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The Point Cloud Aesthetic: Defining a new visual language in media art
ABSTRACT
The development of remote sensing technologies, such as LiDAR and photogrammetry, accompanied by the
exponential growth of easy-to-use 3D scanning applications and associated post-processing software, have
made point cloud datasets accessible to a widening range of artists, designers, and creative technologists.
Does this growing interest and increased accessibility indicate the emergence of a new digital art medium?
This paper offers an analysis of artworks that help define this Point Cloud Aesthetic as a distinctive visual
language while contextually situating these contemporary artworks. After a brief introduction to key
technologies in scientific and technical terms, we outline the medium’s natural progression, from its use as a
recording medium to an expressive one. We briefly address the visual similarity that point cloud-derived
imagery has to Pointillism, noting the shared reliance upon the science of optics to inform both techniques.
An aesthetic analysis of selected artworks follow, focusing upon four key elements proposed to distinguish
the artwork’s visual language: (i) subject matter (i.e., derived from a scanned 3D object or environment of the
real world), (ii) transparency (i.e., the dissolution of objects and environments into data structures), (iii)
ambiguity (i.e., technical artefacts, “glitches” or “mistakes” generated by the scanning process itself), and
finally (iv) algorithmic shaping (i.e., data manipulated into expressive or representational forms as moving
image, generative visualisation, virtual reality). Through an artist-led exploration of both the technical
process and visual systems generated by scanning technologies, this paper argues that by using a specific
aesthetic, point cloud artworks challenge our way of “looking at” artworks that use scanning technologies
and, in the process, indicate a new direction for this digital medium.
Keywords: point clouds; lidar; digital art medium; remote sensing; photogrammetry; visual
language, aesthetic
1 Introduction
Earth science disciplines have been using remote sensing technologies for decades to collect
highly accurate and rigorous information of enormous, often difficult to attain data, such as the
estimation of deforestation levels, landslide hazard zones in a landscape, or the spatial mapping of
archaeological sites (Figure 1) (Ivsic et al., 2021). Using methods that measure electromagnetic
reflection and transmission to identify, register, and accurately measure the features of objects and
environments of interest, this technology enables their visualization, interpretation, and manipulation, by
digitally storing them as point clouds (Wehr and Lohr 1999). Therefore, the scanned physical object or
area is represented through a collection of 3D points with highly accurate x,y, and zcartesian
coordinates, known as point cloud datasets.
Figure 1. Archaeological site model (a) created from point clouds collected with terrestrial LiDAR data,
and a photogrammetric raw point cloud model (b), generated from 57 individual photos, recorded with a
phone camera (Google Pixel 4). Image credit: Lucija Ivsic.
Nowadays, upgraded and integrated with 360° cameras that also enable the collection of colour
information, these rich datasets have the capability to create and regenerate scanned objects or areas in
the form of highly detailed 3D models enhanced with full-colour rendering and precise real-world
measurements (Fröhlich & Mettenleiter, 2004). Additionally, recent LiDAR sensor implementations
found in modern mobile phones permit everyday users to access this technology and create high-quality
3D models out of point clouds inexpensively and without prior experience with remote sensing. Hence,
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
even through art practice, these point clouds are firstly used and celebrated for their high level of detail
and precision, but, most importantly, for an almost perfect and truthful representation of scanned
environments and 3D objects – something that was previously difficult or impossible using prior 3D
modelling methods. These developments, along with the visual distinctiveness of the medium –
including its transparency and sense of dissolution something we discuss in-depth in the next chapter) –
have given rise to the evolution of point clouds in creative practice.
Early creative works using these digital technologies often focused on the technical aspects of
point clouds. Take, for instance, The Falstone Country Show (2013) by ScanLAB Projects (Figure 2).
This artwork captures an event in 3D resulting in a digital recreation that renders the scene as accurately
as possible.
Figure 2. Point cloud excerpt of the work “The Falstone Country Show” by ScanLAB Projects (2013).
Image credit: ScanLab Projects.
This ambition to use technical knowledge (and available technology) to perfectly imitate reality
dates back at least to the Renaissance when it was instigated by the development of a simple camera
obscura and colour theories. Initially used as an analytical model for the optics of the human eye and a
guide for painters rather than a new aesthetic medium in its own right, the camera obscura ultimately
revolutionized our means of representation (Kemp, 1990). This intense interest in light, shade, colour,
space, and modes of representation among artists of the late 16th and 17th centuries can be best
paralleled in Vermeer's paintings, such as The Music Lesson (1670) which utilized optical “mechanics”
and was entirely informed by the process used with camera obscura (Arthur K Wheelock Jr, 1995).
When placed in the context of the era within which this ambition flourished, it is no matter of chance
that the utilization of new sciences, and new forms of art, were a top priority for European’s striving for
intellectual and material progress (Kemp, 1990). Further development in optical instruments around
1800 caused an important surge in both systems of imitation and amateur artists who were more focused
on producing small works as sensitive representations of admired scenes which contributed to the
general aesthetic context of photography (Kemp, 1990). However, although these factors show
photography as an organic part of historical progression and despite increased precision and fidelity of
the images capable of being produced with successive technological advancements, distrust among the
wider artistic community was created because of its lack of human “touch” and “artistic” expression
(Kemp, 1990). The originality, personality, and expressive view coming from an individual artist took
primacy and was far more appreciated than the dispassionate “machine eye” view present in
photography.
Yet, a century and a half later came the birth of photorealism, a genre of late modernist painting
in the 1960s (Meisel & Harris, 2018) which relied on photographs to create highly simulacra images.
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
Characterized by the meticulous level of detail and precision, artists such as Richard Estes, Charles Bell,
and Chuck Close, used the photographic image itself as their primary reference while seeking to
de-aestheticize painterly technique to reduce any overtly expressive qualities that might betray the
individual artist’s “hand” in the execution of the work (Photorealism Movement Overview, n.d.). In
contrast to the beginning of the 20th century, rather than celebrating authenticity and temperament found
in expressive paintings, photorealists relied exclusively on the “machine eye” view, attempting to
remove any human trace deliberately.
When translated to remote sensing technologies and their use in art practice, we may reasonably
conclude how it is unsurprising that similar dilemmas present themselves in relation to early artworks
created with point clouds. The natural progression of a new medium, such as remote sensing technology,
inevitably starts with the utilization and exhaustion of the existing technical and systemic features,
through which accidental and unanticipated results will occur and ultimately allow it to move forward to
experimentation and expressive form.
Showcasing the versatile and hybrid nature of this new medium, in 2016, Marshmallow Laser
Feast1collective (MLF) presented their new VR experience “In The Eyes Of The Animal” which was
created by capturing the forest and animals using LiDAR, CT scanning, photogrammetry, and 360º
aerial cameras (Figure 3). A binaural soundtrack of the surrounding forest was created to amplify the
viewer’s experience and in addition, the work itself was being exhibited within the forest. Here, the
human intervention in the raw point cloud through technology-driven processing itself is evident and
1Marshmallow Laser Feast collective (MLF) is a UK-based immersive art collective whose focus is on creating
ambitious installations and mixed-reality works that dissolve barriers between ourselves and the natural world.
significant. This meticulous and rigorous collection of forest data – usually displayed in a very strict and
uniform way by engineers – has now been manipulated, animated, and enriched with sound to tell an
imaginative story about the forest inhabitants.
Figure 3. Excerpt from the “In The Eyes of The Animal” VR piece created by Marshmallow Laser Feast
(2016). Image credit: Marshmallow Laser Feast.
In this paper, we examine point clouds, the image-forming element of cutting-edge remote
sensing technologies — or, as we call them, “machine eye” technologies — and document their
transformation into a new digital art medium within the context of posthuman visions (Onishi, 2011).
The shift from anthropocentric ontologies is just one element of posthumanism (Hayles, 1999). When
extended to human-technological relationships, theories resonating with the aforementioned ontologies,
such as postphenomenology as a philosophy of technology (Aagaard, 2016), consider machines as active
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
agents in the co-creation of the work, rather than merely passive apparatuses (Ihde, 1990). After a brief
introduction to Pointillism, a well-known art technique that shares reliance upon the science of optics
with these new technologies, we use its visual similarity to the artworks created with point clouds to
define key visual features of this new visual language. We then analyse these key features of the medium
through a selective, but representative review of artworks that express the emerging creative practices
using these technologies. This paper concludes with a methodical summary of identified key aspects of
point clouds in art practice, constituting a substantial and unequivocal understanding of this new digital
art medium and its natural progression.
2 Point Cloud Visual Aesthetic
When pointillism appeared in the late 1880s as a new art technique, its capability to “trick”
viewer’s perception by meticulously capturing reality without actually blending colours, revolutionized
painting. Built upon the science of optics, more precisely on the way the light works, this state-of-the-art
technique provided artists with a new, quasi-scientific (i.e., seemingly scientific, especially by using the
“language” but not necessarily adhering to the methods or rigour associated with science), and technical
type of tool to remodel and transform what art stood for at that time. Relying primarily on conveying the
interaction of light and shadows to the human visual system which will turn discrete points of colour
into other colours (Fahim & Hossain, 2017), paintings by post-Impressionist artists such as Georges
Seurat and Paul Signac consist of several essential features such as colour juxtaposition, point size, and
complementary colours and halos. Additionally, Seurat was known for his use of a relatively small
number of colours when composing his paintings (Chuan-Kai & Hui-Lin, n.d.). While many other
pioneers of this technique, such as Paul Signac made it look very simple, all these paintings were in fact
quite complex technically to get right.
Similar features can be identified in artworks created out of dense point clouds representing
carefully scanned physical objects, flora, and natural environments. By looking from afar, these images
look relatively simple, resembling a human-made artefact such as a painting, yet, when looked upon
more closely, an entire multifold structure reveals itself and shifts our perception into almost certain that
this is done by a machine (Figure 4) (Ings, 2018). In the context of the current era, marked by the rapid
development of various tools enabling users to amplify their digital presence, these “machine eye”
technologies provide an aesthetically exciting departure from their generally acknowledged, purely
technical purpose and equip the user with a powerful device to create digital art.
Figure 4. Phytosynthesis – Hibiscus Schizopetalus by Stefano Caimi (2021). Image credit: Stefano
Caimi.
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
2.1 Defining key visual elements
Viewing point clouds beyond the usual technical and engineering lenses, reveals that they all
carry a distinguishable aesthetic that strongly insinuates the existence of more elements, different from
just mere precision. In an effort to distinguish what substantially creates this recognizable aesthetic, we
propose the following four fundamental elements to explore the technology associated with the creation
of point clouds: (i) subject matter, (ii) transparency, (iii) ambiguity, and (iv) algorithmic shaping.
2.1.1 From Matter as Subject, to Subject as Matter
Point clouds were always used to represent, reconstruct, and visualize certain data from the real
world. They are generated through the process of scanning and registering real-world data where the
scanner and its technical specifications play a crucial role in determining the quality of end results.
Despite the rapid development of remote sensing technologies and their easier use through user-friendly
hardware solutions, it is still necessary to have a certain level of expertise and familiarity with the
scanning process to be able to get the desired results. In this case, matter from the real world is the key
subject of the artwork for which representational concerns are paramount and based on accuracy, and
fidelity. This can be observed in the case of ScanLab’s “The Falstone Country Show” work, which
attempts to depict a real-world event and its participants (Figure 2).
As mentioned in the Introduction, as part of the natural progression of a new art medium,
nowadays artists have a far greater choice over subject matter than previously. While often used by
engineers and archaeologists to visualise heritage sites and buildings in construction, point clouds soon
drew the attention of many tech-savvy artists, as they are the perfect medium to modify complex
real-world data with creative and representational flexibility. As seen in the aforementioned work “In
The Eyes of The Animal”, now an expressive subject such as the lives of small forest animals is being
materialised and freely interpreted through point clouds (Figure 3). This shows a progression which
starts at a very technocentric and scientific side (Figure 2), where technology and “truthful”
representation of the real-world subject take primacy, and then gradually transitions to the expressive
side, where its other features such as ambiguity, and visual transparency constitute the focal point of the
artwork (Ivsic et al., 2021).
2.1.2 Transparency.
Visually recognisable as a dissolution of objects and environments into their fundamental
representation (the point), transparency is the second key feature of point-cloud derived artworks and is
directly conditioned by the density of the point cloud. The point density is largely dependent on the type
of scanner, subject matter, and scanning methodology, and in spite of its ongoing technological
refinement, the occurring variation in results represents a major issue for many Earth-science disciplines
(Petras et al., 2023). Therefore, after registration2, a common step among spatial engineers is to convert
the existing point cloud into a simplified version - a polygonal, or triangular mesh that will create a
cohesive 3D model with a solid surface. However, point cloud derived artworks use this variation in
point size and density as their aesthetic foundation. Similar to analogue photography and film “grain”,
the individual rendering of each point conveys the interaction of light and shadow through their various
sizes and spatial density, resulting in visual ‘uncertainties’ and ambiguous viewer’s perception. By doing
so, this feature relies on the science of optics, similar to how it was done during the 19th century in
pointillism (Lucas, 2017).
2.1.3 Ambiguity.
2The point cloud registration is the process of storing digitally multiple point cloud datasets has been collected with remote
sensing technology. The scanned physical object or area is represented through a collection of 3D points with highly accurate
x,y, and z cartesian coordinates, known as point cloud datasets which needed to be transformed into one coordinate system in
order to be manipulated further.
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
Technical artefacts or ‘mistakes’, such as ‘glitches’ or ‘mixed measurements’ generated by the
scanning process itself are conventionally treated as errors in data among engineers (Tin, 2020). When
interacting with the environment, if part of the laser beam hits only the edge of the object of interest
while the second part meets the object behind it, a phenomenon called ‘mixed pixels’ occurs. The range
sensor then receives a ‘mixed return’ which leads to an interpolation of two measurements from which
the scanner creates a ‘fictional’ or a ‘ghost’ point between the first object’s edge and the second object
behind it (Pearce, 2015). And while it is undoubtedly clear why these mixed pixels represent a problem
in fast and accurate three-dimensional (3-D) representation of vegetation (Tuley et al., 2005), as with the
visual transparency feature, in the case of point-cloud derived artworks they can be considered as the
scanner’s input, and a machine’s ‘eye’ view of the real world environment. As such, they act as another
main constituent of this apparent dreamlike and ephemeral visual ambiance that features ambiguity and
multiplicity (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Still capture of the “What Homes are Made of: The Architecture of Displacement” by Lucija
Ivšić. In this particular still image, it can be seen how balcony doors are opened and closed at the same
time. Image credit: Lucija Ivšić.
2.1.4 Algorithmic shaping.
Existing in a digital format that is compatible with almost any computer software, the
manipulation and rendering of point clouds nowadays is an incredibly versatile technology-driven
process. Essentially limited only by the computer’s CPU and GPU, and the digital post-processing
know-how, it immediately appeals to artists whose practices lay at the intersection of art, science, and
technology. As such, while this new medium often exhibits distinguishing characteristics of the ‘purely
digital’ (Paul, 2002) through mapping and data visualisation artworks that focus on the aesthetic of this
‘machine-eye’ technology, it repeatedly illustrates its own hybrid nature evident through artworks that
use a broad range of artistic practice: interactive installations, software art, and lately, virtual and
mixed-reality (XR).
One such example is Refik Anadol’s ‘Latlong’ (Figure 6), commissioned for the 350 Mission
Building in the City of San Francisco, and created as a collaboration with Kilroy Realty Corporation.
Here, Twitter activity is geo-mapped and used to produce a real-time visualisation of San Francisco.
Rendered and transformed into millions of scattered particles, every individual tweet is visualized where
it has been written, spotlighting the cityscape as a vibrant virtual social system. Created with
sophisticated technology and extensive custom coding, ‘Latlong’ uses a point cloud aesthetic to display
spatial data commonly perceived as tiresome, now enhanced with a form of ‘social sculpture’ and a
‘swarm simulation’ (Salimi, 2021) where the city’s inhabitants are continuous sculptors of data.
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
Figure 6. Still capture of the “Latlong” by Refik Anadol, publicly displayed in San Francisco. Image
credit: Refik Anadol.
3 Point Clouds in Art Practice (A Review)
As this paper establishes an artist-led exploration seeking to come to a deeper understanding of
the medium (its properties, affordances and potential for artistic expression), the following review is not
an art historical survey or curatorial critique but undertaken as part of practice-based research inquiry.
We analyse three prominent artists and their finished works created with remote sensing technologies.
The works discussed have been deliberately selected due to the strong, and distinctive visual presence of
the “machine eye”, recognizable through the scanner’s role in the artwork’s compositional process.
While differing from one another in their conceptual foundations, what they all have in common is the
new way of “seeing” the subject matter from our immediate surroundings, exposing a posthuman
outlook on the ways of working with this new art medium.
3.1 Phytosynthesis by Stefano Caimi
Over the past few years, we have observed a steady shift in the ways in which point clouds are
represented and presented to the public. Instead of the usual use of large, public-scaled LED wall
displays and swarm simulations, several artists have been creating still images printed in large formats,
almost imitating the colossal paintings from the 19th century academic art3, found in large state galleries
and museums.
Over 2018-2019, Caimi developed a series of works called Phytosynthesis that consisted of
close-up images of flowers and leaves, created out of photogrammetry generated point clouds (Figure 8).
Then, using bespoke post-processing software and algorithms, layers and depth inherent to the point
cloud were enhanced to underline its transparency. In these works, a visual dialogue between natural and
digital has been established through this particular ‘machine eye’ technology. Here, photogrammetry and
its pertinent point cloud are crucial constituents and active agents in the compositional process and
image creation (Pearce, 2015). Instead of just passively ‘representing’ the scanned object, the
technology is actively engaged and provides us with a unique, almost transparent image of an object that
exists in the real world. Additionally, recognizable characteristics of point clouds, such as multiplicity
and ambiguity, make these still images come to life by blurring the edges, creating more space, and
enhancing the ephemeral aura that usually surrounds nature. Through large-scale close-ups which clearly
depict this meticulously complex structure “seen” by the scanner while retaining and even amplifying its
3Academic art, also known as academicism or academism is a style in painting and sculpture influenced by the European
academies of art in the 19th century. After a very rigorous academic training, painters who practised the “academic style”
often created colossal paintings.
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
poetic and ephemeral components, perfectly showcases the expressive potential of this new digital art
medium. Besides leaves, this project also contains a series of works reimagining flowers.
Figure 8. Phytosynthesis by Stefano Caimi. Image credit: Stefano Caimi.
3.2 Remains by Quayola
In 2016, using the latest LiDAR technology, Quayola4developed his ‘Remains’ series,
characterized by a meticulous digital rendering of very precise and data-rich scans, presented to the
audience through room-scale prints in ultra-high resolution (Figure 9). Titled ‘Jardins d’été’ and
containing prints and a video, the ongoing project focuses on nature and the tradition of landscape
4Davide Quayola is a multimedia artist who uses computer software and cutting-edge technology to create
artworks exploring tensions and equilibriums between real and artificial, old, and new.
painting, establishing a strong interdependence between the artist and their technological means of
realisation.
Figure 9. Excerpt from the ‘Remains’ series created by Quayola (2016). Image credit: Quayola Studio.
As with many paintings belonging to the pointillist era, ‘Remains’ resulted in hybridized sublime
and immaterial forms, yet created from real-world, tangible data that successfully ‘tricks’ the viewer’s
eye by offering a new way of ‘seeing’ landscapes. While these works celebrate the precision and
complexity of detail in remote sensing technology—which is noticeably foregrounded through the use of
large-scale prints—the sensibility that reveals itself through transparent and multifold point clouds
(Figure 10) evokes further questioning if this is the work of an ‘objective’ and ‘passive’ scanner (Pearce,
2015). The inevitable timelessness of this body of work created by establishing and nurturing the strong
linkage between the artist and this sophisticated technology, Quayola’s ‘Remains’ series manages to
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
captivate and successfully transport the audience to those ephemeral moments in the forest, blurring the
boundaries between the human and machine gaze.
Figure 10. Close-up excerpt from the ‘Remains’ series created by Quayola (2016). Image credit:
Quayola Studio.
3.3 Continuous Topography by Dan Holdsworth
Since 2012, the English artist Dan Holdsworth5has been exploring the ‘extreme’ territories
alongside geologists aiming to accurately register the contours of Alpine glaciers and rock formations.
5Dan Holdsworth is a British photographer and a digital artist known for his geographical abstractions, and use of
traditional techniques and long exposure times.
Using remote sensing technology, photography, and sophisticated software for post-processing, the
resulting series called ‘Continuous Topography’ captures precise contours of a rapidly changing
landscape. Brought to the viewer on large-scale displays (Figure 11(b)), the subject matter of these
works is a set of complex and almost perfectly accurate maps of inaccessible and remote landscapes.
Figure 11(a). Excerpt from the ‘Continuous Topography’ series created by Dan Holdsworth. Image
credit: Dan Holdsworth.
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
Figure 11(b). Excerpt from the ‘Continuous Topography’ series created by Dan Holdsworth. Image
credit: Dan Holdsworth.
As is the case with the works by both Caimi and Quayola, here technology enhances the work by
simultaneously introducing its own complex and multifold ‘machine eye’ perspective that is now
revealed to the human eye. The scanner steps up from the usual role of the passive camera obscura and
co-creates a new kind of landscape imagery rich with both high accuracy and ambiguity (Pearce, 2015).
These works employ the visual ambiguity of point clouds to celebrate the landscape’s ephemeral nature
while simultaneously ‘tricking’ the viewer into questioning if there is something immaterial and sublime
involved as well (Ings, 2018). The astonishing amount of detail and rigorous data collected in perpetuity
which now accounts for a historical record due to the constant landscape change marks it down as
almost the ‘future archaeology’ as Holdsworth calls it.
4 Summary
As part of a practice-based research inquiry that seeks to investigate, explore and come to a deeper
understanding of the medium (its properties, affordances, and potential for artistic expression), this
paper provides a selective, but representative review of exemplary artworks created with point clouds, to
mark the natural progression of this new digital art medium by identifying and analysing common
features found within existing works. Building upon Kemp’s The Science of Art and the importance of
contextualizing a specific social structure and existing technological progress when discussing a new art
medium, the natural progression of the way point clouds have found their place in art practice is mapped
out through a selection of different works that have continued to evolve over recent years.
Born within the creative engineer's realm, as seen in works such as ‘The Falcone Country Show’,
point clouds were initially celebrated because of their pure technocentric potential and truthful
representation of real-world subject matter; these works were primarily created to intrigue the viewer
with their representational power and cutting-edge ability to represent ‘reality’. However, as artists
discovered, there exists significant potential beyond scientific applications. In scientific applications
sensing technology, with its meticulously collected rigorous data, is purely used as a mode of digital data
visualisation, rather than as an active creative agent or a storytelling tool. However, this innate ambition
to simply imitate reality wasn’t accidental or undesirable; such ambitions have their origins in the
Renaissance and then continued with the birth of camera obscura. It is necessary to first exhaust the
existing technical and systemic features before the ability to experiment.
Moving forward, current artists such as Quayola, Stefano Caimi, and Dan Holdsworth are
stepping away from the common notion of the human-technological relationship and placing the
‘machine eye’ view at the forefront of their large-scale works. By celebrating noise and ‘mixed
The Point Cloud Aesthetic: The Birth of a New
Digital Art Medium
measurements’– non-existent points entirely created by the machine and commonly recognized as errors
in engineering – features such as ambiguity and transparency are now the main visual constituents of the
artwork. As such, these artists are exhibiting a point cloud representation of what the machine “sees”.
Furthermore, by slowly appearing in immersive technologies such as XR, and gaining increasing
visibility within digital art communities, while facing many technical challenges that come with the
richness of acquired visual data, point clouds have evolved into a multi-faceted digital art medium,
whose potential is yet to be fully explored.
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