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Zemedeetal.
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00666-z
RESEARCH
Ethnobotanical study oftraditional
medicinal plants used bythelocal Gamo people
inBoreda Abaya District, Gamo Zone, southern
Ethiopia
Juhar Zemede1,2,3, Tegenu Mekuria1,2,3, Clintone Onyango Ochieng1,2,3, Guy Eric Onjalalaina1,2,3 and
Guang‑Wan Hu1,2,3,4*
Abstract
Background Medicinal plants have been used for centuries and are still relied upon by over 80% of the Ethiopian
population. The people of Gamo, southern Ethiopia, have a rich cultural and traditional lifestyle with a long history
of using plant resources for various uses including traditional herbal medicine. However, their traditional knowledge
of traditional medicinal plants in Boreda Abaya District has not been explored Ethnobotanically yet, despite preserv‑
ing diverse indigenous traditional medicinal plants. Hence, the study aimed to document and analyze traditional
medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge and practices used by local people.
Materials andmethods Quantitative ethnobotanical data were collected via semi‑structured interviews, face‑to‑
face conversations, group discussions, and guided field trips between September 2022 and February 2023. In total,
92 informants participated, of which 25 were key informants. Quantitative data indices (informant consensus factor—
ICF—and use report—Ur) were computed by MS Excel spreadsheet software. Scientific names of medicinal plants
were checked via World Flora Online.
Results In the present study, we recorded 188 traditional medicinal plant species belonging to 163 genera and 73
plant families. Lamiaceae (16 species), Asteraceae (16 species), Fabaceae (11 species), and Euphorbiaceae (8 spe‑
cies) contributed highest number of species and were found to be predominant family in the area. Leaves and seeds
were most frequently used plant parts, and pounding (46%) was the main method to prepare remedies. The sudden
sickness disease category scored the highest consensus (ICF: 0.35), followed by blood and circulatory‑related disease
categories (ICF: 0.33). The highest number of plant taxa (61 species) used to treat dermal disease has a 71‑use report
score, while fewer plant taxa (21 species) were utilized to treat genitourinary system‑related disease category, having
25 use reports. Ocimum lamiifolium (Ur:56) and Moringa stenopetala (Ur:51) are widely used species and received high‑
est use report value.
Conclusion Gamo people possess extensive traditional knowledge of ethnomedicine. The region’s vegetation hosts
diverse medicinal species, but deforestation, agriculture, and droughts threaten them. Local conservation practices
require scientific support, prioritizing species having higher use reports (Ur), and in‑depth investigations of promising
species for drug development are essential.
Open Access
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Journal of Ethnobiology
and Ethnomedicine
*Correspondence:
Guang‑Wan Hu
guangwanhu@wbgcas.cn
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
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Page 2 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Background
e human search for drugs goes back to ancient times,
and awareness of medicinal plant usage results from
many years of struggles against diseases and humans
learning to pursue drugs from different parts of plants
[1]. e human–plant relationship is not limited to food,
clothes, and shelter but extends to health protection [2].
Despite the increasing growth and development of the
pharmaceutical industry, the world still consumes eth-
nomedicine to provide medical care for basic ailments
[3]. It is widely reported that about 95% of traditional
medicines are sourced from plants and their derivatives
[4]. In Ethiopia, traditional plant medicine was used long
ago to control various diseases afflicting human and live-
stock health. Most traditional knowledge is transferred
orally, and practitioners are crucial in transferring tradi-
tional medicinal knowledge [5]. Some of the traditional
practices implemented in Ethiopia include "bone set-
ters" (Wogesha in Amharic), "birth attendants" (Yelimed
awalajoch), "tooth extractors," "herbalists," and other
spiritual healers such as "Debtera," "Wuqabe," "Kalicha,"
and "Rukia" (spirit treatments) and major plant-based
traditional knowledge has been transferred over genera-
tion orally [6, 7].
Traditional medicine has been a significant part of
Ethiopia’s healthcare system since ancient times [8].
More than 80% of the population relies on traditional
medicine for their healthcare needs [9]. ese can be
attributed to the fact that it is culturally accepted, afford-
able, cost-effective, and accessible. Additionally, limited
access to modern healthcare services in many parts of the
country means that rural communities rely on traditional
medicine for their primary healthcare [10]. Despite the
significant role played by medicinal plants in support-
ing national primary healthcare, there have been fewer
attempts to document and validate the associated knowl-
edge [9]. e existence of interacted culture, ethnolin-
guistic communities, and geographical diversity blesses
the country with the accumulated wisdom of traditional
medicines (TMs) which is not well explored, studied, and
developed [9]. A limited number (about 1000) of identi-
fied medicinal plant species are reported in the Ethiopian
Flora; however, many others have not yet been explored
and identified [11].
e southern and southwestern parts of the country
were enriched with a greater concentration of medici-
nal plants following the concentration of biological and
cultural diversity [12]. However, this rich medicinal plant
knowledge is seriously threatened due to deforestation,
environmental degradation, and increased population.
ese serious factors threatened the country’s forest,
which serves as a source of medicinal plants, causing a
loss of indigenous knowledge [13].
Gamo people have a close connection with plants and a
traditional lifestyle in the countryside [14]. e vegetation
in the region, including 272 sacred groves, contains plenty
of medicinal plants [15]. Although different ethnobotani-
cal documentation about several ethnic groups has been
published during the past decades in Ethiopia, few ethno-
botanical studies have been conducted in Gamo Zone and
none in the Boreda Abaya area. It is therefore important
to conduct survey to document the medicinal plants and
associated indigenous knowledge in Boreda Abaya Dis-
trict. In addition, there is a limitation of infrastructure in
the area, including health facilities and schools as com-
pared to other parts of the country; in contrast, the area
is rich in diverse and relatively intact traditional cultures
and has better forest cover. It is, therefore, crucial to docu-
ment traditional medicinal plants for local healthcare, and
exploring unreached areas can help to update and enrich
the flora diversity of the region. erefore, this study
aimed to (i) collect, identify, and document medicinal
plants and associated indigenous knowledge of the local
people used to treat various human and livestock ailments
in the study area, (ii) identify and document candidate
medicinal plants used in the study area, and (iii) identify
major threatening factor of medicinal plants and recom-
mending feasible conservation methods in the area. e
study provides basic information on Ethnomedicine and
traditional knowledge of local people in the area, which is
useful for primary health care promotion and update of
regional flora.
Materials andmethods
Description ofstudy site
Boreda Abaya is located at 20° 20′ 0′′ N and 37° 15′ 0′′ E
in Gamo Zone of southern Ethiopia. It is one of the larg-
est districts in the area but recently disintegrated into
two districts, namely Boreda and Mirab Abaya (Fig.1).
It is about 460 km to the southern direction from Addis
Ababa (capital city). Gamo people are the dominant
indigenous peoples in the area (83.74%), followed by
Welayta (10.06%) and Amhara (2.6%), and their language
is Gamogna, which belongs to the Omotic language, and
majorly follow Christianity religion. ey are part of
many Omotic groups living in Ethiopia’s current south-
ern regional state [16, 17].
Keywords Boreda Abaya, Gamo people, Indigenous traditional knowledge, Wagas
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Page 3 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Mixed agriculture and weaving are widely practiced
among Gamo people. e people cultivate a variety of
crops such as teff, maize, sorghum, coffee, yam, cassava,
mango, banana enset, sweet potato, and taro [18]. Fruit
trees such as bananas, papaya, mango, and avocado are
widely cultivated [19]. Spices like turmeric, ginger and
cardamom are also produced. For instance, Artemisia
absinthium, locally called “Arita”, a known medicinal
plant in the area is produced on a large area of land
for income source. People rear cattle, sheep, goats,
and poultry. Skin-related diseases, malaria, intestinal
parasitic infections, respiratory tract infections, and
typhoid fever are the major public health problems in
the district (unpublished data, Boreda Woreda Health
Office, 2023). Blackleg, chicken pox, “Gend,”/ shivering
are some of the domestic animal diseases (unpublished
data, Boreda Woreda Agriculture Office, 2023).
Topographically, Boreda Abaya has three agroeco-
logical zones, namely lowland, midland, and highlands,
with an elevation between 1100 and 2942 m.a.s.l. It has
an estimated area of 1,322.04 square kilometers. e
districts’ total demography is estimated at 276,249;
139,249 men and 137,000 are females, and only about
4% to 7.78% are urban dwellers. It receives an annual
rainfall range between 900 and 2600 mm in bimodal
regimes; the first round of rain occurs between March
and May, and the second round occurs from June to
August. e temperature ranges between 22.5 and 27
°C.
Data collection
Ethnobotanical data were collected between Septem-
ber 2022 and February 2023 through pre-planned semi-
structured questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, field
walks, and group discussions [20–22]. With local elders,’
herbalists,’ and agricultural DA consultation, six veg-
etation potential kebeles (minor administrative level in
Ethiopia), Kodomoko, Dega zonga, Zefene, Hamesa,
Uomo lante, and Wanke-Wajifo were targeted in our field
trips and other places randomly selected based on avail-
ability of herbal medicine and practitioners (Table 1).
In total, 92 residents participated, and 25 of them were
key informants. Key informants were interviewed for an
extended time to gain detailed knowledge about medici-
nal plants, and they were supposed to be knowledgeable
practitioners [23]. e remaining 52 respondents were
chosen randomly by giving a number to each household
in order, and one person from each house was inter-
viewed. e data are primarily sourced from key inform-
ants since they are expected to be knowledgeable about
herbal medicine. During the field trip, we collected infor-
mation on ethnobotanical data such as local plant names,
plant parts used, habitat, preparation methods, modes
of application, routes of administration, treated disease
Fig. 1 Map of study site
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Page 4 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
type, multipurpose uses, threatening factors, and avail-
ability of medicinal plants.
Ethical considerations
Supportive letters were written from Shashemene Botan-
ical Garden to concerned bodies, such as the District
Agriculture Office, District administrators, and Kebele
administrators, before field trips. We ensured that ethical
principles were considered; all herbalists were informed
that the purpose of the study was for academic purposes
and ethical approval was obtained to ensure confidenti-
ality before conducting interviews. During our research,
we maintained the confidentiality of local communities’
secrets, knowledge, and taboos while recording notes
[22].
Plant specimen collection/vouchers
During field trips, we collected plant specimens of medic-
inal plants with the help of herbalists and development
agent experts. Two to three specimens from each species
were collected to ensure the collection’s authenticity. We
attached collecting labels with the collection number and
collector names. e specimens were correctly placed in
the middle of two or three pieces of locally made blot-
ting paper, with some facing up and some facing down
to capture both sides. Finally, they are held together and
tightened by a specimen presser and holder. e vouch-
ers were dried under sunlight by placing holder side face
toward the sun and aerated to check insect strains.
e collected specimens were identified and verified
at the herbarium of the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute/
Shashemene Botanical Garden, using taxonomic keys
and descriptions from the relevant volumes of the Flora
Book of Ethiopia and Eritrea [24–26]. A visual compari-
son of the specimen with authenticated specimens was
conducted to authenticate the identification. e voucher
is preserved in the Shashemene Botanical Garden plant
herbarium (SBGH). e scientific names, families, and
their authors’ names of recorded plants were checked in
the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi,
and plants, World Flora online: https:// wfopl antli st. org/,
https:// powo. scien ce. kew. org/ and Natural database of
Africa (NDA). In our field trip, we used a field guidebook
of useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia [24].
Data analysis
Collected data were analyzed by following the tech-
niques in Martin [27] and Höft etal. [28]. Ethnobotani-
cal data were summarized and analyzed on Microsoft
Office Excel using descriptive statistical methods. Quan-
titative data analysis was conducted using the informant
consensus factor (ICF) and use reports (number of cita-
tions or mentions). Fidelity level (FL) for some species is
computed for additional information. Accordingly, the
informant consensus factor was computed following the
formula, ICF = Nur-Nt/Nur-1, where ICF = informant
consensus factor, Nur = number of species used for each
category, and Nt = the number of species used for all ail-
ments. Its values range from 0 to 1, and when values are
close to 1, it indicates a high consensus on plant species
used against a disease category, and 0 possesses an oppo-
site significance [29]
e mentioned disease conditions were grouped into
nine major disease categories based on their sign and
symptoms, pathogenic agents, and human or animal
parts they attack. e relative therapeutic capacity of
medicinal plants used to treat diseases was determined
by fidelity level and computed as FL = (N/n) * 100, where
N is the number of informants that claim the use of a
species to treat a particular disease and n is the number
of informants that use the plant to treat any ailments. A
higher FL level indicates high usage of a medical plant for
a particular disease, while a low FL level confirms a wide
range of medicinal uses but a low frequency for each
ailment.
Results anddiscussion
Demographic features oftherespondents
e study took place in Boreda Abaya, where most local
people belong to the Gamo ethnic group. Of 92 residents
Table 1 Specifically visited site within Boreda Abaya District of Gamo Zone, southern Ethiopia
Selected site /kebeles Agroecology Ethnicity Language GPS coordinates Altitude
range
(m.a.s.l)
Degazonga Dega (Highland) Gamo Gamogna, Amharic 62°71′9’’ N/37°37′17’’ E 2200–2942
Kodomoko Waine dega (midland) Gamo Gamogna, Amharic 62°84′6’’ N/37°39′9’’ E 1850–2200
Zefene zuria Weine dega (midland) Gamo, Wolaita and Amhara Gamogna, Wolaytegna, Amharic 63°11′6’’ N/37°41′52’’ E 1500–1850
Hamessa (Xalxalle) Kola (lowland) Gamo, Wolaita Gamogna, Amharic 63°11′1’’ N/37°41′41’’ E 1100‑ 1500
Umo lante Kola (Lowland) Gamo Gamogna, Amharic 61°54′3’’ N/37°45′57’’ E 1100 ‑1500
Wanke Wajifo Kola (lowland) Gamo, Wolaita Gamogna, Amharic 69°36′0’’ N/37°39′48’’ E 1100 ‑1500
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Page 5 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
who participated in the field trips, males account for a
higher proportion than females (76.1%, mentions 136
species) due to the cultural expectation that women
primarily work at home while males work in the field
(Table2). e number of females was 22, covering 23.9%
and mentions 52 species. e age group of respondents
mostly belonged to the 41–60 years old category (41.3%,
mentions 108 species), followed by the 20–40 age group
(31.5%, mentions 32 species), and the minor age group
was 61–84, covering 27.2% and mentions 48 species. is
indicates that while older people cite more medicinal
plants, their number is less due to aging.
Most informants are illiterate (70.7%, mentions 129
species), with some able to read and write (16.3%, men-
tions 48 species), attend primary school (2.2%, mentions
3 species), secondary school (5.4%, mentions 3 species),
or college (5.4%, mentions 5 species). Farmers and heal-
ers account for more occupations (76.1%). A few are
only employed in traditional medicine (9.8%), some are
students (7.6%), and others are government employees
(6.5%).
In the study, it was observed that individuals belong-
ing to the category of farmers and herbalists showed a
greater tendency to mention medicinal plants (mentions
110 species) as compared to other informants (Table2).
Informants employed on herbal treatments alone men-
tioned 67 species. Notably, the highest number of
medicinal plants shared by a single healer was 36. Con-
versely, those who were employed (mentions 5 species)
and younger (mentions 6 species) tended to mention
1–2 medicinal species, while farmers and older residents
cited a wider range of species. However, it is important to
note that it was difficult to obtain comprehensive infor-
mation regarding traditional medicine from young peo-
ple because of their limited knowledge in this area. Even
though older people mentioned more species, they faced
obstacles in accessing those species due to aging and the
deforestation of nearby forests. e lack of conventional
knowledge among young people causes a risk of the dis-
appearance of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants
[30, 31].
Taxonomy, oral diversity, andlife form ofGamo medicinal
plants
In total, 188 medicinal plants belonging to 163 genera and
73 families were recorded in the present study (Table3).
Many of those species were utilized for human diseases
(123 species). Fewer species (11 species) were recorded
for domestic animal disease treatments, and 54 spe-
cies were used for human and livestock diseases. ese
results show that local healers prioritize human diseases
and utilize diverse plant species in treatment, resulting
in richer traditional knowledge. Furthermore, the large
number of recorded species indicates that the vegetation
of the study area is a reservoir for diverse medicinal spe-
cies, supporting their critical importance in plant-based
traditional medicine in fulfilling the needs for primary
healthcare. Prominent plant families, Lamiaceae (16 spe-
cies), Asteraceae (16 species), Euphorbiaceae (11 species),
and Fabaceae (11 species), contributed a significant num-
ber of species and well-represented families in the area
(Fig.2). Species from those families can survive in vari-
ous ecology and widely distributed to the local environ-
ment [15]. ose families host larger species composition
in different ethnobotanical surveys conducted elsewhere
in the country [32, 33]. ey also accounted for a more
significant portion of the country’s Flora due to widely
dispersed, readily available, and more utilized families
[31, 34–38]. Species of those families are widely used
due to their essential phytochemical compounds, which
provide significant health benefits [39]. For example, Oci-
mum species (Lamiaceae) are rich sources of tannins,
phenolic acids, anthocyanins, phytosterols, policosanol,
and essential oils, which have potential biological activi-
ties such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, and
anti-inflammatory properties [39].
Ocimum lamiifolium contains flavonoids, tannins,
and saponins, and its oil is the primary source of linal-
ool [40, 41]. Furthermore, Artemisia species, part of the
Asteraceae family, are widely grown in the region and
Table 2 General background of informants and species
reported features
Features Number of
informants Proportion (%) Number
of species
reported
Gender
Male 70 76.1 136
Female 22 23.9 52
Age
20–40 29 31.5 32
41–60 38 41.3 108
61–84 25 27.2 48
Education level
Illiterates 65 70.7 129
Able to read and write 15 16.3 48
Primary school 2 2.2 3
Secondary school 5 5.4 3
College 5 5.4 5
Occupations
Farmers and herbalist 70 76.1 110
Herbalists 9 9.8 67
Employed 6 6.5 5
Students 7 7.6 6
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Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 Ethnomedicinal plants used by Gamo people of Boreda Abaya District and their traditional methods of remedy preparation (sorted by family name)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Acanthaceae Acanthus sennii
Chiov. (5) Kosheshlt Cancer, Malaria Leaves S/W Pounding and fil‑
tering, then mix
with butter
Drenching Oral JZ082 Hm
Hypoestes forskaolii
(Vahl) R.Br. (1) Dergu Diabetes Leaves H/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ043 Hm
Justicia schimperi
(Hochst.) Dandy (21) Algi Tapeworm Leave, Seed CL/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ006 Hm
Thunbergia abys-
sinica Turrill (3) Abeba hareg Fever, wart Leaves, fruit CL/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ001 Hm
Alliaceae Allium cepa L. (11) key tumo Hypertension Bulb H/Hg Cooking Eating Oral JZ169 Hm
Allium sativum L. (20) Nech shinkurt Malaria, common
cold, sexual impo‑
tence, hypertension
Bulb H/Hg Pounding, crushing
Zingiber officinale
Eating Oral, Nasal JZ053 Both
Aloaceae Aloe spps (23) Ret Malaria Latex H/Rs Cutting and eat‑
ing after remov‑
ing the skin
from the bulb
Eating Oral JZ168 Hm
Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera
var. sicula L. (1) Telenji Headache, fever Leaves H/W Squeezing Sniffing Nasal JZ134 Hm
Alternanthera pun-
gens Kunth (2) kindicho Kidney, mate organ
burn (male) Leave H/W Cooking Drenching Oral JZ186 Hm
Beta vulgaris L.(4) Key sir Hypertension,
migraine Root, leave H/Hg Cooking Eating Oral JZ075 Hm
Celosia trigyna L. (5) Majimala Internal parasite Leave H/W Pounding Rubbing Oral JZ089 Hm
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica
L. (15) Mango Heartburn, diabetes,
gastric Fruit T/Fl Cutting and eating
fruits directly Eating Oral JZ091 Hm
Rhus ruspolii Engl. (1) Maldaye Trachoma/eye
disease Leaves, root S/W Grinding
and pounding Rubbing around eye Optical JZ090 Lv
Sclerocarya birrea (A.
Rich.) Hochst. (1) Yebereha lomii Diarrhea Fruit T/W Cutting and eating
fruits Eating Oral JZ147 Both
Annonaceae Annona senegalensis
Pers. (8) Gishta Gastric, heart
problems, diabetes,
toothache, pneu‑
monia
Fruit, Leave, bark S/Hg Cutting the fruit,
pounding the bark Eating Oral JZ061 Hm
Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum
L. (9) Debo Malaria Seed H/Hg Powdering and mix
with water Drenching Oral JZ179 Hm
Foeniculum vulgare
Mill. (15) Katikala kidney stone, head‑
ache, asthma Leave, flower, seed H/Hg Dry and pounding Chewing, drenching Oral JZ072 Hm
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Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Apocynaceae Acokanthera
schimperi (A.DC.)
Schweinf. (11)
Yeshincha Wound, dermatitis Leave, Roots T/W Crushing, powder‑
ing, and cooking Eating, rubbing Oral, dermal JZ151 Both
Leptadenia hastata
Vatke (1) Bosatura Hypertension Leave CL/W Pounding and mix‑
ing water Drenching Oral JZ185 Hm
Pentatropis nivalis
(J.F.Gmel.) D.V.Field &
J.R.I.Wood (1)
Marena Mate organ burn Leave CL/W Pounding, rubbing Drenching and rub‑
bing Oral, dermal JZ093 Hm
Carissa spinarum
L. (16) Leda Skin disease Leave CL/W Pounding by water Drenching Oral JZ086 Hm
Araceae Colocasia esculenta
(L.) Schott (33) Godere Asthma, nerve whole part H/Hg Cooking Eating Oral JZ062 Hm
Araliaceae Schefflera abyssinica
(Hochst. ex A.Rich.)
Harms (3)
Koyira Tooth age, sudden
illness Leaves T/W Crushing Tie on Dermal JZ084 Hm
Asparagaceae Asparagus setaceus
(Kunth) Jessop (12) Serite Uren problem, res‑
piratory infection Leave, stem CL/W Pounding with black
cumin seed and mix
with water
Drenching, tie‑on Oral, tie on JZ117 Both
Asteraceae Acmella caulirhiza
Delile (41) Aidamia Earache, trypanoso‑
miasis Leaves, flower H/W Pounding by water Ear drop Areal JZ063 Both
Artemisia absinthium
L. (14) Natira Artists, headache,
abortion control,
anti‑parasite
Leave H/Hg Crushing and boil‑
ing the leave Drink and sniffing Oral JZ101 Both
Artemisia annua
L. (30) Abukee Headache, Malaria Leave H/Hg Pounding Sniffing and drench‑
ing Nasal and oral JZ002 Both
Aspilia africana
(Pers.) C.D.Adams (3) Kishikisha Nerve, kidney
problem Leave H/W Crushing Chewing Oral JZ077 Hm
Conyza bonariensis
(L.) Cronquist (1) Bosha Common cold Leave H/W Crushing
and pounding Eaten or drenching Oral JZ020 Both
Crassocephalum
macropappum (Sch.
Bip. ex A. Rich.) S.
Moore (1)
yegishatele Wound healing Flower, leave H/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ149 Both
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Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Echinops amplexi-
caulis Oliv. (23) Buris Fever, evil eye, head‑
ache, abdominal
pain
Tuber H/W Pounding the tuber
and mix with water Drenching Oral JZ183 Both
Echinops kebericho
Mesfin (27) Dechmirich/keber‑
ich Cancer, Sudden
illness, evil eye Tuber H/Hg Pounding Fumigate, drink Oral, dermal JZ041 Hm
Gnaphalium rubriflo-
rum Hilliard (17) Zenbano Headache, fever,
hypertension Leave H/W Pounding
with the Ocimum
lamifolium
Sniffing and drench‑
ing Oral JZ173 Both
Solanecio gigas
(Vatke) C. Jeffrey (1) Olomo Dysentery Leaves S/W Pounding the leave Drench Oral JZ174 Lv
Tagetes minuta L. (7) Gemee Insect repellant Leaves H/W Cutting Smoking or fumiga‑
tion Fumigation JZ055 Hm
Vernonia adoensis
Sch.Bip. ex Walp. (3) Buza Wound, skin rushing Leaves S/W Pounding with Aloe
spp Smearing or drench‑
ing Oral JZ026 Hm
Vernonia amygdalina
Delile (34) Gera Wound, malaria,
breast pain, skin
disease, evil eye
Leaves S/W Pounding
with the leave
of Withania som-
nifera and Datura
stramonium
Bathing, drenching Oral, dermal JZ056 Both
Vernonia cinerascens
Sch.Bip. (5) Ginagina Urinary tract infec‑
tions, male sterility,
constipation
Stem, leaves S/W Cutting equal
sticks and rubbing
on the abdomen,
pained by hotted,
and pounding
for internal disease
Rubbing, drenching Dermal JZ060 Both
Vernonia hochstetteri
Sch.Bip. ex Hochst.
(2)
Mono Wound, abdominal
pain Leaves S/W Pounding with Sola-
num incanum
and filtering
Drenching Oral JZ098 Both
Xanthium stru-
marium L. (5) Elahotele Dandruff, head
wound, skin rushes Leaves H/FL Powdering and mix‑
ing with butter Dressing or rubbing Dermal JZ046 Both
Balanitaceae Balanites aegyptiaca
(L.) Delile (4) Badena Tapeworm, tooth‑
ache Seed T/W crushing and eating
the seed Eating Oral JZ016 Hm
Balsaminaceae Impatiens rothii
Hook.f. (5) Wusollua/insosilla Abortion, wound Tuber H/Hg Pounding Drenching Oral JZ145 Hm
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Page 9 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Boraginaceae Cordia africana
Lam. (3) Moha Urine retention Leave T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ097 Hm
Ehretia cymosa
Thonn. (1) Etiwarjii/ulaga kidney problem Leave T/W Crushing
and pounding Drenching Oral JZ052 Hm
Brassicaceae Brassica carinata
A.Braun (2) Santaayfe Epilepsy Seed H/Hg Roasting the seed
and eating it
with butter or alone
Drenching Oral JZ178 Hm
Brassica nigra (L.)
W.D.J.Koch (3) Senafich Nerve problems,
diarrhea, vomiting,
heart disease
Seed H/Fl Pounding the seed Eating Oral JZ115 H
Lepidium sativum
L. (10) Sibika/feto Gastric, thorax
disease, colic Seed H/W Crushing
and pounding
by water
Drenching Oral JZ124 Both
Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.)
Merr. (16) Ananas Heartburn, skin
disease Fruit H/Fl Cutting Eating Oral JZ162 Hm
Burseraceae Boswellia papyrifera
(Caill.) Hochst. (3) Eatan zaf Evil eye, inflamma‑
tion Bark T/W Crushing and firing Fumigating Dermal JZ045 Hm
Cannaceae Canna indica L (13) Setakurii Malaria, gonorrhea,
earache Seed, root, flower H/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ118 Hm
Capparaceae Maerua oblongifolia
(Forssk.) A. Rich. (1) Kundoro Shivering/Gend Leave S/W Pounding in water Drenching Oral JZ177 Lv
Caricaceae Carica papaya L.
/ (13 Papaya Gastric, heartburn,
wart Fruit S/Fl Cutting Eating Oral JZ108 Hm
Celastraceae Catha edulis (Vahl)
Endl. (11) Cat Headache, mental
illness, asthma Leave, stem S/H Chewing Chewing Oral JZ028 Hm
Hippocratea africana
(Willd.) Loes. ex
Engl. (1)
Daniko Common cold Leaves CL/W Pounding Fumigation Oral JZ039 Hm
Combretaceae Combretum molle
R.Br. ex G.Don (4) Sobo Fever, constipation,
headache, malaria Bark T/W Pounding and mix
with Ocimum lami-
folium
Drenching Oral JZ128 Both
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Page 10 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Commelinaceae Commelina bengha-
lensis L. (2) Delisha Skin disease, wound Leave, flower H/W Pounding by water Rubbing Dermal JZ042 Both
Crasulaceae Kalanchoe petitiana
A.Rich. (9) Korde Lung fever Leave, Seed H/Hg Pounding Drenching Oral JZ081 Hm
Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo L. (6) Dubba Tapeworm, hyper‑
tension Seed, fruit CL/Hg Cooking Eating Oral JZ044 Hm
Lagenaria siceraria
(Molina) Standl. (2) Gosee/kill Infertility, tapeworm Seed CL/Hg Roasting the seed Eating Oral JZ073 Hm
Momordica foetida
Schumach. (3) Ache Gastric, hair loss,
skin disease Leave Cl/W Chopping Chewing Oral JZ003 Hm
Cupressaceae Juniperus procera
Hochst. ex Endl. (17) Habesha tid Evil eye, abdominal
pain, Pasteurellosis Leave, Seed T/W Squeezing the leave
and crushing
the cone (for animal
salt is added)
Drenching Oral JZ137 Lv
Cyperaceae Schoenoplectus
corymbosus (Roth
ex Roem. & Schult.)
J.Raynal (1)
Cecha/cyperus Wart Seed H/W Pounding with Nico-
tiana tabacum seed Tie on, drench,
or rubbing Oral, dermal JZ029 Hm
Dennstaedtiaceae Pteridium aquilinum
(L.) Kuhn (9) Simiza Cancer, TB, arthritis Leaves H/W Decoction Bathing, drenching Oral JZ126 Hm
Dracaenaceae Sansevieria forska-
liana (Schult. &
Schult.f.) Hepper &
J.R.I. Wood (3)
Qaca Earache, Malaria Bulb H/W Cutting Rubbing Aerial JZ111 Hm
Ericaceae Agarista salicifolia
(Lam.) G.Don (1) Gaso Itching Leave S/Rs Grinding Rubbing Dermal JZ176 LV
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Page 11 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Euphorbiaceae Croton macros-
tachyus Hochst. ex
Delile (40)
Anka Bleeding, skin
disease, dandruff Leave T/W Squeezing Smearing, tie on Dermal JZ010 Both
Euphorbia abyssinica
J.F.Gmel. (1) Akirsa Hepatitis Latex S/Rs Cutting and Eat‑
ing with Ensete
ventricosum product
of Kocho
Eating Oral JZ165 Hm
Euphorbia ampli-
phylla Pax (1) Argide Gonorrhea Leave, Root S/Rs Decoction Drenching Oral JZ012 Hm
Jatropha curcas L. (2) Jatrova Wound Latex S/Rs Cutting and drop‑
ping the mucus Hold on Dermal JZ068 Hm
Manihot esculenta
Crantz (26) Cassava Hypertension,
arthritis Root S/Hg Powdering, cooking Eating Oral JZ027 Hm
Ricinus communis
L. (5) Guloo Wound, tonsillitis Fruit, root S/W Pounding Painting or rubbing,
drenching Oral, dermal JZ064 Hm
Sapium ellipticum
(Hochst.) Pax (2) Wuzingie Skin disease, diges‑
tive problem Leaves, root T/W After decocting
the leave or root, it
is taken with honey
Drenching and rub‑
bing Oral, dermal JZ146 Lv
Tragia cinerea (Pax)
M.G.Gilbert & Radcl.‑
Sm. (3)
Aleblabit Snake bit Root S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ004 Hm
Fabaceae Albizia gummifera
(J.F.Gmel.) C.A.Sm. (3) Sisa Hypertension, eye
disease, diabetes Seed, root T/W Pounding
with water Drenching Oral JZ127 Hm
Cicer arietinum L. (2) Shimbira Cholesterol, kidney
problem Seed H/Fl Powdering Eating Oral JZ120 Hm
Erythrina abyssinica
Lam. (1) Korch Diarrhea Root, leave T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ080 Both
Erythrina brucei
Schweinf. (3) Quora Snake bit, cancer,
Nerve/paralysis Root, leave T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ161 Both
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Page 12 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Millettia ferruginea
(Hochst.) Hochst. ex
Baker (2)
Zagie Skin disease Leave T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ153 Hm
Parochaetus com-
munis D. Don (1) Yemidir koso Abdominal pain Leave, seed H/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ150 Hm
Pterolobium stel-
latum (Forssk.)
Brenan (3)
Pinduki Chickenpox, TB,
stomachache Leaves CL/W Chewing for TB,
pounding and fil‑
tering with food
for hen or inject
Chewing, inject Dermal, oral JZ109 Both
Senna occidentalis
(L.) Link (2) Shoshainxersa Snake bit Leaves S/W Pounding Tie on and Drench‑
ing Oral JZ122 Hm
Tamarindus indica
L. (9) Roqa Tape worm, malaria Seed T/W Cutting Drenching Oral JZ113 Hm
Tephrosia pumila
(Lam.) Pers. (1) Charend Back pain Leaves H/W Pounding Rubbing and tying
on Dermal JZ030 Hm
Vigna subterranea
(L.) Verdc. (5) Lewz Digestive problem,
sexual impotence Seed H/Hg Roasting the seed
and eating it
with butter
Eating Oral JZ087 Hm
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Page 13 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Lamiaceae Ajuga integrifolia
Buch.‑Ham. ex
D.Don (19)
Harmagusa Diarrhea, eye
disease, placenta
problem, wound
Leave H/W Squeezing Drenching Oral JZ067 Hm
Becium grandiflorum
(Lam.) Pic.Serm. (3) Pitisa Smallpox (kufign,
mich, malaria Leave H/W Crushing
and pounding Bathing and drench‑
ing Dermal, Oral JZ110 Hm
Clerodendrum ala-
tum Gürke (1) Alga Urinary problems Leave H/W Squeezing the juice Rubbing, drenching Oral, dermal JZ005 Lv
Clerodendrum myri-
coides (Hochst.) R.Br.
ex Vatke (7)
Boymech Hypertension Leave S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ022 Hm
Coleus abyssinicus
(Fresen.) A.J.Paton
(1)
Shona Gend/shivering
disease Leaves S/W Pounding by water
and filter Injection or drench‑
ing Oral JZ121 Lv
Fuerstia africana
T.C.E. Fr. (8) Yeteja lebeq Toothage, eye dis‑
ease, febrile illness Leaves H/W Squeezing Drenching
and creaming Oral, dermal JZ152 Hm
Leonotis ocymifolia
(Burm.f.) Iwarsson (3) kata lush Headache, depres‑
sion Leave S/W Crushing Sniffing Nasal JZ071 Hm
Leucas tomentosa
Gürke (3) Daracha Headache, skin
rashes, fever Leave H/W Pounding Drink and rub Oral, dermal JZ172 Both
Mentha spica L. (23) Sheyketal Headache, common
cold Leave H/Hg Boiling the leave
and drink Sniffing/ inhaling
the vapor as fumi‑
gate
Dermal JZ100 Hm
Ocimum basilicum
L. (13) Besobila Digestive problem Leave, seed H/Hg Cooking Eating Oral JZ017 Hm
Ocimum lamiifolium
Hochst. ex Benth.
(56)
Mechtale Febrile illness, head‑
ache, skin disease Leave S/Hg Decocting the leave
alone Drink and rubbing Oral JZ019 Hm
Ocimum urticifolium
Benth. (31) Damakase/anchaf Asthma, headache,
febrile illness,
mastitis
Leave S/W Pounded
and drenched
the filter with salt
Sniffing and drench‑
ing Nasal, oral JZ036 Both
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Page 14 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Rosmarinus officinalis
L. (22) Sigametbesha Headache, depres‑
sion, asthma Leaves S/Hg Pounding and boil‑
ing with coffee
and Ruta chalepensis
leaves or seed
Drenching, sniffing Nasal, oral JZ125 Hm
Salvia nilotica Juss.
ex Jacq. (9) Gasind/deladhae Wound, maceration Leaves H/W Pounding Drenching Oral, dermal JZ054 Both
Satureja genus (6) Yesukar medanit Hypertension, high
cholesterol Leaves S/Hg Crushing Chewing Oral JZ021 Hm
Thymus vulgaris L. (3) Tosign Headache, asthma Leaves H/Hg Crushing
and pounding Sniff and smoke Nasal JZ139 Hm
Lauraceae Persea americana
Mill. (19) Avocado Skin disease, gastric,
diabetes Fruit S/Hg Cutting the fruits
and eat Eat Oral JZ015 Hm
Linaceae Linum usitatissimum
L. (5) Telba Dry common cold,
gastric Seed H/Hg Powdering and mix‑
ing with Eragrostis
tef
Drenching Oral JZ133 Hm
Loranthaceae Phragmanthera
regularis (Steud. ex
Sprague) M.G.Gilbert
(2)
Tsensa Intestinal infection Leaves Ep/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ141 Hm
Malvaceae Dombeya torrida
(J.F.Gmel.) Bamps (1) Lolashe Wound Root T/W Powdering Dressing Dermal JZ182 Both
Gossypium hirsutum
L. (2) Tit Bleeding, wound Seed S/Fl Cutting Hold on Dermal JZ035 Both
Sida ovata Forssk. (3) Chursa Skin infections,
stomachache,
thorax
Leaves S/W Grinding
and pounding Rubbing, washing Dermal JZ033 Hm
Sida rhombifolia
L. (1) Danderuta Constipation Leaves H/W Pounding the leave
and mix with butter Drenching Oral JZ038 Both
Sida schimperiana
Hochst. ex A.Rich. (2) Chifrig Wound, fever Root H/W After washing
the root, it pounded Hold on Dermal JZ032 Hm
Meliaceae Ekebergia capensis
Sparrm. (1) Ononu Cancer Bark T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ107 Hm
Melia azedarach
L. (3) Nime Skin disease, tooth‑
ache, dandruff Leave T/W Chewing Chewing Oral JZ170 Both
Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica
Fresen. (1) Azamir Rabies Root S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ160 Hm
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Page 15 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Menispermaceae Stephania abyssinica
(Quart. ‑Dill. & A.
Rich.) Walp. (2)
Kelala Wound, vomiting Root CL/W Pounding with Arge-
mone mexicana
Hold on or tie on Dermal JZ074 Both
Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk (2) Ase/shola Heart problem,
wound Bark T/W Pounding, dressing Rubbing Oral, dermal JZ184 Hm
Ficus sycomorus L. (2) Maro Stomach‑ache Leaves T/W Pounding
with water Drenching Oral JZ094 Hm
Morus alba L. (2) Enjorii Nerve problem,
headache Leave, fruit CL/W Pound the leave
and mix with butter,
or cut and eat fruit
directly
Drink the juice
and eat the seeds Oral JZ047 Hm
Moringaceae Moringa stenopetala
(Baker f.) Cufod. (51) Alleko Malaria, kidney
problem whole part T/W Grinding or pound‑
ing Drenching Oral and dermal JZ007 Hm
Musaceae Ensete ventricosum
(Welw.) Cheesman
(30)
Enset Gastric, hyperten‑
sion whole part S/Hg Cooking or using
as food Eating Oral JZ049 Both
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus citriodora
Hook. (29) Sheto beharzaf Headache, fever,
common cold,
thorax
Leave, bark T/Fl Crushing and firing
the leave Inhale smoke Fumigation JZ104 Hm
Eucalyptus globulus
Labill. (20) Nech beharzaf Headache, febrile
illness, cough, urine
burn, black leg
Leave T/W Fire the leave
and inhale
the smoke,
and pounding
with salt for animal
Fumigation, wash‑
ing Dermal JZ102 Both
Psidium guajava
L. (5) Zeytun Gastric, infertility Fruit S/Hg Cutting and eating
fruits more Eating Oral JZ164 Hm
Syzygium guineense
(Willd.) DC. (2) Oche Abdominal pain Fruit, bark T/W Cutting Eating Oral JZ105 Hm
Olacaceae Ximenia americana
L. (4) Enkoy Fever, toothache,
common cold Fruit T/W Cutting the fruits
and eat Eat Oral, dermal JZ148 Hm
Oleaceae Jasminum grandiflo-
rum L. (23) Tembelel/deda tura Hepatitis, earache,
cough, sexual impo‑
tence, headache,
skin disease
Leaves, flower CL/W Decoction, pound‑
ing, and powdering Rubbing, washing,
dropping, drink Oral, dermal, nasal,
optical JZ163 Hm
Olea europaea L. (13) Weyra Heart disease,
malaria, stomach‑
ache
Leave, seed S/W Pounding the leave Drenching Oral JZ144 Hm
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Page 16 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Olea welwitschii
(Knobl.) Gilg &
G.Schellenb. (1)
Damot weyra Toothage Stem, Leaves S/W Cutting and brush‑
ing by the sticks
or leaves
hold on and rub‑
bing Oral JZ037 Hm
Oxlidaceae Oxalis corniculata
L. (1) Zelamata Wound Leave H/W Crushing and tying
on Tie on Dermal JZ154 Hm
Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana
L. (5) Nech lebash Wound Stem H/W Cutting and drop‑
ping the mucus
on the wound
Drop on Dermal JZ103 Both
Peraceae Clutia abyssinica
Jaub. & Spach (3) Feyelfej Infertility, malaria,
gonorrhea Root, leaves S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ034 Both
Clutia lanceolata
Forssk. (4) Fyle feji Diabetes Leave S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ171 Hm
Phyllanthaceae Bridelia scleroneura
Müll.Arg. (1) Zuzie Inflammation Leave, stem T/W Pounding
with water Drenching Oral JZ157 Lv
Phytolacaceae Phytolacca dodecan-
dra L’Hér. (32) Anchiche Skin infection Leaves CL/W Pounding Rubbing Dermal JZ009 Hm
Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica
L. (4) Amira Eye disease, tooth‑
ache, earache Leaves, fruit H/W Squeezing
and pounding Dropping ear,
drenching Oral, Aerial JZ008 Hm
Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus
(DC.) Stapf (6) Frenji tejisar Headache, blackleg,
insect repellant Leave H/Hg Crushing and boil‑
ing Drenching Oral JZ158 Both
Cymbopogon martini
(Roxb.) Will.Watson
(3)
Tejisar Intestinal infection,
headache Leave H/Hg Boiling the leave
and drinking tea Drenching Oral JZ132 Both
Eragrostis tef (Zuc‑
cagni) Trotter (2) Tef Heart problem Seed H/Fl Cooking the powder Eating Oral JZ076 Hm
Panicum maximum
Jacq. (1) Tura Bleeding Leave CL/W Pounding Tie on Dermal JZ143 Both
Pennisetum
sphacelatum (Nees)
T.Durand & Schinz
(2)
Sendedo Wound, eye disease Leaves H/W Pounding, rubbing Holding on and rub‑
bing Dermal JZ116 Both
Saccharum offici-
narum L. (5) Sugarcane Gastric, hepatitis Stem S/Hg Cutting the stem
and chewing Eating Oral JZ130 Both
Podocarpaceae Podocarpus falcatus
(Thunb.) Endl. (5) Zigba Tapeworm, eye
disease, malaria Seed T/W Pounding and pow‑
dering Drenching and rub‑
bering Optical, oral JZ155 Both
Polygalaceae Securidaca longepe-
dunculata Fresen. (5) Sangana Headache, stomach‑
ache, TB, Inflam‑
mation
Leave, root, bark S/W Crushing and pow‑
dering Drenching Oral JZ114 Both
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Page 17 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Polygonaceae Rumex abyssinicus
Jacq. (19) Meqmeko Diabetes, cancer Leaves, root S/W Chewing or filter
after pounding, then
mix with honey
Drenching Oral JZ095 Hm
Rumex nepalensis
Spreng. (2) Qtel rejim Uterine bleeding Root, leaves H/W Chewing Eating Oral JZ112 Both
Drynaria volkensii
Hieron.(1) Kakiyee Wound Leave EP/W Squeezing Tinning on Dermal JZ069 Hm
Primulaceae Embelia schimperi
Vatke (2) Enkoko Gastric whole part CL/W Pounding and chop‑
ping chew and drink Oral JZ048 Hm
Maesa lanceolata
Forssk. (3) Terika Skin infection,
Gend/shivering
disease
Leave S/W Pounding and filter‑
ing Drenching or inject‑
ing Oral JZ140 Both
Ranunculaceae Clematis hirsuta Perr.
& Guill. (1) Soge Wound Leave CL/W Pounding
with water Drenching Oral JZ129 both
Nigella sativa L. (31) Tikur azmud Headache, febrile
illness, athletic
feet, skin infection,
tonsilitis
Seed H/Hg Pounding, powder‑
ing Sniffing, dropping,
rubbing Aerials, dermal, oral JZ013 Hm
Rhamnaceae Rhamnus prinoides
L’Hér. (3) Gesho Blood vessel prob‑
lem, ringworm Leaves, seed S/Hg Grind and pound
by water and filter Drenching Oral JZ057 Both
Ziziphus mauritiana
Lam. (3) Kurkura Hepatitis, abdominal
pain Seed T/W Cutting Eat Oral JZ085 Hm
Rosaceae Hagenia abyssinica
(Bruce) J.F.Gmel. (35) Koso Tapeworm Seed T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ083 Hm
Malus sylvestris (L.)
Mill. (3) Apple Gastric, cancer,
inflammation Fruit T/Hg Cutting Eating Oral JZ011 Hm
Prunus africana
(Hook.f.) Kalkman (3) Okanse Gonorrhea, malaria Bark, root T/W Pounded
and filtered, mix
with butter or drink
with honey
Drenching Oral JZ106 Both
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Page 18 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Rubiaceae Canthium oligocar-
pum Hiern (3) Galo Headache, internal
infection, skin
disease
Leave S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ188 Hm
Coffea arabica L. (27) Buna Wound, depression,
headache whole part S/Hg Roasting and pow‑
dering Drenching Oral JZ024 Both
Galiniera saxifraga
(Hochst.) Bridson (2) Darume Bone rupture Stem, Leave S/W Crushing and mix‑
ing with water Drenching Oral JZ180 Both
Mussaenda arcuata
Poir. (1) Munmuno Earache Leave CL/W Squeezing and filter Drop on Aerial JZ099 Hm
Pavetta abyssinica
Fresen. (2) Dingay seber Wound, inflamma‑
tion Leaves S/W Pounding, powder‑
ing Painting, drenching Oral, dermal JZ187 Both
Pentas lanceolata
(Forssk.) Deflers (1) Maratale Bone rupture Leaves S/W Pounding and mix
with salt Tie on Dermal JZ092 Lv
Pentas schimperiana
Vatke (4 Darense, waynagift Urine problems, ear‑
aches, eye disease Leaves, flower H/W Powdering Rubbing, dropping
on Dermal JZ040 Hm
Psydrax schimperiana
(A. Rich) Bridson
subsp. (3)
Gila Febrile illness,
cancer Leaves, seed S/W Powdering Rubbing Oral JZ059 Hm
Rutaceae Casimiroa edulis La
Llave (9) Kasmir Diarrhea Fruit T/H Cutting the fruit
and eat Eating Oral JZ070 Hm
Citrus × aurantiifolia
(Christm.) Swingle
(23)
Habesha lomii Gastric, dandruff Fruit S/Hg Squeezing the juice
and mix with a small
amount of salt
Drenching Oral JZ066 Both
Citrus × limon (L.)
Osbeck (10) yefernj lomi Dandruff, cough Fruit S/Hg Sucking the juice Eating Oral JZ088 Hm
Citrus × sinensis (L.)
Osbeck (4) Burtukan Hypertension,
gastric, diarrhea Fruit S/Hg Sucking
out the juice Drenching Oral JZ025 Hm
Clausena anisata
(Willd.) Hook.f. ex
Benth. (3)
Eshima/chuqutiya Heart failure, kidney,
toothache Leave S/W Pounding Drench, Brushing Oral JZ051 Hm
Ruta chalepensis
L. (25) Tselote Evil eye, asthma,
headache, febrile
illness, dry cough
whole part S/Hg Chopping, crushing
the stem, and boil‑
ing the leave
or pounding
the seed
Sniff, fumigate,
and drench Nasal, dermal, oral JZ136 Both
Vepris dainellii (Pic.
Serm.) Kokwaro (1) Chawla Vomiting/food
poison Leaves T/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ031 Hm
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Page 19 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Sapindaceae Dodonaea angustifo-
lia L.f. (3) Ktkita Diabetics, infertility,
hypertension Leave, Root S/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ078 Hm
Paullinia pinnata
L. / (1) Tinchro Skin disease Leaves Cl/W Powdering Rubbing Dermal JZ138 Hm
Scrophulariaceae Verbascum sinaiti-
cum Benth. (2) yeahiyajero Earache, wound Seed, leaves H/W Dried, crushed,
and powdered Dropping on Areal dermal JZ065 Hm
Simaroubaceae Brucea antidysen-
terica J.F.Mill. (3) Shrushika Bleeding, wound Leave S/W Pounding by water Drenching Oral JZ123 Hm
Solanaceae Datura stramonium
L. (4) Atefaris Skin disease, tooth‑
ache, evil eye, head
wound
Leave, Seed H/Rs Pounding and mix‑
ing with Withania
somnifera
Bathing, rubbing,
holding on Dermal JZ014 Hm
Lycopersicon esculen-
tum Mill. (1) Timatim Cancer Fruit H/Fl Cooking Eating Oral JZ159 Both
Nicotiana tabacum
L. (36) Tembaho Headache, depres‑
sion, asthma, cough Leave H/W Grind and crushing Sniffing fumigates Fumigations JZ135 Hm
Physalis peruviana
L. (12) Birike Constipation,
cancer, kidney prob‑
lems, hepatitis
Leaves H/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ018 Hm
Solanum incanum
L. (9) Buloo Abdominal pain,
tonsilitis Root, leave, seed S/W Pounding Drink, hold on Oral JZ023 Hm
Solanum tuberosum
L. (2) Sweet potato Cancer, ulcers Tuber H/Fl Cooking Eating Oral JZ131 Hm
Withania somnifera
(L.) Dunal (39) Gezawa Typhoid, evil eye,
asthma, wound, skin
disease, trypanoso‑
miasis
whole part S/W Pounding by water
with the leaves
of Thymus schimperi
and Datura stramo-
nium and filter
Drink, bathing Oral, dermal JZ058 Hm
Thymelaceae Gnidia stenophylla
Gilg (3) Tumano Malaria Bark H/W Pounding Drenching Oral JZ142 Hm
Urticaceae Urera hypseloden-
dron (Hochst. ex A.
Rich.) Wedd. (3)
Halilo Constipation,
inflammation Leaves S/W Pounding the leave
and mix with salt Drenching Dermal, oral JZ175 Lv
Urtica dioica L. (3) Pudo Urine problem,
itching Leaves H/W Pounding and rub‑
bing Drenching Oral JZ166 Both
Urtica simensis
Hochst. ex A.Rich. (5) Sama Heart problem Leaves H/W Cooking the leave
and eat Eating Oral JZ167 Hm
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Page 20 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Table 3 (continued)
Family Scientic name /
species use report
(Ur)
Local Name Treated disease
type PU Hb/Hbt MP Application mode RA V.N Uses
Verbenaceae Lantana trifolia L.
/ (5) Mirimich Gastric, bleeding,
toothache Leave S/W Pounding and hold‑
ing on Drench, hold on Oral JZ096 Hm
Lippia adoensis
Hochst. ex Walp. (2) Shasha Breast cancer, cough Leave S/W Pounding, smoking Fumigates, drench‑
ing Oral JZ119 Hm
Vitaceae Cyphostemma
adenocaule
(Steud. ex A.Rich.)
Desc. ex Wild &
R.B.Drumm.(1)
Jeljelo Wound Leave CL/W Decocting Tie on Dermal JZ181 Both
Zingiberaceae Aframomum cor-
rorima (A.Braun)
P.C.M.Jansen (15)
Korarima Heart pain, blood
circulation, Lung
fever
Seed H/Hg Pounding and boil
with Allium sativum
Drenching Oral JZ079 Hm
Curcuma longa L. (9) Erd Stroke, diabetes,
hepatitis, cancer Rhizome H/Hg Pounding
with the leave
of Allium sativum
Drenching, eating Oral JZ050 Hm
Zingiber officinale
Roscoe (21) Zingible Bronchitis, tonsil,
heart case, wart Tuber H/Hg Pounding with With-
ania somnifera leave Chewing, powder‑
ing Oral JZ156 Hm
PU part used, Ht habits, Hbt habitats, MA mode of application, RA routes of administration, V. N voucher number, S shrubs, H herbs, T trees, CL climbers, EP epiphyte, W wilds, Hg home Garden, RS roadside, FL farmland, Hm
human, Lv livestock
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Page 21 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
commonly utilized for cultural and commercial purposes.
ey contain various beneficial compounds, including
disaccharides, polysaccharides, glycosides, saponins, ter-
penoids, flavonoids, carotenoids, and essential oils. ese
plants have significant biological importance, serving as
antiparasitic, anti-malarial, antihyperlipidemic, antiasth-
matic, antiepileptic, antitubercular, antihypertensive,
antidiabetic, antiemetic anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-
cancer, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, insecticidal,
antiviral agents, and even against COVID-19 [42]. An
important compound extracted from species of Artemi-
sia, Artemisinin, is used to produce drugs for treating
malaria and viral diseases [43, 44]. In-depth explorations,
phytochemical isolation, and characterization of species
from those prominent families are essential for novel
drug discovery [45, 46].
Herbalists in the study area mainly use herbaceous
plants, with 71 species, followed by shrubs, trees, climb-
ers, and epiphytes with 59, 35, 21, and 2 species, respec-
tively (as shown in Fig. 3). Herbaceous species are
primarily available during the rainy season, while some
herbalists collect a few plants in their home gardens.
Some species are harvested during the rainy season and
kept for use in drier times. For instance, species such as
Acmella caulirhiza, Echinops amplexicaulis, Gnapha-
lium rubriflorum, Gnidia stenophylla, and Pennisetum
sphacelatum were harvested during the rainy season
and stored for use in the dry season. unbergia abys-
sinica and Impatiens rothii are among endemic species
found to have a high distribution in the area. Echinops
amplexicaulis was found to be distributed widely and
is a vital herbal species in the region. However, moss
and liverwort were not encountered in the study, most
likely because they grow during the rainy season. Heal-
ers confirmed that they could not usually assess those
species frequently in the dry season. In Ada’a district,
in other parts of the country, most people utilize shrubs
for traditional medicine [47]. However, the present find-
ings support herbal extraction of Ethiopian medicinal
plants, which has attracted interest of researchers due to
their potential sources of active compounds that benefit
against several diseases and play a critical role in meeting
society’s basic medical demands. Hence, they are signifi-
cant sources of medicine for the local communities [33,
48, 49].
e present study documented higher number of
medicinal plants species as compared to other similar
studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia with a range of
ethnic groups. is comparison is important to overview
Fig. 2 Distribution of predominant medicinal plant families in the Boreda Abaya District
Fig. 3 Habits of recorded medicinal plants
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Page 22 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
the Ethnolinguistics diversity and availability of medici-
nal plants. Further it highlights promising therapeutic
medicinal plant species used for drug discovery [46].
Among others, a study conducted on medicinal plants
used in Loma and Gena Bosa Districts of Dawro Zone,
documented about 178 species, southern Ethiopia [50].
Fisseha Mesfin (2009) documented 198 plant species
in Wonago Woreda with Gedeo community, Southern
Ethiopia [51]. Similarly, Endalew Amenu (2007) docu-
mented a total of 188 plant species with indigenous peo-
ple of Ejaji area, Chelya District, west Shewa in Ethiopia,
and the highest informant consensus was recorded for
Ocimum urticfoluim in treating febrile illness in the area
[52]. Moa Megersa (2010) documented 126 MPs for their
medicinal uses in Wayu Tuka Woreda, East wollega Zone
of Oromia Region, Ethiopia, found Acmella caulirhiza
was the most preferred medicinal plant by local people of
the study area to treat tonsillitis [53]. Similarly, the Afar
people in Chifra have reported the healing potential of
Aloe spp for malaria [54]. In the Wonago area, Artemisia
afra mainly used for headache treatment [51]. e Sheko
people in southwestern part of the country uses Ocimum
lamiifolium and Phytolacca dodecandra, to treat skin
and gastrointestinal diseases[51]. Zingiber officinale for
tonsillitis, Clerodendrum myricoides for tumor, Hagenia
abyssinica for tapeworm, Ricinus communis for rabies,
Prunus africana for wound healing around Bale Moun-
tain [25]. e presence of above-mentioned species in
present study may indicate the healing potential of those
medicinal plants and importance of local vegetation in
the present study area for traditional medicine reserves.
e present study reports on the wide usage of various
new species, such as Acanthus sennii, Gnaphalium rubri-
florum, Gnidia stenophylla, Impatiens rothii, Olea wel-
witschia, Pennisetum sphacelatum, Solanecio gigas and
unbergia abyssinica. ese findings contribute new
plant uses to the field of Ethnopharmacology in the coun-
try (Table3).
e relatively high availability of herbaceous medicinal
plants in comparison to other plant habits could account
for their widespread use in different corners of the coun-
try [55, 56]. ey adapted to wide environmental ecol-
ogy and exhibit major plant habits [15]. Acanthus sennii,
Echinops kebericho, Ensete ventricosum, Erythrina bru-
cei, Impatiens rothii, Kalanchoe petitiana, Lippia adoen-
sis, Millettia ferruginea, Solanecio gigas, Urtica simensis
and Vepris dainellii are some of the widely distributed
endemic medicinal plants in the area (Figs.4, 5 and 6).
Wild forest is the main source of Gamo medicinal
plants, accounting for 128 species. Others are collected
from home gardens (43 species), farmlands (11 spe-
cies), and roadside (6 species). is finding coincided
with similar study results conducted elsewhere [38, 48,
49, 57–59]. Healers keep track of the best locations for
different species of plants in the forest. ey also help
researchers obtain unbiased data from local healers while
ensuring that they maintain strict confidentiality about
cultural beliefs and practices. is information is valuable
in studying medicinal plants [32, 36]. However, conser-
vation efforts to preserve these plants are limited in the
area, even though the natural forest is rapidly disappear-
ing due to various factors like deforestation [60]. is
is concerning because the loss of forest environments
translates to the loss of valuable traditional knowledge
about medicinal plants [33]. e local vegetation has ever
green riparian and swamp forest, small leaved deciduous
woodland in hill mountain of Ganta, and at higher alti-
tudes it is possible to observe patches of Bamboo species
[15].
Ethnomedicine preparations andplant part used
Ethnomedicine practitioners of Gamo people use basic
techniques and locally available materials, like mortars
and pestles, to prepare remedies. A recent study has
identified nine major preparation methods, with pound-
ing (104 mentions) and crushing (47 mentions) being the
most used. Other methods include cooking (roasting),
powdering, grinding, squeezing, boiling, burning, chew-
ing, and chopping, although these were mentioned less
frequently. Gamo herbalists use wooden mortars and
pestles, known locally as "Mukacha," to easily pound or
crush plant parts with common ingredients like honey,
coffee, salt, and butter. ese additions serve to improve
the nutrition and flavor of the remedy for the patient.
For instance, a similar practice has been reported in the
traditional medicine of the Maonan people in China,
where locals add ingredients such as honey, butter, and
meat to enhance the nutrition and flavor of the rem-
edies they prepare [61]. Further herbalists merge multi-
ple species to enhance the healing potential of remedies.
e present study has identified 12 species of plants that
exhibit synergistic effects when used in combination to
prepare remedies (Table3). is discovery is significant
as it allows for the development of more effective and
targeted treatments for various ailments and health con-
ditions. Among others, Allium sativum, Argemone mexi-
cana, Datura stramonium, Ensete ventricosum, Ocimum
lamifolium, Ruta chalepensis, Solanum incanum, ymus
schimperi, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Withania somnif-
era and Zingiber officinale are frequently mentioned for
their synergic therapeutic use. is traditional practice
needs to be supported by scientific studies to overview
whether the combination has negative or positive effect,
but it clearly shows local herbalists merge more species
to prepare effective remedies for fast recovery of patients.
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Page 23 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
As shown in Table4 below, about 50% of Gamo tra-
ditional medicine was mainly prepared from leaves
(119 mentions, 93 species), followed by seeds (33
mentions, 26 species). Other plant components like
fruits, bark, stem, tuber, latex, whole portion, flower,
and bulbs were also used by Gamo healers in their
ethnomedicinal preparation. A similar finding was
reported by informants of Kafficho and Sheko people
in the southwest part of the country, revealing that
leaves and seeds were widely used plant parts, show-
ing the ethnolinguistic interaction of different people
and effective concentration of bioactive components
present [30, 31]. The cultural, traditional interaction
might link ethnobotanical knowledge transfer among
various people. However, the present finding contra-
dicts the results of a study conducted elsewhere in the
Wonago area, where roots were found to be the most
used plant component [37].
Gamo practitioners collect various plant components
for remedy preparation under different use conditions.
Out of 188 species, 145 species were used in fresh form,
21 in dry form, and 22 in both forms. ey prefer to pre-
pare remedies in a fresh form as patients come, and most
herbaceous species are usually used freshly. However,
when a plant is not easily accessible, herbalists prepare it
in dry form, believing it retains its therapeutic properties
for a longer time. For instance, a Gamo remedy made
from Nicotiana tabacum to alleviate asthma, head-
aches, and coughs is prepared in dry powder form for
long-term use (up to a year). Several studies suggested
the preference of fresh plant parts by local herbalists [30,
33, 62] which implies that healers regularly collect plant
parts [63].
It is a well-established fact that overharvesting has
serious consequences for the survival of medicinal
plants [64–66]. Despite this, the herbalists of Gamo
have developed an effective solution by carefully tend-
ing to the mother plants during collection due to their
traditional cultural law known as "Wagas and Dubu-
sha," which stems from the belief that everything is
connected and bound in a delicate balance. It dictates
everything from interpersonal relationships to the
conservation and preservation of pasture, forest, soil,
and water, because in Wagas all are interconnected,
if any one aspect is denied or imbalanced then the
whole system is understood to be at risk. This reflects
a cultural value that emphasizes sustainable usage and
environmental harmony and plays a vital role in pre-
serving local biodiversity [14]. Comparatively, using
leaves affects the species’ lifecycle less than other
parts like root and bark. But some species, such as
Echinops kebericho, Embelia schimperi, Hagenia abys-
sinica, Moringa stenopetala, and Withania somnif-
era, have been targeted for their roots or whole plant
parts, resulting in possible extinction of those species
in the area. Many medicinal plants are overharvested,
which puts them at risk of becoming a threatened spe-
cies. One such example is Taverniera abyssinica A.
Rich, whose slender roots are wrapped in small, coiled
bundles and sold as medicine. The species is not
encountered in the present study. This species is cur-
rently threatened, and less data are available in Ethio-
pia [11].
Fig. 4 Preparation methods of ethnomedicine
Table 4 Plant part used in remedy preparation
Parts used Citation/
mention Percentage % Number
of
species
Leaves 119 50 93
Seeds 33 14 26
Roots 23 10 18
Fruits 20 8 16
Bark 9 4 7
Stems 9 4 7
Flowers 7 3 5
Whole plant parts 7 3 5
Tuber 5 2 4
Bulbs 4 1 3
Latex 3 1 2
Rhizome 1 0 1
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Page 24 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Route ofadministration, application mode, anddosage
determination
e current study recorded five primary routes of rem-
edy administration—oral (via mouth), dermal (exter-
nal), nasal, optical, aerial drop, or injection. Gamo
healers prefer to use drenching (10 mentioned), rub-
bing (36 mentioned), or directly eating plant parts (36
mentioned) to treat illnesses. ey carefully consider
the patient’s condition, sex, age, disease type, and other
factors to choose the best route, method of application,
and dosage. Gamo healers do not recommend oral use
of herbal remedies for children and pregnant women (25
mentioned) due to dosage problems [33]. A few other
informants (7 mentions) prefer external treatments
for children to minimize risks. Similarly, Sheko people
healers suggest that a taenicide prepared from fruits of
Embelia schimperi should not be given to children under
15 due to its adverse effect [30], indicating shared tradi-
tional practices.
Herbalists employ various methods to accelerate the
healing process, and some of these methods involve
multiple routes. In Gamo, herbalists adopt certain
precautions for patients, such as refraining from food
and drink and spending the morning alone without
ingesting food, to enhance the efficacy of remedies.
For instance, in the treatment of tapeworm disease, the
herbalist prepares a remedy from the Hagenia abys-
sinica species, which the patient takes before break-
fast and then fasts for a prolonged period, typically six
hours, to expel the worms from the intestine effectively.
Similarly, for febrile illness, or locally called Mech, the
herbalist fumigates the patient with smoke from the
Ocimum lamiifolium and Eucalyptus citriodora species
and advises the patient to sleep as soon as possible. e
herbalist makes a diagnosis by conducting visual obser-
vations of the patient’s eye and skin color, tongue and
throat regions, and body temperature while also inquir-
ing about the patient’s symptoms. is approach is con-
sistent with the findings of a range of ethnobotanical
studies carried out elsewhere in different regions of the
country [38, 57].
Traditional healers use simple and often unconven-
tional techniques to determine the appropriate dosage
for their patients. For instance, in some cultures, heal-
ers use finger strips, glasses, coffee cups, or teaspoons
to measure the dosage, depending on the age and sex of
the patient. However, the lack of a standardized dosage
poses a challenge to the safety and efficacy of traditional
medicine.
In some communities like the Gamo people of Ethio-
pia, healers order different amounts of dosage based on
the patient’s age, sex, and physical condition. ey also
use various inputs such as milk, coffee, honey, meat,
and "Tella" (a local beer) to reduce the side effects of ail-
ments. ese practices reflect the cultural diversity and
richness of traditional medicine but also underscore
the need for standardization. Dosage and safety are
shared problems among the traditional practitioners of
the country due to the lack of a solid standard for tra-
ditional medicine. It is essential to develop a regulatory
framework that considers the unique cultural practices
and knowledge of traditional healers while ensuring
the safety and efficacy of their treatments [32, 51, 67]
(Table4).
Fig. 5 Ethnomedicines application routes
Fig. 6 Ethnomedicines application modes
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Page 25 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Treated disease type andthehealing potential
ofmedicinal plants
Gamo healers used medicinal plants to treat around 80
different disease conditions, grouped into nine broad cat-
egories, as shown in Table5. e sudden sickness disease
category received the highest ICF value (ICF: 0.35), fol-
lowed by blood and circulatory-related disease diseases
category (ICF: 0.33). While the lowest ICF values were
observed for malaria (Ur: 17), rabies (Ur: 1), snake bite
(Ur: 3), Gend/shivering (Ur: 3), insect bite (Ur: 1), dis-
ease categories (ICF: 0), and gastrointestinal-related dis-
ease (ICF: 0.12). Dermal diseases categories received the
highest number of use reports (Nur: 76) and plant spe-
cies used (61). In contrast, genitourinary system diseases
categories including STDs had the lowest value of use
reports (Nur: 25) and plant taxa (Nt: 21). e ICF result
analysis indicates that the Gamo community employs a
variety of plant species to cure specific ailments, under-
scoring the significance of the region’s diverse ecosystem.
Moreover, the heterogeneity of medicinal plants used by
the Gamo people is a testament to their extensive knowl-
edge of traditional medicine and their ability to interact
with natural phenomena to identify essential plants.
As shown in Table 5, some of the specific diseases
reported frequently have high-use reports, implying that
Gamo herbalists mostly treat them. Among others, skin-
related disease is the leading case, having 47 use reports,
followed by wound cases, having 29 use reports, head-
ache, 27 use reports, and malaria, having 15 use reports.
is might be related to the lifestyle of local communi-
ties, which is mainly agricultural farming. Other cases,
including breast pain, mastitis, typhoid, bronchitis,
insect bites, and epilepsy, have low use reports (1) and
are among traditionally treated conditions. e analysis
of the results demonstrated the informants’ consensus to
determine the efficacy of reported species for a disease
category, which might pave the way for searching the
pharmaceutic potential of these species by identifying
active compounds.
e study reported that the plants with the highest
number of use reports were Ocimum lamiifolium with
56 reports, Moringa stenopetala with 51 reports, Acmella
caulirhiza with 41 reports, and Croton macrostachyus
with 40 reports. ese could be attributed to their abil-
ity to adapt to local environments and their effective-
ness in conventional uses. Moreover, Ensete ventricosum,
Manihot esculenta and Moringa stenopetala are widely
used for food and fodder in the study area. Coffea arabica
(with 27 use reports) and Artemisia absinthium (with 14
use reports) were used for commercial and cultural cer-
emonies. Some species, such as Nicotiana tabacum (with
36 use reports), Hagenia abyssinica (with 35 use reports),
Echinops kebericho (with 27 use reports), and Echinops
amplexicaulis (with 23 use reports), were used solely for
their medicinal values.
e potency of species that have higher usage reports
is likely correlated with the presence of secondary active
metabolites, which make them effective in inhibiting var-
ious oxidations and biological activities. e prevalence
of bioactive compounds such as terpenoids, flavonoids,
tannins, saponins, steroids, and essential oils containing
linalool, 1-octen-3-yl-npropionate, and 3,7,11-trimethyl-
(E, E)-2,6,10-dodecatrienal makes Ocimum lamiifolium
more effective in treating different diseases [40, 41, 69].
Moringa species possess functional bioactive com-
pounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, alkaloids,
phytosterols, minerals, and organic acids, which make
them highly effective in inhibiting multiple biologi-
cal activities. ese activities include antiproliferation,
hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive,
antiperoxidative, cardioprotective anticancer, anti-ulcer
cardiovascular, anti-obesity, antiepileptic, antiasthmatic,
antidiabetic, anti-allergic, anthelmintic, wound healing,
antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and antidiarrheal
properties [70,71].
Compounds such as alkaloids, tannins, saponins, ter-
penoids, and steroids, along with 4-hexen-1-ol, (E),
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, [1,1’-biphenyl]-2-acetic acid,
epizonarene, cyclopentene, 3-isopropenyl-5,5-dimethyl,
and 3-carene, might contribute to the healing potency
of Croton macrostachyus [72,73]. A review study on the
anti-malarial effects of the species revealed the exist-
ence of cyclohexane diepoxides, such as crotepox-
ide, lupeol, and betulin; cis-clerodane; crotomacrine;
3β-acetoxytetraxer-14-en-28-oic acid; trachylina-19-oic
acid; and trachylina-18-oic acid, which contributed to a
higher anti-malarial effect [74].
Traditional healers in Gamo use different plant spe-
cies to cure specific diseases. Informants identified the
top ten plant species that have the highest potential to
heal, along with their fidelity level (FL) score. e plants
with high healing potential include Ocimum lamiifolium,
which is effective in treating febrile illness, with an FL
score of 1. Withania somnifera is useful for curing the
evil eye, locally called Buda, to mean spiritual problem
with a score of FL: 1. Hagenia abyssinica, Tamarindus
indica, and Acmella caulirhiza are effective in treating
tapeworm, wound healing, and febrile illness, respec-
tively, with a score of 1. Echinops. kebericho is helpful
for cancer and sudden illness, with a score of FL: 0.93.
Schefflera abyssinica is effective for wound healing, with
a score of FL: 0.91. Zingiber officinale is useful for tonsil-
litis, with an FL score of 0.87. Jasminum grandiflorum is
effective for earache and cough, with a score of FL: 0.86.
Eucalyptus globulus is helpful for febrile illness, with a
score of FL: 0.86.
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Page 26 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
e Gamo healers prefer some species over others
when preparing remedies for specific ailments. Six key
respondents ranked their preference of potent species
for curing certain conditions. is preference could help
herbalist to select most effective species over others to
prepare effective remedies for better treatments. Fur-
thermore, it also shows the potential species for specific
ailments. Jasminum grandiflorum (36 scores), Carissa
spinarum (35 scores), and Croton macrostachyus (34
scores) were preferred for treating skin diseases over
other plant species, including Withania somnifera (31
scores), Commelina benghalensis (26 scores), Datura
stramonium (24 scores), Vernonia amygdalina (15
scores), and Paullinia pinnata (13 scores). While Acmella
caulirhiza (76 score) and Coffea arabica (70 score) are
preferred for their wide use for their wound-healing
capacity over Xanthium strumarium (60 score), Arge-
mone mexicana (59 score), and Leptadenia hastata (53
score). Croton macrostachyus (75 score) is preferred for
its effective wound and skin disease healing capacity. e
more preferred species have a significant role in treating
diseases in the study area, and these might probably open
a door for further studies focusing on identifying specific
species trial and cytotoxicity tests for their effectiveness
against stated ailments.
Educational level, age, andtraditional knowledge
Our research has revealed a strong correlation between
age and knowledge of ethnobotany. Individuals aged over
40 were found to have a better understanding (Table2).
In addition, males tend to have higher exposure to eth-
nobotanical knowledge than females due to local cultural
practices. Interestingly, illiterate people tend to rely more
on medicinal plants, while those who are educated pre-
fer modern drugs. Gamo healers pass their knowledge
to their first son verbally. ese oral transfers are likely
because respondents cannot document due to illiteracy.
It is important to note that younger residents require
more knowledge about ethnobotany to preserve this val-
uable traditional knowledge [57].
Major threats andconservation ofGamo medicinal plants
Six major factors threatening Gamo medicinal plants
were mentioned by respondents as shown in Table6. Key
respondents were coded as R (respondent) to rank the
major threatening factors. ose factors ranked based
on their devastating impact on medicinal plants and
natural resource as whole. Among others, deforestation,
agricultural expansion, and drought were ranked main
threatening factors to local biodiversity including medici-
nal plants. Others such as charcoal use and construction
ranked low as the study area is a remote rural area. is
is another significance of the present study contributes to
environmental protection by prioritizing major threaten-
ing factors, which might help to halt further degradation
of environment and to set appropriate conservation and
managements action to protect further species and natu-
ral resource loss in the region.
Herbalists frequently assert that they used to gather
therapeutic plants close to their homes in the current
study area. Currently, nevertheless, gathering TMPs
is difficult due to the loss of surrounding forests and
drought caused by climate change is hurting the local
ecology and medicinal plant species. According to several
reports from different regions of the nation, these con-
cerning features indicate common issues [30, 33, 51, 58].
Table 5 Informant consensus factors (ICF) value of disease categories
Disease categories Nur Nt ICF
Dermal: ((skin‑related (Ur:47) and wound‑related (Ur:29) disease) 76 61 0.2
Sudden sickness: (headache (Ur: 27), evil eye (Ur: 8), febrile illness (Ur: 8), fever (Ur: 9), inflammation (Ur: 6), sudden illness (Ur: 2) 61 40 0.35
Sensorial organ‑related disease: (earache (Ur: 8), eye disease (Ur; 8), toothache (Ur: 11) 27 22 0.19
Malaria (Ur: 17), rabies (Ur: 1), snake bite (Ur: 3), Gend/shivering (Ur: 3), insect bite (Ur: 1) 26 26 0
Respiratory‑related disorders: (asthma (Ur: 9), bronchitis (Ur: 1), common cold (ur:7), cough (Ur: 6), chicken pox (Ur: 1), lung fever (Ur: 2),
pasteurellosis (Ur: 1), pneumonia (Ur: 1), respiratory infection (Ur: 2), thorax disease (Ur: 2, tonsilitis (Ur: 4) 36 31 0.14
Gastrointestinal‑related disease: (abdominal pain (ur:7), diarrhea (Ur: 6), dysentery (Ur:1), gastric (Ur: 15), intestinal infection (Ur: 4),
constipation (Ur: 5), (Ur: 4), tapeworm (Ur: 7), TB (Ur: 3), typhoid (Ur:1), vomiting (Ur: 3), digestive problem (Ur: 3) 60 53 0.12
Genitourinary system diseases including STD: (gonorrhea (Ur: 4), infertility (impotence) (Ur: 7), male sterility (Ur:1), mate organ burn
(Ur:1), abortion (Ur: 2), placenta problem (Ur:1), uterine bleeding (Ur:9) 25 21 0.16
Blood and circulatory‑related disease: (diabetes (Ur: 9), hepatitis (Ur: 6), bleeding or clotting problem) (Ur:5), blood vessel problems (Ur:
3), cholesterol (ur:2), heartburn pain (Ur: 11), hypertension (Ur:13), kidney stone (Ur: 8), stroke (Ur:1) 58 39 0.33
Nervous system and Cancer‑related disease: (bone rupture (Ur:2), breast cancer (Ur: 1), breast pain (Ur: 1), cancer (Ur:12), mastitis (Ur:1),
arthritis (Ur:3), back pain (Ur:1), nerve/paralysis) (Ur: 5, depression (Ur: 4), epilepsy (Ur:1), mental illness (Ur:1) 32 28 0.13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 27 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Conclusions andrecommendations
e present survey is the first ethnobotanical study to
record the medicinal plants of the Gamo people in the
Boreda Abaya District of southern Ethiopia. Traditional
knowledge of medicinal plants used by Gamo people
has been documented for future research and contrib-
utes with significant remarks for updating the country’s
knowledge of medicinal plants. It also highlights the
importance of traditional medicine in the primary health
care system. Identifying potential therapeutic species
might promote protection of local health care and used
for further studies. Documentation of this valuable
knowledge will aid in preserving traditional medicine
practices, conserving threatened species, and contrib-
uting to potential drug discovery in the future. In addi-
tion, exploring unassessed area aids in enriching flora
and cultural uses of medicinal plants, which aids to com-
pile herbal medicine of the region. e diverse array of
medicinal plants, along with their traditional applica-
tions, provides a valuable foundation for further explora-
tion, conservation, and potential integration into modern
healthcare system. is could be possible through identi-
fication of essential therapeutic species and investigation
of pharmacological and biological activities. is could
enhance local and national health system and promote
further scientific research. e present study also high-
lights the role of traditional knowledge in conserving bio-
logical resource.
e present study highlighted about188 medicinal plant
species used by local communities utilized for human
and domestic animal ailments in Boreda Abaya District.
Traditional knowledge of using, preparing, and applying
remedies for these medicinal plants was documented.
e information might be useful as the baseline for future
investigation of new medicinal resources. Many Gamos
medicinal plants are herbaceous and harvested from the
wild. Gamo herbalists frequently utilized the leaves and
seeds of different species. Men have a greater role than
women in traditional medicine due to cultural perspec-
tives. Higher proportions of residents were farmers and
illiterate and had more ethnobotanical knowledge than
educated and young people. is might relate to their
exposure and experience, and it indicate formal edu-
cation is scarce. A higher number of taxa (Nt: 61) were
utilized to treat the dermal disease category (ICF: 0.2),
while fewer taxa (Ur: 21) were used for the genitouri-
nary disease category (ICF: 0.16). Skin-related disease
and wounds are two major conditions having higher use
reports in the present study area. Among other recorded
species, Ocimum lamiifolium (56 use reports), Moringa
stenopetala (51 use reports), Acmella caulirhiza (41 use
reports), and Croton macrostachyus (40 use reports) have
higher use reports for healing different diseases, indicat-
ing their effective healing potential. It is time to conduct
and widen the pharmaco-chemical studies and safety
tests of Gamo medicinal plants.
Further isolating and characterizing the chemical
compounds and pharmacological tests are necessary for
species having higher use reports. Conservation agen-
cies and local governments should focus on traditional
medicinal plant conservation and documentation of the
people’s cultural knowledge of ethnobotany. Providing
conservation priority, promoting conservation methods
like field gene banks, Arboretums, and Botanical gar-
dens, and supporting traditional healers might help halt
the rapidly diminishing medicinal plants. Furthermore,
more public awareness is needed to encourage the local
people to manage and sustainably utilize medicinal
plant resources.
Abbreviations
EBI Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute
SBGH Shashemene Botanical Garden Herbarium
TMPs Traditional medicinal plants
TM Traditional medicine
DA Development agents
CK Community knowledge
Ur Use reports
ICF Informant consensus factor
NDA Natural database for Africa
STDs Sexual transmitted diseases
FL Fidelity level
Table 6 Major threatening factors of medicinal plants
Factors Respondents (R) Total Rank
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Deforestation 6 5 6 4 4 6 31 1st
Drought 4 6 5 6 1 4 26 3rd
Construction 3 3 4 3 2 3 18 4th
Charcoaling 2 1 2 1 5 2 13 5th
Agriculture expansion 5 4 3 5 6 5 28 2nd
Over‑exploitation 1 2 1 2 3 1 10 6th
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 28 of 29
Zemedeetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:28
Acknowledgements
We thank Hubei Provincial Science and Technology Innovation Talent and
Service Project, National Natural Science Foundation of China, and Sino‑Africa
Joint Research Center for funding. Our thank extends to Ethiopian Biodiversity
Institute/Shashemene Botanical Garden for their cooperation, herbarium
access, and for writing a supportive letter to study area. Our gratitude goes
to local administrative officials and Agriculture offices of Boreda and Mirab
Abaya districts, Health center, and kebele administrators, for their permission,
assistance, and collaboration in providing us with relevant information. We
also thank the Gamo informants, and cultural elders, who unreservedly shared
with us their knowledge of medicinal plants. Our thank goes to Mr. Muhe for
his service as a translator and Mr. Tadesse Leta for sketching study area map.
Author contributions
The authors have made intellectual contributions to this original research:
G.W.H, project administration, resources, funding acquisition, supervision, vali‑
dation, and review; J.Z, data collection, curation, analysis, methodology, and
manuscript drafting; T. M, formal analysis, review, and editing; C.O.O, formal
analysis, review, and editing; G.E.O, formal analysis, review, and editing. All the
authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by grants from the Hubei Provincial Science and
Technology Innovation Talent and Service Project (2022EHB031), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China [32270228, 31970211], and Sino‑Africa
Joint Research Center, CAS [SAJC202101].
Availability of data and materials
The authors declare that all other data supporting the findings of this study
are available within the article and its supplementary information files.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
This study was approved by Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of
Science.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1 CAS Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm and Specialty Agriculture,
Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074,
China. 2 Sino‑Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Wuhan 430074, China. 3 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Bei‑
jing 100049, China. 4 Hubei Jiangxia Laboratory, Wuhan 430200, China.
Received: 10 January 2024 Accepted: 21 February 2024
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