideline for the implementation of energy-conserving solutions in urban transportation, as well as the planning and promotion of appropriate activities related to the mobility of Generation Z, that are adequate to the attitudes and behaviours of young people.
A restructuring of the current mobility and transportation system seems to be inescapable, as a result of the increasing urbanization and challenges regarding global sustainability. The concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is regarded by policy-makers as an answer to the needed change. Generally speaking, MaaS is an online platform that enables users to plan, book and pay a trip out of a variety of transport modes, conventional and shared. However, in the literature, the potential impact of MaaS on mobility is still relatively unclear. This study, therefore, aims to provide insights into which factors influence the intention to use MaaS among private vehicle owners, who have until now been identified as relatively MaaS-averse travellers. Policy-makers are highly interested in this group to start using MaaS since their shift from private vehicles to other transport options might positively contribute to easing the congestion and environmental problems. In order to create some insights on possible travel behavioural shift and adoption of new systems, an empirical study has been conducted among (co-)owners of motorized vehicles (passenger car, electric passenger car, van, motorcycle; moped) that live in the Netherlands. The survey was based on a conceptual model that explains why people would use this new system (MaaS) and has asked respondents about their travel behaviour, socioeconomic characteristics and attitudes towards MaaS. Using Latent Class Cluster Analysis (LCCA) five clusters in the sample population regarding the intention to use MaaS were identified. The cluster profiles show that private vehicle owners who often use public transport and active modes are most inclined to use MaaS, whereas the 'conservative' passenger car owners who use the car as their main mode of transport for all their trips (e.g. commuting, leisure) show a lower intention to use MaaS. As it can be expected that the societal benefits of MaaS will especially occur when these conservative car owners adopt MaaS, we conclude that, from a policy perspective, implementing MaaS could be less effective in reducing transport externalities (e.g. pollution and wasted time in congestion) as perhaps expected.
Background
The paper examines whether the widespread assumption holds that younger birth cohorts (referred to as Millennials or Generation Y) act as pioneers of changing everyday mobility.
Methodology
Based on the time-series dataset "Mobility in Germany" (Mobilität in Deutschland), cohort-specific changes in everyday bicycle and car use that have occurred between 2002 and 2017 are analyzed. The empirical analyses are differentiated by age-group and settlement type. Additionally, socio-structural factors are taken into account.
Results
The results show a decline in the predominant everyday use of cars in metropolitan cities, especially among Generation Y. However, the Millennials do not emerge as pioneers of the trend toward predominant bicycle use. The results challenge the assumption that changes in everyday mobility are essentially driven by generational change.
In the effort to counteract problems associated with the current carbon intensive transport system, app-based tools persuading mobility behaviour change have emerged worldwide. Most of such apps adopt a gamified approach and motivate behaviour change through external extrinsic motivational factors such as real-life prizes, that are attributed based on the distance travelled by non-car transport modes. Despite this approach might be effective in promoting additional leisure trips by sustainable mobility, it might keep car-based commuting habits unaltered, or even stimulate unfair app behaviour to gain points. In this paper, we focus on the Bellidea persuasive app, that was co-designed with interested citizens in a Swiss-based living lab experiment, and present how we addressed the shortcomings of prize-based rewarding systems, while also dealing with the constraints imposed by current levels of accuracy in automatic transport mode detection. We illustrate and discuss our design choices and the related algorithmic solutions by referring to the following dilemmas: "single transport modes versus modal split", "trust versus control", "dynamism versus rigidity", and "global versus local". We conclude by analysing real-life mobility data-sets collected by the Bellidea app and discussing our design solutions against their capacity to attract its target user group, namely car driver individuals.
To formulate policies for low-carbon transport development, previous studies largely focus on estimating the substitution effect of ride-hailing travel on public transport, but how transit-dependent people turn to use ride-hailing has not been answered. This study integrates small data (questionnaire) and big data (ride-hailing orders) to estimate how many ride-hailing trips could have been made via public transport from a perspective of affordability. The findings indicate that ride-hailing is competing with meanwhile complementing public transit, but for different purposes and target populations. Results show that 38% of ride-hailing trips can be potentially travelled via public transit at an overall level. But for commuting purpose, the proportion increased to 80%. For entertainment travel purposes, low-income families who could not afford private cars in the past, use ride-hailing as a flexible travel alternative, like what has been enjoyed by higher-income families.
According to UN statistics, the population of people in vulnerable social groups, namely elderly people, people with disabilities, and low-income populations, has increased over the recent decades. It is projected that this trend will continue in the future. Thus, their mobility and access to transport services are important areas to study. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a digital platform (smartphone application) that aims to encourage more sustainable travel. MaaS is promoted as being accessible to all user groups. However, there are limited studies linking MaaS with vulnerable social groups and their particular needs. This paper comprehensively reviews studies on the emergence of such platforms since 2014 until today to identify the research gaps with respect to vulnerable social groups. A framework and MaaS Inclusion Index (MaaSINI) are then proposed to evaluate the inclusion in MaaS services, focusing on vulnerable social groups’ needs at a service level instead of a city/area level. The framework and policy recommendations proposed in this study will make a significant contribution in guiding stakeholders and policymakers in implementing accessible-for-all-users MaaS services targeting sustainable and inclusive transport.
Results from a recent travel behavior survey are used to examine the impacts of generational and attitudinal factors on autonomous vehicle (AV) adoption and willingness to pay (WTP). Initial exploratory data analysis confirmed generational differences in various aspects of travel behavior. A structural equation model (SEM) was developed to capture the causal effects of different variables on AV adoption/WTP. In particular, Interaction effects with generational cohorts were analyzed. Generally, it could be inferred that WTP significantly and positively affects adoption levels, so do technology savviness, the desire for driving assistance/higher safety features, and mobility for non-drivers. The WTP is also affected by income, employment status, and previous technology experience. Further, our model suggests that millennials who appreciate the on-demand aspect of AVs are more likely to adopt a fully or partially automated vehicle. The middle-aged cohort (35–39 years old) as well as transit-user millennials are likely to have higher WTP values.
Globally, cities face a range of transport-related environmental, social, and economic challenges, not least congestion, air pollution, and promotion of sustainable modes of public transport. Mobility hubs (MHs) have been identified as a mechanism to aid the move toward a sustainable transport network and are at various stages of implementation in cities throughout the world. The growing prevalence of MH schemes highlights the requirement for a holistic overview of MH networks to ascertain their characteristics and inform policy direction. Consequently, this study presents a review of current MH deployment and literature, with the aim of examining this global phenomenon and identifying a future research agenda. The study combines a comprehensive review of web searches with gray literature and a limited number of articles from academic journals. Twenty locations, at different stages of development and implementation, were identified as examples to be reviewed and analyzed, thereby providing a context for the review. Subsequently, four themes have emerged: objectives of MHs, format, location, and operational factors. Key findings include the importance of stakeholder engagement in design and location choices, the significance of branding, and connection with existing travel infrastructure including public transport and active travel. Additionally, the provision of amenities is common to MH schemes because it promotes usage and integration into the local landscape. From this detailed review of the state of MHs, a future research agenda has been identified, including further defining MHs, understanding the origin and applicability of MH objectives, considering day-to-day operations, policy transfer implications, and further evaluations of single and network MHs.
Despite widespread interest, empirical research on how end-users perceive and use Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is scarce. To address this knowledge gap, this article analyzes the end-user process of adopting a MaaS service entitled EC2B, which was launched in Gothenburg, Sweden, in the spring of 2019. The contribution to the MaaS literature is three-fold. Firstly, the article provides insight into potential end-users by describing the characteristics and motives of the studied group of adopters. Secondly, it improves the understanding of the potential effects of MaaS by outlining how the EC2B service was used and how it influenced travel behavior. Thirdly, the article informs strategies for facilitating MaaS adoption by outlining what types of drivers and barriers the end-users faced during different stages of the adoption process. The reported findings underscore previous assertions that MaaS is much more than just an app and a subscription plan and highlight a mutually reinforcing relationship between the introduction of MaaS and the implementation of policies aimed at reducing car use.
Despite many prior studies about the determinants of city-level private car ownership in China, limited studies investigate the effects of vehicle regulation policies and relative price (the ratio of the average car price to GDP per capita) on city-level private car ownership simultaneously. Thus, panel data of 212 cities in China from 2006 to 2015 were collected to explore these effects. The potential explanatory variables include relative price, vehicle regulation policies, socio-economic factors, urban characteristics of the city, and transportation-related factors. The pooled model, fixed-effects model, and random effects model are constructed to analyze the panel data. With the fixed effect on the temporal trend, the fixed-effects model turns out to be the best. Variables including relative price, license plate lottery, vehicle use restriction based on the last digit of the license plate, the average salary of employed workers, and the number of taxis per 10,000 population are all found significant. Supportive policies for alternative fuel cars do not significantly affect private car ownership. One percent increase in the relative price is associated with a 0.08% decrease in private car ownership. The license plate lottery and vehicle use restriction policies would reduce private car ownership by 18.94% and 7.7%, respectively. The finding of this study could provide a helpful reference for policymakers to develop appropriate measures to control the growth of private car ownership of a city.
Paradigm-shifting technologies such as Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) despite a wealth of promised benefits for the future of our cities may generate new unprecedented threats. The transportation industry will be the first to experience the aftermath of AVs since these can kill driving professions and create new layers of employability-related social exclusion. This paper appraises public perceptions of AVs and their employment repercussions as a forecasting tool that can drive equitable policy planning that prioritises humans over machines. The study is based on an online survey of 773 responses from an international audience. Descriptive statistics and ordinal regression modelling have been used. Most respondents recognised that the arrival of AVs is likely to revolu-tionise the distribution of jobs within the transport industry. They also believe governments are not prepared for the transformations AVs will force upon workplace arenas. Age, field of work/study, level of understanding AVs, income, gender, awareness about the risks on own employment were factors influencing the respondents' perceptions of whether transport professionals' job security will be jeopardised. The study argues that AVs are perceived as a significant employment disruptor and that reskilling, public engagement and awareness exercises should be widely adopted by the stakeholders 'responsible' for the transition.
Car ownership is one of the key factors affecting travel behaviour and thus also essential in terms of sustainable mobility. This study examines car ownership and how people’s willingness to own a car may change in the future, when considering the effects of public transport, Mobility as a Service (MaaS) and automated vehicles (AVs). Results of two citizen surveys conducted with representative samples (NAV-survey = 2036; NMaaS-survey = 1176) of Finns aged 18–64 are presented. The results show that 39% of respondents would not want or need to own a car if public transport connections were good enough, 58% if the described mobility service was available and 65% if all vehicles in traffic were automated. Hence, car ownership can decrease as a result of the implementation of AVs and MaaS, and higher public transport quality of service. Current mobility behaviour has a strong correlation to car ownership, as respondents who use public transport frequently feel less of a will or need to own a car than others. Generally, women and younger people feel less of a will or need to own a car, but factors such as educational level and residential location seem to have a relatively low effect.
Australia’s first Mobility as a Service (MaaS) trial commenced in April 2019 in Sydney. A key objective of the trial is to assess interest in various MaaS subscription plans through bundling public transport, ride share, car share and car rental with varying financial discounts and monthly subscription fees, in contrast to pay as you go (PAYG). This paper develops a mixed logit choice model to investigate the participants’ choice between PAYG and four subscription plans (or bundles) that were incrementally introduced over a 5-month period. This is the first paper to model real uptake as previous studies are based on stated preference data. New evidence is provided on what role financial savings, estimated using tracking technology embedded in the MaaS app, play in the context of modal offerings and a monthly subscription fee as well as socio-demographic and seasonal effects. Behaviourally, we present evidence on the extent of take up of each bundle relative to PAYG as well as elasticity estimates for all exogenous influences and estimates of willingness to pay and scenario assessment, particularly for how much someone would have to save over a previous month’s cost outlay to be willing to subscribe to a particular bundle in a subsequent month. Within the context of the trial, the findings suggest a substantial market for mobility bundles but PAYG is an option preferred by many, particularly those with varying travel needs. We are, however, not in a position yet to conclude that these choices necessarily align with a contribution to societal sustainability goals.
Research provides evidence that ride-sourcing has not only substituted for private transport but also public transport. For further investigation of this substitution effect, this paper explores the travel behaviour of ride-sourcing users and those users' socio-demographic characteristics as well as perception of the usefulness of ride-sourcing based on the users' previous modes of transport before ride-sourcing existed. For these purposes, the study collected data using a questionnaire survey in Bandung City in 2018. We found that substitution from public transport exists for younger travellers, while substitution from private transport is most likely associated with infrequent and higher-income travellers. We also found open spaces, a green environment and high interaction society in the residential environments that have more association with high-income travellers, thus associated with lower use of ride-sourcing for former private transport users. This study found that travellers who resided in areas with similar, high-income characteristics tend to have a positive appreciation of ride-sourcing. It appears that the increasing perceived usefulness does not straightforwardly increase the frequency of usage. Therefore, travellers who lived in a more high-end and active social environment might appreciate the role of ride-sourcing services in some of their trips that complement another daily trip.
Key challenges in transportation need to be addressed to tackle the problems of fossil fuel emissions and worsened air quality in urban area. The development of a more efficient and clean transport system could benefit from mobility as a service (MaaS). The present paper aims to understand the determinants of the intention to adopt such a service. We test the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) on mobility behavior and intention to adopt mobility as a service, and we analyze the role of perceived cost saving as a determinant for the perceived ease of use. Data were collected through a survey on a sample of 201 potential adopters. The findings show that for such a technology, perceived usefulness fully mediate the influence of perceived ese of use on the intention to adopt. Moreover, the effect of perceived cost saving on perceived ease of use is moderated by the life cycle of the technology. Implications for marketing managers and policy makers are discussed.
Integrated and seamless mobility has been a futuristic vision of mobility for a few years already. Today, Mobility as a Service (MaaS) embodies that vision through the integration of existing and new mobility services into one single digital platform, providing customised door-to-door transport and offering personalised trip or packages planning and payment options. The MaaS concept enable a practical shift from a fragmented and unimodal transport towards a harmonized, centralized and multimodal one, yet the current EU transport law, which is based on the principle of unimodality transport regulation, does not cover any passenger multimodal transport. Thus, as MaaS providers generate multimodal travel chains, it’s problematic that under EU law there is no harmonised legal base for multimodal passenger travel. Moreover, passenger rights cannot be guaranteed when an event occurring during one transport segment affects the following one, if the latter segment is operated with another operator of transport. In light of this, the knowledge gaps that this paper aims to fulfil are to comprehend, on the one hand, the status quo of EU passenger legislation and, on the other hand, the impact of MaaS concept on EU passenger’s rights. This will be achieved by analysing the EU transport law and its adequacy to cover passenger’s rights through a MaaS multimodal journey, as well as the position of a MaaS provider in a travel chain.
The concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is rapidly gaining momentum. Parties involved are eager to learn more about its potential uptake, effects on travel behaviour, and users. We focus on the latter, as we attempt to reveal the profile of groups within the Dutch population that have a relatively high likelihood of adopting MaaS in the near future, apart from the actual supply side.
MaaS is a transport concept integrating existing and new mobility services on a digital platform, providing customised door-to-door transportation options. Based on common denominators of MaaS as found in the literature, we have established five indicators to identify early adopters: innovativeness, being tech-savvy, needing travel information, having a multimodal mindset, and wanting freedom of choice. These five indicators are the building blocks of our Latent Demand for MaaS Index (LDMI), and were constructed using 26 statements and questions from a special survey conducted in 2018 among participants of the Netherlands Mobility Panel (MPN). The features derived from the MPN serve as independent variables in a regression analysis of the indicators used to ascertain the profile of early adopters.
The results of our model indicate that early adopters are likely to be highly mobile, have a high socio-economic status, high levels of education and high personal incomes. Young people are more eager to adopt MaaS than older adults. Early adopters are healthy, active and frequent users of trains and planes. The characteristics of MaaS's early adopters overlap in numerous ways with those of innovative mobility services users and with the general characteristics of early adopters as found in innovation studies.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a novel brand of transport that promises to replace private cars with multimodal personalised mobility packages enabled by a digital platform capable of integrating travel planning, booking and ticketing, and real-time information services. It is an intervention that through its digitisation, connectivity, information and sharing merits intends to inspire and support the transition to a more sustainable mobility paradigm. Recent research suggests, however, that the potential uptake of MaaS might not be overwhelming; current car drivers could face considerable difficulties in bypassing their personal car for it and, more worryingly, future MaaS users may substitute not only personal car trips but also public transport journeys with car-sharing and ride-sharing services. This means that MaaS might not be able to create travel behaviour change, and even if it does, the changes may not be always towards the right direction. Through conducting 40 semi-structured interviews in three different UK cities, namely London, Birmingham and Huddersfield, and employing a robust Thematic Analysis approach, this study explores the factors underpinning the uptake and potential success of MaaS as a sustainable travel mechanism. The challenges and opportunities reflecting and affecting potential for responsible MaaS usage refer to five core themes Car Dependence; Trust; Human Element Externalities; Value; and Cost, each of them with distinctive and diverse dimensions. Policy-makers and mobility providers should realise that MaaS success relies on changing people’s attitudes to private cars (something very challenging) and thus they should incentivise responsible MaaS use, promote public transport as its backbone, use public engagement exercises and trials to expose people to the concept and somewhat demonise private car ownership and car use.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an innovative concept, enabled by the ubiquitous availability of digital technologies. Many cities around the world envision MaaS as a way to improve sustainable transportation by reducing the use of fossil fuel-based transportation modes. However, MaaS may also trigger users of environmentally-friendly transportation modes to switch to less sustainable modes, such as taxi and ridesharing. The aim of this study is to explore how different bundling and pricing schemes of MaaS contribute to improving sustainable transportation. In order to analyze individuals’ intended choice of MaaS, a stated portfolio choice experiment was developed. A mixed logit model is estimated to investigate the bundle of transportation modes individuals configure when subscribing to MaaS. We explore empirical issues such as which transportation modes they prefer to include in the bundle, and how pricing schemes affect the composition of the bundle. Furthermore, scenario analyses are conducted to assess the impact of pricing schemes on sustainable transportation. Results show that MaaS contributes to improving sustainable transportation in a non-linear manner as a function of decreasing monthly subscription fees and/or increasing length of the subscription.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is a service that supports customers' transportation needs by providing information and ticketing for a multitude of transport modes in one interface; thus, buy potentially fostering multimodality and public transport, it represents an important lever to reduce negative transportation impacts such as emissions and congestion. By means of an online survey conducted in Switzerland, we try to understand potential user needs as well as factors that would motivate the use of MaaS. Comparing the openness to use MaaS for specific trip purposes like commuting and leisure activities, we find the lowest level of openness for commuting and the highest for weekend leisure trips. Intention to reduce car usage was positively related to openness to MaaS in commuting. On the other hand, factors that positively influence openness to using MaaS for leisure activities include a higher education degree, experience with carsharing and the use of transport-related climate policy announcements directly affecting consumers. These findings suggest focusing specifically on either commuting or leisure activities when designing policy measures.
The use of online surveys has grown rapidly in social science and policy research, surpassing more established methods. We argue that a better understanding is needed, especially of the strengths and weaknesses of non‐probability online surveys, which can be conducted relatively quickly and cheaply. We describe two common approaches to non‐probability online surveys—river and panel sampling—and theorize their inherent selection biases: namely, topical self‐selection and economic self‐selection. We conduct an empirical comparison of two river samples (Facebook and web‐based sample) and one panel sample (from a major survey research company) with benchmark data grounded in a comprehensive population registry. The river samples diverge from the benchmark on demographic variables and yield much higher frequencies on non‐demographic variables, even after demographic adjustments; we attribute this to topical self‐selection. The panel sample is closer to the benchmark. When examining the characteristics of a non‐demographic subpopulation, we detect no differences between the river and panel samples. We conclude that non‐probability online surveys do not replace probability surveys, but augment the researcher's toolkit with new digital practices, such as exploratory studies of small and emerging non‐demographic subpopulations.
A common way to form scores from multiple-item scales is to sum responses of all items. Though sum scoring is often contrasted with factor analysis as a competing method, we review how factor analysis and sum scoring both fall under the larger umbrella of latent variable models, with sum scoring being a constrained version of a factor analysis. Despite similarities, reporting of psychometric properties for sum scored or factor analyzed scales are quite different. Further, if researchers use factor analysis to validate a scale but subsequently sum score the scale, this employs a model that differs from validation model. By framing sum scoring within a latent variable framework, our goal is to raise awareness that (a) sum scoring requires rather strict constraints, (b) imposing these constraints requires the same type of justification as any other latent variable model, and (c) sum scoring corresponds to a statistical model and is not a model-free arithmetic calculation. We discuss how unjustified sum scoring can have adverse effects on validity, reliability, and qualitative classification from sum score cut-offs. We also discuss considerations for how to use scale scores in subsequent analyses and how these choices can alter conclusions. The general goal is to encourage researchers to more critically evaluate how they obtain, justify, and use multiple-item scale scores.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a powerful concept still in its infancy that has the potential, if utilised responsibly, to provide a vehicle for positive change that could promote sustainable transitions to a more resource-efficient livability paradigm. AI with its deep learning functions and capabilities can be employed as a tool which empowers machines to solve problems that could reform urban landscapes as we have known them for decades now and help with establishing a new era; the era of the “smart city”. One of the key areas that AI can redefine is transport. Mobility provision and its impact on urban development can be significantly improved by the employment of intelligent transport systems in general and automated transport in particular. This new breed of AI-based mobility, despite its machine-orientation, has to be a user-centred technology that “understands” and “satisfies” the human user, the markets and the society as a whole. Trust should be built, and risks should be eliminated, for this transition to take off. This paper provides a novel conceptual contribution that thoroughly discusses the scarcely studied nexus of AI, transportation and the smart city and how this will affect urban futures. It specifically covers key smart mobility initiatives referring to Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs), autonomous Personal and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (PAVs and UAVs) and Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), but also interventions that may work as enabling technologies for transport, such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and Physical Internet (PI) or reflect broader transformations like Industry 4.0. This work is ultimately a reference tool for researchers and city planners that provides clear and systematic definitions of the ambiguous smart mobility terms of tomorrow and describes their individual and collective roles underpinning the nexus in scope.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) can be considered the latest innovative technological solution to sustainable transportation. It offers travelers access to a pre-paid bundle of transportation modes on a single app with the additional convenience of the integration of planning, booking, and payment. Capturing the impact of this new technology on travel behavior remains a challenge, given the scarce number of comprehensive MaaS pilots. In this study, a stated adaptation experiment was designed to determine travelers’ propensity toward using this new service. Such knowledge sheds light on the potential of MaaS to alter daily travel patterns.
Abstract With the emergence of the Mobility as a Service (MaaS) concept, it is important to understand whether it has the potential to support behaviour change and the shift away from private vehicle ownership and use. This paper aims to identify potential ways that MaaS (specifically MaaS plans) could help encourage behavioural change; and understand the barriers to using alternative transport modes. In-depth interviews and qualitative analysis are applied to the case study of London. The results indicate that individuals segment the transport modes offered via MaaS into three categories: essential, considered and excluded. Soft measures should target each individuals’ consideration set as this is where the most impact can be made regarding behaviour change. Respondents also highlighted factors that make them apprehensive towards certain modes, such as safety, service characteristics and administration. Interventions that focus on the socio-demographic groups that are most affected could help make these modes more appealing.
As mixed methods continues to grow as a discipline, work to define what constitutes quality mixed methods research has become an emergent conversation. While progress has been made in this area, there has been some debate as to what quality entails and how to achieve it. This article contributes to mixed methods by highlighting the importance of rigor as an interdisciplinary baseline for quality evaluation and proposes a rigorous mixed methods framework. This framework is then applied to the management studies literature to give insight into a literature base where mixed methods research is still relatively nascent. Findings give examples of current practices in management studies as well as an example of how the rigorous mixed methods framework can be operationalized.
Abstract New mobility solutions, such as Mobility as a Service, have been suggested to have the potential to reduce car ownership and be part of a transition towards a more sustainable transportation system. However, research suggests that governance measures such as taxation and policies will be needed to ensure sustainability aspects. This paper explores everyday mobility by use of interventions in people’s everyday lives. The focus is on identifying underlying factors that may motivate or hinder changes that are positive from a sustainability perspective. This is then put in the perspective of new mobility services and policy making. Our findings support the view that privately owned cars are hard to replace with new mobility services that contribute to sustainability and are not based on individual cars. Economic interventions for increased sustainability will likely have limited effects, since the alternatives do not offer what car owners value most. Also, limited understanding of the car’s full costs may make the new services appear comparatively more expensive. Furthermore, urban planning to reduce the need for travel, and the capacity of the physical public transport infrastructure will continue to be important. Long vacation trips and “medium sized flows” are identified as opportunities for further research and for new solutions to support sustainable mobility transitions.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is expected to significantly change mobility patterns, yet it is still not clear who will embrace this new mobility paradigm and how MaaS will impact passengers' transportation. In the paper, we identify factors relevant for MaaS adoption based on a survey comprised of over thousand respondents in the Netherlands. We find five clusters in relation to individuals' inclinations to adopt MaaS in the context of urban mobility. We characterize each of the clusters, allowing for the examining of different customer segments regarding MaaS. The cluster with the highest inclination for future MaaS adoption is also the largest cluster (re-presenting one third of respondents). Individuals in this cluster have multimodal weekly mobility patterns. On the contrary, current unimodal car users are the least likely to adopt MaaS. We identify high (mobility) ownership need and low technology adoption (present in three of the five clusters) as the main barriers that can hinder MaaS adoption. Policies that directly address these two barriers can stimulate MaaS adoption.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) has been argued as part of the solution to prevalent transport problems. However, progress from pilots to large-scale implementation has hitherto been slow. The aim of the research reported in this paper was to empirically and in-depth investigate how, and to what extent, different factors affect the development and implementation of MaaS. A framework was developed, with a basis in institutional theory and the postulation that formal as well informal factors on different analytical levels (macro, meso and micro) must be considered. The research was organised as a multiple case study in Finland and Sweden and a qualitative approach was chosen for data collection and analysis. A number of factors with a claimed impact on the development and implementation of MaaS was revealed. At the macro level, these factors included legislation concerning transport, innovation and public administration, and the presence (or not) of a shared vision for MaaS. At the meso level, (the lack of) appropriate business models, cultures of collaboration, and assumed roles and responsibilities within the MaaS ecosystem were identified as significant factors. At the micro level, people’s attitudes and habits were recognised as important factors to be considered. However, how the ‘S’ in MaaS fits (or not) the transport needs of the individual/household appears to play a more important role in adoption or rejection of MaaS than what has often been acknowledged in previous papers on MaaS. The findings presented in this paper provide several implications for public and private sector actors. Law-making authorities can facilitate MaaS developments by adjusting relevant regulations and policies such as transport-related subsidies, taxation policies and the definition of public transport. Regional and local authorities could additionally contribute to creating conducive conditions for MaaS by, for example, planning urban designs and transport infrastructures to support service-based travelling. Moreover, private actors have key roles to play in future MaaS developments, as both public and private transport services are needed if MaaS is to become a viable alternative to privately owned cars. Thus, the advance of MaaS business models that benefit all involved actors is vital for the prosperity of the emerging MaaS ecosystem.
At present, many policymakers and practitioners are searching for actions that could facilitate Mobility as a Service (MaaS) developments. A potential action, which has received a lot of attention, is to introduce Intermediary MaaS Integrators; that is intermediate actors that assemble the offerings from Transport Service Providers (TSPs) and distribute these to MaaS Operators. However, little is known about if and how TSPs and MaaS Operators would appreciate the introduction of Intermediary MaaS Integrators. To address this knowledge gap, this paper explores an attempt to establish a national Intermediary MaaS Integrator in Sweden. The contribution to transportation research is twofold. Firstly, the paper advances the conceptual understanding of Intermediary MaaS Integrators by identifying four defining dimensions: Activities, Management, Processes and Context. Secondly, it deepens the knowledge of Intermediary MaaS Integrators’ value propositions by detailing TSPs’ and prospective MaaS Operators’ hopes and fears vis-à-vis them. Lastly, practical implications for how to facilitate acceptance and adoption are proposed. Intermediary MaaS Integrators should only be introduced if basic incentives for using their services are in place, and if introduced, they should preferably: go beyond offering technical services; have clear, declared objectives; be impartial and capable actors; and carefully consider their launch strategies.
There is a growing popularity for shared mobility services. With their penetration in a city, a natural phenomenon is the mode shift from conventional modes. Therefore, there is a need for a model, which is capable of capturing this phenomenon. While most existing studies have developed mode choice models consisting of a single shared mobility service, only a few studies of two modes exist. Nevertheless, no study has focused on the development of a joint mode choice model for bike-sharing, car-sharing and ride-hailing services. Hence, the objective of this research is to develop a mode choice model, which is capable of capturing the demand for the aforementioned three services simultaneously. The estimation results show the influence of socio-demographic characteristics (age, gender, education, household car-ownership and possession of public transport pass and license), trip-related variables (trip distance and travel time) and supply parameter (fleet size). Discussions are included for the integration of the developed mode choice model into the transport simulation systems. In addition, based on the influential factors, policy measures are suggested under the following categories: (i) Finance, (ii) Infrastructure, (iii) Campaigns and nudges, and (iv) Service design. Besides the policy measures, the probable demand segments for the three shared mobility services have been identified and summarised, with a focus to integrate them along with public transport for Mobility as a Service (MaaS). The contributions from this study can allow several cities to estimate more accurately the mode shares for the shared mobility services and also to promote sustainable usage of shared mobility services through MaaS platforms.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) has many advocators suggesting that it could evolve to the cornerstone of a new mobility paradigm since, in theory, it can tackle many of society's grand challenges referring to environmental degradation, increased traffic congestion and reduced accessibility. However, little evidence exists to confirm that this is achievable; in reality, a consensus is yet to be reached even in terms of what exactly classifies as MaaS and what the MaaS priorities should be. Few cities have piloted digital interface-based schemes integrating, in a holistic way, public, active, and shared use mobility services, and have measurable results about their impacts; thus, there may be a significant gap between MaaS' actuality and potential, and a need to elaborate on this dichotomy. This study is a critical narrative review of the literature that contextualises the key dimensions of MaaS and then identifies, categorises, and discusses its possible implications. These are presented in 11 diverse thematic areas mapping out the opportunities and challenges of MaaS that may possibly underpin its business establishment, functional management, user adoption and long-term sustainability.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a recent concept that is gaining momentum in both the scientific world and the private sector. First studies and field trials – essentially conducted in developed countries – suggest that MaaS can influence people’s mobility behavior and create more efficient and sustainable transport systems for the future. We intend to contribute to the existing knowledge about MaaS by extending the scope to the context of developing countries where MaaS could be a potential strategy to address existing transport problems. Our case study focuses on Metro Manila (Philippines), an emerging Asian megacity. We analyzed its citizens’ (N = 238) readiness for and attitude towards MaaS, and how a MaaS-system could influence users’ mobility behavior. Considering mobility-related and socio-demographic characteristics, our statistical models give preliminary insights about the potential MaaS users and how a MaaS system would create value for them. While the vast majority (84%) of respondents stated they were likely to use a MaaS app, the main reasons for adoption appear to be reliability and cost savings. In addition, we found evidence that MaaS could shift users’ mobility behavior towards more sustainable transport modes (i.e., from private and low-capacity modes towards public transport). Policy implications and future research paths for MaaS in developing countries are also discussed. Considering the novelty and complexity of this research area, we call for additional research in this field.
This short topical issues paper supports a rethink of the role of the car in a Mobility as a Service (MaaS) program. In particular, we consider the appeal of including electric cars as part of the sharing service, which we call electric car sharing as a service (ECSaaS). With the inclusion of more sustainable modes, this might be rebadged as eMaaS. This position is in part designed to try and offer an improved potential commercial future for MaaS which, we suggest, without subsidy from government does not at present look promising.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS), a user-centric framework for delivering a portfolio of multi-modal mobility services, promises to overcome negative externalities associated with the mobility sector by providing convenience to being multimodal and getting citizens away from using their private vehicles. The current work aims at providing pieces of evidence on the extent to which such a promise can be delivered. To this end, first, the adoption of MaaS and the use of various modes within MaaS bundles are examined using empirical data collected from portfolio and stated adaptation choice experiments. Next, an activity-based travel demand model (Albatross) is employed to simulate activity-travel patterns of travelers in the city of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The results are linked to an emission model and the impacts on emission levels are compared for various scenarios with different MaaS bundles. It is found that the conservative, balanced, and optimistic scenarios decrease emission levels by 3–4%, 14–19%, and 43–54%, respectively.
While experimentation is at the heart of sustainability transitions, little attention has been paid to policy experimentation and its effects in advancing transitions. Drawing on the literatures on policy experimentation and institutional change in the context of sustainability transitions, we analyse an in-depth case study of the development of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) in Finland – one of the first countries globally to advance MaaS by government support. Our findings show how a potentially disruptive innovation, MaaS, can be traced back to a longer process of administrative reorientation and restructuring, i.e. gradual transformation in institutions, and has benefitted from cycles of policy experimentation, combined with the sequencing of policy strategies and further changes in the policy mix. Administrative restructuring has enabled policy experimentation that has led - via new vision building, networking and learning - to major regulatory change allowing market creation for MaaS. We conclude that the dynamics of policy mixes in transitions are influenced by short-term policy experimentation and long-term institutional change. More generally, institutional change is vital for enabling a favourable context for policy experimentation in sustainability transitions that in turn provides cognitive and normative learning to inform further institutional change.
Mobile device usage is increasing in daily life and almost everybody carries one. The devices now have more processing power, battery, memory, and a big display. However, they have limited battery lives. Software developers should focus on optimizing applications and systems by using resources and sensors efficiently to reduce their energy consumption. Developers lack the knowledge to enhance the energy efficiency of applications as they are not aware of their energy demands during development. To calculate the power consumption of a system, various third-party power measurement tools are on the market. The selection of an appropriate tool is challenging. The developers must know the power consumption of their application to create and optimize a sustainable product. In this paper, we review a wide range of power measuring tools for mobile devices. We will provide a short introduction to these tools, how they are implemented, and compare their capabilities and performance. We will detail the accuracy, usability, limitations, and challenges of using these tools.
The past decade has seen the introduction and widespread availability of a number of new mobility services. These have created a transport environment that is complex to navigate for passengers. The Mobility as a Service (MaaS) concept aims to provide a solution, by offering a single digital interface through which users can plan journeys, pay for and access a variety of transport modes. MaaS can also provide users with various products, including pay-per-use access to transport modes as well as MaaS packages. The latter are bundled mobility services that combine a variety of transport modes and are offered to customers in a one-stop-shop manner. The objective of this paper is to examine individual preferences for MaaS packages, specifically addressing the question of preference heterogeneity. In doing so, a Latent Class Choice Model (LCCM) is developed, allowing us to reveal variations in individuals’ preferences. The LCCM is estimated using data from a MaaS-related market research carried out in Greater Manchester. The results imply significant heterogeneity with regards to preferences. Three latent classes emerged through the analysis, all with different MaaS package preferences and individual characteristics. Age, gender, income, education and current travel behaviour all play an important role in determining an individual’s propensity to purchase MaaS packages. The results can provide valuable insights into the types of people that should and should not be initially targeted with MaaS packages to maximise uptake.
Transit has long connected people to opportunities but access to transit varies greatly across space. In some cases, unevenly distributed transit supply creates gaps in service that impede travelers' abilities to cross space and access jobs or other opportunities. With the advent of ride-hailing services like Uber and Lyft, however, travelers now have a new potential to gain automobility without high car purchase costs and in the absence of reliable transit service. Research remains mixed on whether ride-hailing serves as a modal complement or substitute to transit or whether ride-hailing fills transit service needs gaps. This study measures transit supply in Chicago and compares it to ride-hailing origins and destinations to examine if ride-hailing fills existing transit service gaps. Findings reveal clustering of ride-hailing pickups and drop-offs across the City of Chicago, but that the number of ride-hailing pickups and drop-offs was most strongly associated with high neighborhood median household income rather than measures of transit supply. In bivariate analyses, transit service was not associated with ride-hailing trip ends. But after controlling for neighborhood socioeconomic status, transit dependency, population density, and employment density, we found fewer ride-hailing trips in neighborhoods where bus service dominated and significantly more ride-hailing trips where rail service was prevalent. Patterns were slightly different for overnight weekend ride-hailing pick-ups, where higher transit density predicted a greater number of trips in nearby tracts. Additional research and policy is needed to ensure that ride-hailing services provide travel options to those who need them the most and fill transit gaps in low-income communities when options to increase service are limited.
This paper analyses both the attributes of carsharing transport modes (station-based and free-floating) and their relationship with other transport modes. Users' and stakeholders’ perspectives are synthesized from in-depth interviews in Spain. The elicitation of the comparative advantages of the two carsharing modes with respect to public transport and private vehicles helps identifying factors such as availability of parking, road pricing and convenience that drive the complementary and substitution property of carsharing with other transport modes. Interviews show the limited complementarity of carsharing with public transport, as well as the limited substitutability with private vehicles. Potential policy instruments to make carsharing coexist with public transport are discussed.
This paper presents a study in investigating the generational gaps between Millennials and Generation X in terms of their mobility attitudes. A comprehensive analytical framework was proposed in this study and applied to data obtained from an SP survey in the U.S. Four modeling steps were involved, to measure the attitudes, identify generational gaps, recognize potential contributors to the attitudes, and decompose the contributions into Endowment, Coefficient, and Interaction effects. The Endowment effects measure how much of the generational differences can be attributed to socioeconomic and demographic variables, while the Coefficient effects reflect the gap that is due to actual behavioral changes or attitudinal shifts between the generations. The findings of this study confirmed the existence of generational gaps in mobility attitudes and revealed that a dominant portion of the gaps stemmed from the different perspectives between the generational cohorts. This indicates that these attitudinal disparities are likely to persist and remain at significant magnitudes, reflecting the unique views and values of the Millennials. Particularly, the preferences for transit and alternative modes and less reliance on private vehicles among Millennials were more of a reflection of their preferences in lifestyle choices and not so much constrained by their socioeconomic status as the previous generation. This study provides empirical evidence of the generational gaps between Millennials and the previous generation in terms of their mobility preferences. The findings provide valuable inputs for policy development in promoting sustainable transportation and community design.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) represents a technological innovation with the potential to revolutionise the urban mobility paradigm, triggering a societal shift towards more sustainable travel behaviours. Successful implementation of these novel mobility solutions will largely rely on travellers' adoption of MaaS mobile-technologies. As with any new technology, the qualitative, user-centric research approaches focusing on the individuals' point of view may be significantly beneficial for the initial stages of development.
Within this context, the paper explores which services should be offered by MaaS technologies to provide travellers with tailored mobility solutions that satisfy their daily needs. To that end, six Focus Groups were conducted in the metropolitan area of Madrid (Spain). We examined the services expected by travellers when adopting MaaS and compared them with those already identified from a comprehensive literature review. Our analysis revealed six new services that had not been recognised previously, including route optimisation and the provision of real-time information on the following five categories: passenger crowding, pollution levels, route facilities, vehicle conditions, and urban security. Overall, our results also highlighted the relevance given to the availability of information on environmental and health implications of travel behaviours.
We believe that our findings provide valuable guidelines for the development of successful MaaS mobile-technologies. The incorporation of the travellers' perspective enables a more thoughtful design of these innovations and, thus, maximises their potential for addressing the limitations of our complex mobility-systems in meeting urban sustainability goals.
Background
With the advent of Mobility-as-a-Service packages to reduce car usage and (by extension) greenhouse gas emissions, it is crucial that researchers and practitioners consider mutual determinants and outcomes that link the adoption of multiple alternative modes. This study therefore investigates the joint usage of active travel (walking, cycling, bike-sharing) and public transit (bus, rail) modes with respect to personal and situational contexts.
Methods
Online survey data (n = 826) were collected across six Midwestern U.S. states using Amazon MTurk. Respondents indicated their average weekly usage of eight travel modes across three trip purposes so that multimodality could be assessed. Several psychological constructs were extracted via (a) the stages of change framework, used to indicate willingness to adopt new behavior, and (b) confirmatory factor analysis conducted on Likert scales rooted in theories of community, identity, norms, personality, and well-being. A multiple-indicators multiple-causes structural equation model is then employed to investigate the process of adopting a modality style that incorporates active and transit modes.
Results
The model confirms that compatible physical and social contexts, as well as navigational skills and openness to learning, are key primers of multimodalism. However, a path juncture stemming from neighborhood support for mobility innovation illustrates a potential polarity in outcomes between individuals and communities. In addition, the stage of active mobility adoption is linked to identity and norm activation, offering further guidance on what influences readiness for change.
Conclusions
The seamless integration of mobility services is critical to matching the convenience and comfort of the private vehicle; understanding potential pathways to sustainable mobility, though, requires analyses and interventions that are driven by well-being outcomes and grounded in rigorous psychological frameworks. The research findings offer practical guidance for identifying intervention opportunities to be linked with MaaS enrollment while demonstrating the need to illuminate how mobility might relate to social cohesion, identity expression, and various sources of satisfaction.
Mobility as a service (MaaS) seeks to integrate emerging shared mobility modes with existing public transportation (PT). Decisive to its uptake will be attractive subscription plans that cater for heterogeneous mobility needs. Research on willingness to pay for such plans has commenced, yet remains divided on a central question: how much to include of which mode, and how? Complementing previous research building on stated preference data, in this study revealed preference data is used to analyze the viability of different subscription plan components (PT, car-sharing, bike-sharing, taxi), modes of inclusion (budgets in minutes and season tickets) and subscription cycles (weekly, monthly). PT season tickets are found to be viable for 83% of all respondents. Interestingly, the viability of minute budgets of car- and bike-sharing depends on subscription cycle length. Using a monthly subscription cycle, car-/bike-sharing appears viable to include in a bundle for 35%/31% of all respondents, respectively. Using a weekly subscription cycle, these figures drop to 1.4%/0.4%, respectively, as weekly variation in demand is much higher than monthly variation. In contrast to many current MaaS pilots, taxi use remains too infrequent to include as recurring credit in MaaS plans. Rather, pay-as-you-go is the economically more sensible option for consumers. This research therefore challenges the idea of all-inclusive mobility flat rates and suggests a more modular design.
MaaS has received highly anticipated from the field of transportation theory and practice in recent years. Many Chinese cities have also proposed plans to build MaaS systems and have begun to implement them. As a new type of travel service paradigm, user recognition, acceptance, and continued use are prerequisites for the survival and development of MaaS. Therefore, accurately identifying the key variables that affect user acceptance and grasping the user's requirements are important support to ensure the MaaS has been applying successfully. Based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use Technology model (UTAUT), this study establishes an analysis framework of MaaS acceptance and intention. A small town with a very common use of cars in the suburbs of Shanghai was selected as the survey object, and the potential uses and requirements of MaaS for 314 households and 600 residents were collected. This study proposes five important strategies for the promotion and application of MaaS: 1. Strengthen publicity and promote the MaaS concept to be more easily understood and accepted. 2. Improve convenience in the manual and avoid cumbersome operations; 3. Grasp the users’ curiosity and the early adopters, and cultivate the approved user base. 4. Focus on improving user experience, maintaining MaaS reputation, rewarding users for sharing register invitations. 5. Strengthening the protection of user information and service stability of MaaS guarantee to eliminate user concerns. At the same time, different services can be launched for different groups. Such as providing customized MaaS travel packages for middle-aged, elderly people and minors; making more detailed tutorials for people without membership experience, inviting free experiences, etc.
The purpose of this paper is to add knowledge on the understanding of if and how the Millennial generation is contributing to a transition towards more sustainable travel behaviours, from a Europe-wide angle.
The study uses a comparative approach on a cohort and territorial basis. On one hand it analyses the differences between the Millennials, which are experiencing a general decrease in car use/ownership, and the Baby Boomers, which are seen to be highly car-dependent – even after retirement. On the other hand, it considers the territorial differences among EU countries with aggregate analysis on a regional basis. The method includes secondary analysis of European datasets with descriptive analysis and logistic regression.
According with the results, it is confirmed that Millennials have less polluting habits than their predecessors (less car use/ownership, less probability of being car users independently from context/status). But in recent years this trend is experiencing a change of direction, with general rise in car use/ownership, with different paces and schemes among clusters of countries. This suggest that i) with the improvement of their individual status and general European economic recovery, Millennials’ car use tends to rise (with Baby Boomers remaining static with their driving habits); ii) the pace and extent of this rise is highly dependent on the regional context, with a substantial impact of Eastern countries (quickly catching up with Western levels) and PIIGS countries (showing high elasticity on car use depending on the economic fluctuations) resulting in an overall rise in car use in Europe.
This paper reviews transport's historical, contemporary and future role in shaping urban development since industrialisation. Previous definitions of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) starting in the late 20th century are challenged. Three distinct eras of TOD are identified: from the mid-19th century to early 20th century; Planned TOD in the mid-20th century; and TOD for urban regeneration and/or urban expansion since the late 20th century, now featuring rail and bus rapid transit, cycling and walking, shared use mobility, and automated transport. Future links with disruptive transport technologies are highlighted as themes that must be examined for assisting TOD's further development. The authors make the case, using empirical evidence from selected TOD applications from around the world, that high frequency transit service is essential for successful contemporary and future planned TODs. TOD is then redefined for the 21st century and best practice policy recommendations are made.
Based on digital transformation processes, public mobility is experiencing tremendous and far-reaching change. The use of information and communication technology (ICT) enables disruptive mobility solutions that have recently became known as mobility as a service (MaaS). MaaS promises great economic potential and supports the idea of a more efficient allocation of transport resources. However, the main motivational mechanisms behind travelers’ adoption intention are still unknown. This research identifies key motivational determinants and investigates their structural interrelations. Based on a literature review we first identify the fundamental characteristics of MaaS. Building on this common understanding, we conduct qualitative in-depth interviews with potential end-users to explore motivational acceptance factors. We draw from our inductive findings to postulate a structural causal equation model that captures motivational mechanisms behind the intention to adopt MaaS. Finally, the model will be quantitatively validated based on a comprehensive survey and the use of partial least squares (PLS) analysis. We show that psychological needs play a crucial role in the acceptance of MaaS. The results demonstrate that anticipated advantages of autonomy, competence and the feeling of being related to a social peer group affect hedonic motivation and the expected usefulness of MaaS offerings, which equally affect behavioral intention. We also introduce a novel theoretical construct and show that – in the present disruptive context – cognitive congruency between existing habit schemata and anticipated MaaS usage patterns significantly affect the judgment process and behavioral intention. Finally, important implications for market strategy, product development and policy measures will be discussed.