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International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)
Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2024, pp. 74~90
ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v15.i1.pp74-90 74
Journal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescore.com
A comprehensive review of different electric motors
for electric vehicles application
Sreeram Krishnamoorthy, Preetha Parakkat Kesava Panikkar
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, India
Article Info
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received May 17, 2023
Revised Jul 22, 2023
Accepted Aug 9, 2023
Electric vehicles (EVs) offer several advantages over internal combustion
engines (ICE), including high energy efficiency, noise reduction, low
maintenance, and a wider speed range. This results in lower fuel
consumption, reducing dependency on oil imports and enhancing energy
security. The motor drive is a critical component of EVs, providing the
necessary propulsion force. This paper presents a comprehensive
comparison of state-of-the-art motors suitable for EV applications, including
DC motors, induction motors (IM), brushless DC motors (BLDC),
permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM), and switched reluctance
motors (SRM). Various design aspects relevant to traction applications, such
as cost, reliability, efficiency, torque, fault-tolerance ability, excitation
arrangements, and power density are also addressed. The performance of an
EV based on the SRM drive is analyzed using MATLAB Simulink, with a
special focus on parameters like speed, torque, flux, and state of charge
(SOC). The review highlights that SRM drives have significant potential in
EVs due to their reliable structure, fault tolerance capability, and magnet-
free design. However, their application in EVs is currently limited due to
torque ripples, as evident from the simulations. This paper is expected to
serve as a foundation for further enhancing the performance of SRM drives
for EV applications.
Keywords:
Electric vehicle (EV)
Induction motor
Switched reluctance motor
Synchronous motor
Torque ripple
Traction drive
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Sreeram Krishnamoorthy
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Amritapuri, India
Email: sreeram@am.amrita.edu
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, EVs have gained attention due to their eco-friendly nature and reduced greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, fuel costs, pollution, and noise. Particularly in developing countries and large cities, the
transport sector is a major source of harmful exhaust emissions, including particulate material (PM), nitrous
oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulphur dioxide (SO2), resulting in various health issues.
Sustainable electric mobility is the key to the future for minimizing the environmental impact and
accelerating development. A majority of urban planning commissions across the globe have set their sights
on transforming their transportation networks to environmentally friendly alternatives by the year 2040 [1].
Electric vehicles (EVs) can be used for vehicle to grid (V2G) and vehicle to house (V2H) services for
flexible power transfer [2]. Moreover, they play a supportive role in the utility grid by incorporating
renewables such as solar PV and wind generation to effectively manage the increasing power demand. Smart
charging within the electric vehicle charging system (EVCS) has several functionalities, including battery
recharging, offering reactive power compensation to support the grid, mitigating harmonics, and enabling
bidirectional power flow with the grid [3]. The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is influenced by various
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factors, encompassing both technical and economic aspects such as battery capacity, power consumption,
annual mileage, and the size of the locality [4]. The primary concerns in electric vehicle (EV) development
include cost, space constraints, flexibility, efficiency, and voltage control. An emerging trend in power
electronics for EVs is the implementation of integrated converters [5]. Compared to conventional converters,
integrated converters boast higher efficiency, reduced output ripple, and a more compact design [6], [7].
Electric energy serves as the primary power source for electric propulsion in EVs. This rotational
energy is applied to the vehicle wheels through an appropriate transmission system, enabling propulsion [8].
Meeting efficiency, power density, and drivetrain cost targets in EVs requires advanced motors. The
performance of these motors depends on the vehicle's duty cycle, thermal characteristics, and the cooling
mechanism employed. Selecting suitable motors for electric vehicles is crucial, as the driving response
heavily relies on the motor drive for traction applications [9]. There are also aspects like owner expectations,
vehicle constraints, and power sources. Taking these into account, the motor operating point is not clearly
defined. Hence, selection of the most suitable motor for an EV is a challenging task. This paper makes the
case for switched reluctance motor (SRM) in EVs due to its compact size, wide speed range, low cost, higher
efficiency, and fault tolerance ability [10]. It doesn't employ conductors or permanent magnets on the rotor
like permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) and induction motors (IM) do. The widespread
adoption of SRMs in powertrain applications has been hindered primarily by two challenges, thats high
torque ripple and significant acoustic noise and vibration. The design parameters for motor selection in EVs
are high power-to-weight ratio, torque-speed characteristics, reliability, efficiency, controller expense, and
overall cost. These topics have been covered in the relevant literature from various aspects. This study aims
to provide a comprehensive review of the existing knowledge, presenting the current state-of-the-art in
electric vehicle systems. Additionally, it delves into a thorough examination of competing electric motor
technologies, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages. This paper demonstrates the effective
implementation of the proposed SRM drive for powering an EV and the performance is satisfactory except
for torque ripples and resulting radial distortion.
The first section provides an outline of different EV topologies and the parts of the powertrain. The
second section provides an overview of the motors and evaluates them based on the main requirements for an
EV application. Inferences are made to identify the most suited motor for EVs keeping in with the latest
trends and developments. This paper also provides an effective utilization of the proposed SRM drive for
driving an EV with simulation and performance analysis.
2. RELATED WORK
2.1. Electric traction system and EV power train architecture
Electric vehicles (EVs) have the option to use electrical energy as the sole power source or combine
batteries with internal combustion engines (ICE) for propulsion. Figure 1 illustrates the configuration of an
EV traction system, which includes key components such as the power source, electronic controller, motor,
transmission system, and on-board battery charger. An auxiliary power supply is also present to provide
power for auxiliary systems, such as power steering and temperature control units responsible for regulating
the battery temperature [11].
Figure 1. Typical configuration of an EV
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The construction of an electric vehicle (EV) offers greater flexibility compared to a conventional
internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle, due to the reduced number of movable components. Instead of the
clutch and traditional transmission scheme, EVs employ a simple gear ratio, in addition to a simplified ICE
arrangement. Figure 2 illustrates a typical parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). The ICE, the motor, or both
may be used to power the propulsion system. The fundamental components of an EV drive include electric
motors, batteries, and associated controllers. An integrated motor drive (IMD), involves the structural
integration of the motor and the drive as a single unit. This integration leads to a significant increase in power
density, reducing the volume by 20-30%, and also reduction of installation and manufacturing expenses by
40-50% [12].
Figure 2. Typical components of an electric vehicle drive
2.1.1. Charging system
Alternating current (AC) charging systems provide an AC supply transformed to DC to recharge the
batteries. Fast charging of EVs is made possible via DC charging, which offers more power than AC systems.
Table 1 display the AC and DC charging standards recommended by the society of automotive engineers.
Table 1. Charging power levels for EV
AC charging
System voltage (V)
Maximum current (A)
Output power (kW)
Level 1
120 V, Single phase
12
1.08
120 V, Single phase
16
1.44
Level 2
208 – 240 V, Single phase
16
3.3
208 – 240 V, Single phase
32
6.6
208 – 240 V, Single phase
≤ 80
≤ 14.4
Level 3
208/480/600 V
150-400
3
DC charging
Voltage limits (V)
Largest possible current (A)
Output power (kW)
Level 1
200-450
80
36
Level 2
200-450
200
90
Level 3
200-600
400
240
Charging options for electric vehicles (EVs) include off-board and on-board methods, which can be
conductive or inductive. These methods allow for unidirectional or bidirectional power transfer, enabling
energy flow between the vehicle's battery and the grid. On-board chargers must adhere to weight, space, and
cost restrictions, also sufficient charging infrastructure can help lessen the on-board energy storage
requirements and charges. To maximize the real power obtained from the utility, EV chargers should operate
with a high power factor and low distortion [13]. On-board chargers only provide level 1 power due to their
weight and limited space resulting from expensive circuitry. Another category called integrated chargers
saves weight, size, and cost by combining the charging with the driving function. Power converters are
crucial for the charging mechanism of any battery to enable fast and slow charging as per the
requirements [14]. Wireless power transfer (WPT) technique has also become prevalent due to its safety and
flexibility in EVs charging and they can also assist in V2G or vehicle to home (V2H) system as
described in [15].
2.1.2. Energy storage system (ESS)
The fundamental requirements for a good ESS for an EV are high specific energy for extended
range, good specific power for acceleration, rapid charging, prolonged life, low cost, and maintenance. The
various ESS is given in the Ragone plot in Figure 3. Lithium-ion batteries are the most prevalent variety and
the battery management system (BMS) controls the battery state including the state of charge (SOC), state of
health (SOH), and cell capacity to enable a safe and effective functioning. It is also significant to estimate
these model parameters in real-time, depending on the current/voltage data measured when the battery is
running [16]. Pulse charging techniques with intelligent battery management enable better control of the
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parameters to boost the performance [17]. An extended Kalman filter for estimating the SOC was proposed
in [18] and this method can compute the useful energy left in the battery for EV applications. Ultra-capacitor
(UC) offers high power density, especially with regenerative braking but has low energy density. By
combining battery-UC hybrid storage, the drawbacks of each individual system are overcome, resulting in a
dependable and reliable energy option. Fuel cells, such as hydrogen fuel cells and flywheels, are other
options for storing energy.
Figure 3. Different energy sources in Ragone plot [19]
2.1.3. Power modulators
Various methods of power conversion are available, as shown in Figure 4. After energy conversion
from the AC grid, ESS stores it as DC. It also enables reverse power flow, allowing power to be supplied to
the utility during vehicle idling (V2G) or regenerative breaking to recharge the batteries. The converter
control algorithms should be designed so that each motor operates at maximum efficiency, often between
90% and 95% [20]. There are promising control methodologies, such as neural networks, fuzzy controllers,
adaptive neural fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS), and adaptive model reference control, for EV traction.
Suppression of electromagnetic interference (EMI) noise is an important design aspect and digital chaotic
pulse width modulation (DCPWM) techniques can be used to reduce the EMI during the switching
process [21].
Figure 4. Power modulators in an EV
2.1.4. Methodology for motor selection for electric vehicle application
Different motors exhibit distinct characteristics, underscoring the importance of evaluating motors
based on fundamental parameters to identify the most suitable option for an EV. Desired attributes for
electric motors include a simple and compact design, excellent specific power, low maintenance cost, and
effective control. Depending on the road conditions, EVs would require changing speed, boosting torque on
hills, and suddenly applying the brakes. A model load profile is given in Figure 5. This study focuses on
conducting a comprehensive multi-criteria comparison of electric motors used in electric traction systems.
The objective is to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate motor centered on the recent trends and the
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significant factors for EV traction. A comprehensive evaluation of five distinct types of electric motors is
conducted taking into account factors like performance, efficiency, reliability, fault tolerance, dynamic
response, torque capability, and cost. The recent developments in motor design are also considered like
thermal management, controllability, and power density based on the existing literature. The main
prerequisite for motors in EVs is [22]:
- High power density and rapid power;
- Very high torque even at low speeds for starting and climbing, and high power at high speeds during
cruising;
- Broad speed range, in regions with steady torque and power;
- Good torque response for dynamic operations;
- High efficiency for a wide range of speeds and torques;
- Effective regenerative braking;
- Excellent reliability and dependability under different vehicle operating cases; and
- Economical price.
Figure 5. Speed-torque profile of an electric motor for EV application [23]
Additionally, small acoustic noise and torque ripple are vital design aspects. From an industrial and
manufacturing aspect, the market acceptance of the motor type is essential [24]. This decides the comparative
availability and associated power electronics cost. The factors that govern the motor selection are given in
Figure 6. The commonly used motors by EV manufacturers are shown in Figure 7.
DC motors have been commonly used in EVs as their torque-speed profile suits the traction
requirement due to their ease of speed control. Mechanical commutators/brushes are heavy, inefficient,
unreliable, and require maintenance due to sparking, wear, and tear [25], [26]. Brushless DC (BLDC) motors
have lesser maintenance and higher efficiency as they incorporate electronic commutation (inverter and
rotor-position sensors) instead of mechanical commutation [27]. They have better-operating characteristics
even at higher speeds, making them suitable for EVs, compressors, and pumps. The PMBLDC motor's pricey
rotor magnet and limited field weakening ability are its drawbacks [28]. Cage induction motors (IM) is
extensively employed in EVs for their reliability, ruggedness, less maintenance, and cost [29], [30]. The
drawbacks of IMs are large loss, low efficiency, poor power factor, and low inverter-usage factor [31]–[33].
They also have drawbacks such as:
- In order to realize machine-reactive power requirements like field-oriented control, sophisticated
excitation setups are necessary;
- The low-speed machine characteristics affect performance;
- Fault in one of the phases has a significant impact on the developed torque; and
- High-cost power converters are required to minimize field speed to allow regenerative operation during
braking or deceleration.
Synchronous motors are widely used in EVs, servo applications, and wind turbines due to their
higher power density (output power/unit volume). Direct torque control (DTC) using hybrid control methods
such as adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) controller can further provide rapid and reliable
torque, better speed control, and superior performance [34]. These motors have been utilized by numerous
automakers, including Nissan, Honda, and Toyota. The price of rare earth magnets like NdFeB is the main
barrier [35]. Another flaw is the additional current required to weaken the field, which increases stator losses
and affects productivity at high speed. For EV applications, SRM are a viable choice because of their strong
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starting torque, extensive speed range, and fault-tolerance capacity [36]. These motors are easy to control,
have a simple structure, and good torque-speed characteristics. Some shortcomings include torque ripple, bus
current ripple, electromagnetic interference (EMI) noise, and acoustic noise, but their merits outweigh the
demerits [37]. They can be employed in light and heavy EV applications [38], [39].
Figure 6. Factors for EV motor selection
Figure 7. Motors for EV application
2.2. Motor integration and thermal control systems
With their ability to generate high torque and wide constant power speed range, PMSMs are
increasingly used for EV systems. This enables them to achieve the desired performance. Numerous leading
EVs employ motors constructed with rare earth magnets, particularly neodymium iron boron, which offer
excellent torque density, efficiency, and a lightweight and compact structure [40]. As a long-term option,
they can be costly, leading to increased material expenses for the motor. These motors are inefficient during
usual vehicle operating conditions due to the necessity of field weakening to achieve higher speed operation.
Therefore, there is a pressing need for the automotive industry to develop stringent guidelines by conducting
a comprehensive life cycle assessment [41]. Removing rare-earth magnets reduces the dependence on this
vital component. IMs are no longer feasible solutions because of the rising need for high specific power and
power density requirements. Synchronous reluctance machines (SynRMs) are also appealing due to their
durability, efficiency, minimal ripple, and control. Still, they have a lower power factor, which affects the
converter design and price and limits the constant power-speed range. SRMs and SynRMs have large scope
for EVs with better design and research. There are replacements for rare earth motors including a rare-earth
free-based PMSM, a ferrite PM (Fe-PM), and PM based SynRM [42]. Thermal management, including
temperature, influences the torque/power abilities of a motor. Hence, thermal control is crucial to dissipate
the heat generated from the hot spot and other components to maintain the predetermined temperature
limits [43]. Efficient integration of motors and converters enables better space and cost management of EVs,
compactness, and easy installation with fewer parts. They also reduce electromagnetic interference and
voltage overshoots and provide better power density and optimization of manufacturing and installation
costs [44]. Table 2 show the commonly used motor-converter integration methods, and it depends on the EV
and motor type, and installation cost. Figure 8 depicts the thermal regulation arrangements for cooling the
various power train machinery and batteries in EVs.
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Table 2. Motor converter integration methods
Configuration
Features
Radial housing
Converter on the top of the motor case
Radial stator
Converter attached on the periphery of the motor stator
Axial endplate
Inverter mounted to the motor end shield
Axial stator
Converter linked to the stator end
Figure 8. Commonly adapted thermal management systems [45]
3. DESIGN FACTORS FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES
3.1. Power-to-weight ratio and robustness
The power-to-weight ratio is computed by dividing the motor's peak kW output by its weight in
kilograms. Considering various motors with the same power, voltage, and speed ratings, SRM has the highest
power-to-weight ratio due to their compact construction, as given in Figure 9 [46]. Robustness is the ability
of a motor to carry out a task efficiently despite perturbation or disturbance in its state variables or internal
parameters. It can be assessed by applying a disturbance and comparing its performance with that of the
original unperturbed system. A resilient motor system will still operate with good efficiency despite the
disturbance. SRMs, without permanent magnets and with reduced winding, stand out as more promising
candidates for EVs [47]. In addition, they have a good power density, simple construction, and rigid design.
Some of the winding types proposed enable the insertion of winding bars into the stator slots for better power
densities [48]. Enhancing the winding's thermal conductivity is crucial to increase the power density. Pre-
manufactured winding bars give better flexibility in the winding design [49].
3.2. Torque speed characteristics and dynamic response
The ideal torque-speed motor profile for an EV application is shown in Figure 10. The motor applies
a constant torque (rated torque) in the constant-torque region throughout the entire speed range up to the
rated speed. Once the speed exceeds the rated speed, the torque falls proportionally with speed, and
producing constant power (rated power) output. High speeds, where torque falls proportionally to the square
of the speed, eventually cause the constant-power region to decrease [50]. The tractive effort characteristic
should essentially be constant for an energy source with a fixed power rating. When an EV starts and stops
frequently, the motor operates in a constant torque region, whereas at high speeds, it switches to a constant
power mode. As seen in Figure 11, a DC series wound motor has a high initial torque, but its speed drops as
the torque rises. As illustrated in Figure 11, DC shunt motors display moderate starting torque, and their
speed only marginally decreases as torque increases, making them suitable for constant-speed applications.
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Figure 9. Motor comparison based on power-to-
weight ratio
Figure 10. Ideal performance characteristics for a
vehicle
Figure 11. Torque-speed profile of DC series and DC shunt motor
BLDC motors have a drooping torque-speed characteristic as opposed to DC shunt motors [51]. Up
to the rated speed, its torque remains constant. When the motor is run at its maximum speed (about 150% of
its rated speed), the torque steadily decreases as indicated in Figure 12. The starting torque, pull-out torque,
instantaneous speed, and maximum speed of IMs influence their torque-speed characteristics, as depicted in
Figure 13. The pull-out torque restricts the speed range at high speeds and restricts its extended constant-
power operation [52]. Their torque-speed characteristics change for various values of rotor resistance. At the
critical speed, the motor reaches breakdown torque, which is typically twice the synchronous value. Beyond
this speed, the motor operates at a maximum current, leading to stalling, which impacts efficiency at high-
speed ranges. Consequently, the efficiency of IMs is lower compared to a permanent magnet (PM) motor of
similar rating. The pull-out torque varies inversely with total stator and rotor leakage reactance and is
independent of rotor resistance. It varies inversely with the square of source frequency and is proportional to
the square of stator flux (or voltage). The initial starting torque varies linearly with the square of the voltage
source. The initial torque rises as the leakage reactance and the source frequency decrease. The flux reduces
with increasing frequency in the flux-weakening zone. The leakage reactance can be reduced by:
- Widen the stator slot apertures;
- Increase the air-gap length to decrease the harmonic leakage flux; and
- Use wide, open rotor slots.
Synchronous motors (SM) are employed in vehicles when constant speed is necessary. Due to
permanent magnets, PMSMs have a limited field weakening ability, resulting in a narrow constant-power
domain. As depicted in Figure 14, the converter's conduction angle needs to be controlled for functioning
above the base speed. Multi-level inverters as proposed in [53] can be utilised to increase efficiency and
speed response and extend the operating range.
For an SRM, the rotor is the smallest among all machines, possessing low moment of inertia, which
helps the motor, accelerate at a significant rate. Torque above base speed is regulated by modifying the phase
turn-on and turn-off angles, while for below base speed, it is regulated by pulse width modulation (PWM) of
current. SRMs are typically used in the discontinuous current operation. The PWM of phase currents in the
constant torque domain generates the necessary torque. The maximum torque ability depends on:
- Highest current permitted from the converter;
- Rate of current increase after a phase commutation;
- Magnetic circuit saturation level; and
- Permitted temperature increase.
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It is imperative to advance the commutation angle for operating above rated speed in the constant
power area for a limited inverter voltage. During motoring, turn-on angle determines the peak current,
whereas, during generation, turn-on and turn-off angles both have an impact on the peak current. The SRM
operational characteristics are suitable for EVs. They can operate in the constant power range, up to 4–6
times the base speed. This is realized by advancing the excitation phase until there is an overlap between
consecutive phase currents. Torque-speed profile of an SRM is depicted in Figure 15.
Figure 12. Torque-speed profile of a BLDC motor
Figure 13. Torque-speed characteristics of a three-
phase induction motor
Figure 14. Torque-speed characteristics of a synchronous motor
Figure 15. Torque-speed characteristics of an SRM
3.3. Efficiency
The input electrical energy is lost due to windage losses and copper losses. Efficiency is the ratio
between shaft mechanical output and power input. Electric motors usually have the highest efficiency at their
rated output. For an EV, motors need to operate at various loads. Hence, efficiency at peak load and at other
loads should be considered for an EV application [54]. The motor efficiencies are given in Table 3. The
presence of concentric windings in SRM also reduces the end-turn build-up, leading to decreased inactive
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material and lower resistance and copper losses compared to machines employing a distributed winding
structure. The stator serves as the main source of heat generation, making cooling simpler since it is more
accessible than the rotor. In comparison to the stator, the rotor losses are significantly smaller. SRM has
better operational performance owing to its better torque-speed characteristics, speed range, power density,
and high torque and speed capability. The efficiency could still be improved by controlling the torque ripple
and noise level.
Table 3. The performance of different motors
Motor
Peak efficiency (%)
Efficiency at 10% load (%)
DC motor
80-85
75-80
BLDC motor
85-90
70-80
Induction motor
80-90
80-90
Synchronous motor
>90
80-85
Switched Reluctance Motor
>90
>90
3.4. Torque ripple and noise level
Torque ripple leads to noise and vibration, affecting stability and riding comfort. The current ripple
can also reflect in the source supplying the converter and motor. This also impacts the battery lifecycle. The
ripple phenomenon is more predominant in SRM motors. Their applicability for EVs has been undermined
due to lower torque density, higher torque pulsation or ripples, and acoustic noise. It is essential to reduce
these torque ripples with suitable control techniques using current regulation techniques such as pre-
computed current profiling [55]. The converter-motor integration also causes vibration. The electronic
converter boards are fragile and more sensitive to vibrations. There is a need to devise techniques to solve
these problems to optimize the drive.
3.5. Cost of controllers
Motor controllers help regulate the speed and other parameters of the drive system of an EV. The
controller and converter decide the overall drive performance, efficiency, and ease of controllability [56].
The typical controller cost for motors with similar voltage and power ratings is given in Figure 16. The
unipolar drive of the reluctance motor enables the converter to require fewer switching devices in comparison
to the conventional inverter. From the comparison, it is clear that the SRM motor has an optimum cost and
also offers more benefits.
3.6. Motor expense
One of the major challenges for EV manufacturers is to design and provide an efficient and
affordable EV. The cost of various motors for similar voltage and output power ratings are given in
Figure 17. The cost for SRM is low because of the absence of permanent magnets and windings and due to
their compact structure [57]. Windings are located solely on the stator, while the rotor remains free of
windings or magnets, resulting in its material savings. Compared to distributed windings found in other
motors, concentrically arranged windings in SRM around the poles result in better manufacturing efficiency.
Figure 16. Typical controller cost for electric motors
Figure 17. Cost comparison for electric motors
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3.7. Fault tolerance capability and overload capacity
Overloading occurs when the winding current exceeds the maximum safe and effective handling
capacity of the windings. This can be caused by excessive voltage supply, short circuits, or low voltage
supply. The extended use, environmental impact, operational malfunction, and faulty manufacturing during
the drive system’s operation increase the likelihood of failure, which can affect vehicle safety. Therefore,
there is a need for fault control methods in vehicles to ensure consistent and rapid failure detection. Among
the motors, SRM has the highest fault tolerance ability due to its phase-independent characteristics including
magnetic independence of the phases [58]. The SRM windings are electrically isolated from each other,
exhibiting minimal mutual coupling. This unique feature ensures that an electrical fault in one phase typically
does not impact other phases.
3.8. Lifetime and reliability
Motor aging depends on environmental, thermal, electrical, and mechanical aspects. The mechanical
factors include fatigue, and stress of the motor bearings like damaged rotor bars in induction motors.
Electrical issues involve high-bearing currents, overvoltage, and stresses, especially on the insulation and
motor coils. Environmental aspects include humidity, external vibration, and temperature. Since SRM
eliminates permanent magnets, it is not prone to aging and has a better life and lower cost compared to other
motors [59]. SRM has better reliability due to its inherent fault tolerance capability, low maintenance due to
compact construction, and lesser components. The induced electromotive force (EMF) depends on the phase
current. Therefore, when the winding has no current flowing through it, the induced EMF is zero, making it
incapable of sustaining a phase winding fault if the input current is interrupted. This sets it apart from other
machines, which can experience faults even without current. This unique characteristic of the SRM
contributes to its higher reliability compared to other electrical machines. The SRM allows the liberty to
select any number of phases, which contributes to its high reliability. The electrical independence of the
phases assures that operation will continue even if one or more phases fail while in use.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It is clear that SRM have the most desirable characteristics for EVs based on the parameters
discussed. Table 4 shows the comparison of various motors for EV application. Induction motors are widely
used in Evs due to their reliability, ruggedness, and low maintenance. There are issues including losses, low
efficiency and power factor, and low inverter usage factor in IM drives. PMSMs are strong competitors to IM
in Evs. Their advantages include lesser heating, higher power density, and efficiency. PMSMs have
demagnetization issues due to armature reactions. They use permanent magnets, leading to high costs, aging,
and poor stability. Limited reserves and the environmental impact of extraction, mining, and refining rare
earth resources restrict its use in Evs. Permanent magnets are susceptible to extreme temperatures, affecting
performance in harsh automotive environments. SRMs hold great promise in addressing the growing demand
for cost-effective, high-performance motors while ensuring more reliable and secure supply chain. The
current motors heavily bank on on rare earth metals for their permanent magnets that account for only a
minor fraction of the global metal production. China is the largest producer of rare earth metals, therefore it
has enormous influence over both their price and availability. SRMs rely on easily available, more widely
distributed materials like copper and steel rather than permanent magnets.
Switched reluctance motor (SRM) in EV/HEV applications has benefits over other motors, like
simple control, rugged construction, superior fault tolerance ability, and superb torque-speed profile. They
are apt in applications requiring constant power over a wide operating region. They have high torque per
ampere and faster dynamic response with simple and robust power switching circuits, making them apt for
high-speed, temperature-sensitive, and safety-critical applications. This saliency also presents a significant
challenge in the form of electromagnetic interference, torque ripple, and noise, limiting its applications for
Evs. The electromagnetic torque is dependent on both the excitation current and the angle between the poles
of the stator and rotor. Phase commutation produces a pulsating waveform for the torque profile by
combining the torque from the incoming and outgoing phases. Torque ripple minimization is one of the
significant factors for SRM design, especially for traction drive applications. So, to extend its applications in
the electric vehicle industry, it is essential to reduce these torque ripples by suitable control techniques. The
vibrations affect the gearbox, which experiences gear chatter and vibrations. This reduces their life and
durability. The ripples can excite vehicle components. Torque ripple creates a rotational torque that has a
tangential element going outward. The shaft resonances excite the structures, resulting in vibrations.
Resonant vibrations affect the gearbox, creating noise and vibration, thereby affecting the overall efficiency.
Minimizing torque ripple and radial vibration by machine design includes optimizing machine parameters
like pole shape, reference current, turn-on, and turn-off angles, air gap, core, winding arrangement, and
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geometry modifications. But these methods increase the effective air gap reducing the peak torque. These
techniques limit the operating range, and the rotor position estimation should be accurate for good results.
Hence, developing a suitable control strategy to minimize the ripples can increase the torque per ampere to
enable faster response for operation in applications like Evs. These include average torque control (ATC),
direct torque control (DTC), and current profiling, torque sharing function (TSF), current chopping control
(CCC), and machine learning algorithms that are a subject for future research.
Table 4. Comparison of motors for EV application
Parameters
Brushed DC
motor
Induction
motor
PMBLC
motor
PMSM
SRM
Commutation
Brushed
Not applicable
Electronic
Electronic
Electronic
Torque speed characteristics
Moderately flat
Non-linear
Flat
Flat
Most desirable for EV
Output power to torque ratio
Low
Medium
High
High
High
Efficiency
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Very High
Speed range
Low
Medium
Medium
High
High
Control
Simple and
low cost
Simple and
low cost
Complex and
expensive
Complex and
expensive
Simple and
low cost
Overall cost
Low
Low
High
High
Low
Maintenance
High
Occasionally required
Low
Low
Low
Noise
High
Medium
Low
Low
High
Torque ripple
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
Dynamic response
Low
Medium
Medium
High
High
Life
Low
High
Moderate
High
Very High
Fault tolerance ability
Low
Medium
Low
High
Very High
5. SRM DRIVE BASED ELECTRIC VEHICLE
SRMs are known for their outstanding fault tolerance, making them highly reliable in Evs. In
contrast, other motors are prone to malfunctioning during faults when compared to SRMs [60]. The SRM
drive has the motor, driver circuitry, position sensor, speed, and current controllers, as depicted in Figure 18.
Stator windings are energized using an asymmetric bridge converter. The hall effect sensors estimate the
rotor position and the shaft encoder encodes the position to control the converter switching to energize
various phases sequentially. The proportional integral (PI) controller monitors the speed, and the current is
limited within reference values by the hysteresis current controller. Depending on their application, several
controllers, including PI controllers, fuzzy, and neural, are used in SRM drives to govern their parameters,
including torque, speed, and power output. Other converters, such as integrated battery chargers, C-dump,
bifilar, miller converters, and resonant converters, can also be used alongside the controllers for winding
excitation and commutation. The converter type affects factors such as the number of switches, price, size of
the drive, effectiveness, power quality, and torque ripple.
Figure 18. SRM drive with asymmetric converter
5.1. Modeling of electric vehicle dynamics
The dynamics of an EV are simulated by calculating the cumulative tractive forces acting on it to
propel the vehicle. It can be represented as:
- Rolling resistance force, Fr = µr.m.g, where g is the acceleration due to gravity, µr is the rolling resistance
coefficient and m is the vehicle mass;
- Aerodynamic drag is expressed as Fw = 0.5ρ.Af.Cd.V2, where ρ is the air density, Af is the vehicle frontal
area, V is the vehicle speed, and Cd is the drag coefficient;
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- The grading resistance or force required to climb a hill or slope, Fg = m.g.sinα, where α is the slopes
inclination or road angle;
- Linear acceleration force, where Fla = m.a, where a is the acceleration; and
- Angular acceleration force is given by Fa= I. G2ratio. a/ (ηg .r2) where r is the tire radius, I is the motor’s
moment of inertia, Gratio is the transmission gear ratio and ηg is the gear efficiency. Tables 5 and 6 list the
various simulation parameters for the SRM-based EV.
Table 5. Modeling parameters for the EV dynamics
Electric vehicle model parameter
Values
Electric vehicle model parameter
Values
Mass of the vehicle (m) (kg)
950
Rolling resistance coefficient (µr)
0.005
Drag coefficient (Cd)
0.6
Transmission gear efficiency (ηg)
0.93
Mass density of air (ρ) (kg/m3)
1.2
Transmission gear ratio (Gratio)
16
Payload (kg)
700
Acceleration due to gravity (g) (m/s2)
9.8
Height (h) (mm)
1300
Regenerative breaking factor (Rg)
0.4
Weight (w) (mm)
1500
Vehicle inertia (kg.m2)
6
Vehicle frontal area (Af ) (m2)
1.6
Table 6. Design ratings for the SRM
Parameter
Value
Parameter
Value
Switched reluctance motor (SRM)
No. of stator pole - 10
No. of rotor pole - 8
10/8 five-phase SRM
Stator phase voltage
240V
Stator pole arc
32°
Stator inductance (H)
960
Rotor pole arc
45°
Rated power
10 kW
Aligned inductance (H)
0.02
Reference speed
1500 rpm
Unaligned inductance (H)
0.0006
Reference or maximum current
400 A
Maximum flux linkage (Wb)
0.5
Hysteresis band limits
+/-10 A
Inertia (kg.m²)
8.9e-3
Stator resistance
0.05 ohm
Friction (Nms)
0.005
The SRM drive is used for EV application in MATLAB to assess the performance. The SRM can be
operated in either maximum torque or maximum efficiency modes based on the road conditions. The simulation
is given in Figure 19 and the vehicle model is depicted in Figure 20. The simulations are run, using 1500 rpm as
the reference speed and 1.2 seconds as the simulation run time. The development of the SRM drive must be
based on application-specific control strategies. The simulation model integrates the essential dynamics of the
SRM. As EVs are generally complex systems, performance analysis is critical to improving the design and
choosing the components and controllers for actual hardware development.
Figure 19. Vehicle model
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Dynamic modelling and simulation of the motor are crucial for inner control loop design, drive
analysis and future development. For maximum efficiency and optimal operation, electric vehicle drives need to
have a high torque/ampere ratio, a low torque ripple, and a broad speed range. This model can be tested with a
specific driving cycle to analyze the driving patterns, road conditions, and vehicle emissions. The information
can be collected for further reference using a driving cycle tracking device (DC-TRAD) implemented using
internet-of-things (IoT) as given in [61]. The torque contributed by each phase is added to deliver the overall
torque in Figure 21. The output torque waveform has ripples with a value of 1.6, as shown in the waveform.
SRM will have extensive applications in EVs, industrial and domestic drives, servo drives, and aircraft
applications once their main shortcomings of torque ripples and noise are overcome. Thus, phase voltage is the
control parameter and instantaneous torque is the controlling parameter. The ratio of the difference between the
maximum and minimum torque to the average torque is used to calculate torque ripple coefficient. In Figure 22,
the speed response attains a steady state within a few seconds, with a reference speed of 1,500 RPM. The
battery voltage is given in Figure 23 and battery SOC decreases during the course of EV operation as shown in
Figure 24.
Figure 20. SRM drive based EV model
Figure 21. Torque characteristics
Figure 22. Speed profile
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Figure 23. Battery voltage
Figure 24. Battery SOC
6. CONCLUSION
EVs have garnered significance due to their potential to minimize the fuel consumption and carbon-
dioxide emissions. The operational traits, design aspects, and control necessities for various motors for EV
propulsion systems have been studied. Special prominence has been given to SRM as they have better
advantages including torque density, and fault tolerance. The commonly used electric motors for EV
applications are compared based on design factors such as power-to-weight ratio, torque-speed profile,
controller, and motor price. As an application, the SRM drive based EV was simulated and the results
indicate good performance. However, the radial noise and torque ripple as depicted in the results must be
limited without impacting torque density and performance. The torque ripple can be reduced either through
magnetic circuit design during the motor design stage or by implementing torque control techniques. DC
motors have ease of control and good torque at low speeds but have extra maintenance costs, bulky size, and
lesser efficiency. Although BLDC motors have a good power-to-weight ratio, they require extensive
maintenance and expensive controllers. Three-phase IMs have good efficiency and along with BLDC motors,
they are commonly used by EVs. Synchronous motors are more effective at slower speeds, have better
battery utilization, and driving range. Switched reluctance motors can be a good substitute for IM and BLDC
motors due to their overall lower cost, high efficiency at peak load, robustness, and fault tolerance. The SRM
drive must be designed by optimizing the topology and control techniques instead of modifying the stator and
rotor assemblies to reduce production difficulty and cost. This paper provides a base for further performance
enhancements in SRM drives for EV applications. Additionally, it is important to highlight that the obtained
model could be helpful for performance evaluation and future development.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Sreeram Krishnamoorthy completed B.Tech. in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering and a Master’s degree in Industrial Drives and Control from Rajagiri School of
Engineering and Technology under APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Trivandrum.
He’s pursuing a Ph.D. under the guidance of Dr. Preetha P.K., Associate Professor, Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Amritapuri Campus. He
has five international journal publications to his credit. He has also presented papers at national
and international conferences. He has also won three IEEE best awards. His interest areas are
power electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), electrical machines, and power quality. He can be
contacted at email: sreeram@am.amrita.edu.
Preetha Parakkat Kesava Panikkar completed B.Tech. in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering and a M.Tech. in Power Systems from College of Engineering,
Trivandrum, in 1995 and 1997, respectively. She obtained her PhD. from Amrita Vishwa
Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri. Dr. Preetha P.K. currently serves as Associate Professor and Vice
Chairperson at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at Amrita School of
Engineering, Amritapuri. Dr. Preetha is a member of IEEE and a lifetime member of ISTE. She
was conferred with the Certificate of Appreciation for her achievements during the academic year
2014-2015 by Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri. She has published many journals and
conference papers to her credit. Her research interest areas include power quality, power system
control, and electric vehicles (EVs). She can be contacted at email: preethapk@am.amrita.edu.