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How Pesticides Can Harm You and Your Environment: A Review of Drift Exposure Routes and Health Risks

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  • Ramakrishna Mision Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute
  • Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute

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The plant protection measure is one of the significant farm practices in the field of agriculture in terms of preventing crops from pest infestations and enhancing the crop produce while ensuring better quality yield as well as quantity. With the huge demand for crop production to meet global food security, farmers are applying excessive amounts of pesticides to keep the crop free from pest invasions. Generally, pesticides are specifically noxious to targeted pests, but the danger created when intensive applications of pesticides also affect other nontargeted species of the environment including humans, animals, soil microenvironment, and other living beings. However, the unintentional movement of pesticidal drift has a detrimental impact on humans and the environment remains a major concern in recent days. Therefore, we need to focus on pesticide application methods, routes of human exposure, and imposing threats to non-targeted species due to the pesticide application. The purpose of this article is to discuss the negative impact of pesticidal drift on non-targeted environmental components especially on human health.
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How Pesticides Can Harm You and Your
Environment: A Review of Drift Exposure
Routes and Health Risks
Saikat Dey1*, Sarmistha Adak1, Anannya Dhar1, Soujanya Jana1,
Sukamal Sarkar1 and Sitesh Chatterjee2
1Division of Agronomy, School of Agriculture and Rural Development, IRDM Faculty Centre,
Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and research Institute (RKMVERI),
Narendrapur, Kolkata- 700103, West Bengal
2Entomologist, WBHAS, Rice Research Station, Chinsurah, Hooghly, West Bengal, 701102
Corresponding Author
Saikat Dey
Email: saikatdey5538@gmail.com
Pesticides, Drift hazards, Human exposure, Health risk, Environment
How to cite this article:
Dey, S., Adak, S., Dhar, A., Jana, S., Sarkar, S. and Chatterjee, S. 2024. How Pesticides Can Harm
You and Your Environment: A Review of Drift Exposure Routes and Health Risks. Vigyan Varta
5(2): 137-144.
ABSTRACT
The plant protection measure is one of the significant farm practices in the field of
agriculture in terms of preventing crops from pest infestations and enhancing the crop
produce while ensuring better quality yield as well as quantity. With the huge demand for
crop production to meet global food security, farmers are applying excessive amounts of
pesticides to keep the crop free from pest invasions. Generally, pesticides are specifically
noxious to targeted pests, but the danger created when intensive applications of pesticides
also affect other nontargeted species of the environment including humans, animals, soil
microenvironment, and other living beings. However, the unintentional movement of
pesticidal drift has a detrimental impact on humans and the environment remains a major
concern in recent days. Therefore, we need to focus on pesticide application methods,
routes of human exposure, and imposing threats to non-targeted species due to the
pesticide application. The purpose of this article is to discuss the negative impact of
Keywords
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pesticidal drift on the nontargeted environmental components especially on human health.
INTRODUCTION
esticides play a vital role in protecting
crops from pests and ensuring global
food security in modern agriculture.
Nevertheless, the extensive utilization of these
chemical substances makes people worry
about how they might affect our health and the
environment. The Pesticides are essential
because they help prevent crop loss, increase
yields, and make food more affordable and
better in quality (Taufeeq et al., 2021). During
World War II (19391945), there was a big
push to develop pesticides to produce more
food. Since the 1940s, using synthetic crop
protection chemicals has further improved
food production (Carvalho et al., 2017).
Pesticide drift happens when these chemicals
unintentionally move from where they were
supposed to be used, carried by the wind or
water. This can contaminate air, water, and
soil nearby, risking the health of humans and
wildlife depending on the type and amount of
exposure. Up to 88.8% of sprayed pesticides
may be lost as drift, including droplets,
particles, or vapour (Druart et al., 2011; Gil
and Sinfort, 2005). In general, Pesticides,
meant to target specific pests, often impact
many living and non-living elements in the
environment. About 95% of the pesticides
used affect non-targeted wildlife because they
spread widely and stay in the environment for
a long time (Simeonov, Macaev, &
Simeonova, 2013). Additionally, the extensive
use of these chemicals leaves residues in
almost all environmental components,
prompting the exploration of various physical
and chemical methods for pesticide residue
treatment in water sources (Dehghani et al.,
2021). As a result, this contamination can be a
serious threat to both people and the
environment. This article seeks to investigate
the diverse pathways by which pesticides can
pose threats to individuals and ecosystems,
focusing on drift exposure routes and the
associated health risks. Understanding how
pesticide drift happens is crucial to come up
with good ways to reduce it and promote
farming practices that are good for the
environment.
The Growing Relevance of Pesticidal Drift:
Examining Why and How It Matters
The airborne particles of pesticidal properties
may cause serious damage to humans, animals,
and other living organisms since pesticidal
drift exposure is one of the major sources of
airborne environmental contamination at the
time of application. The book written by
Racheal Carson “Silent Spring” in the year of
1962, emphasized the negative impact of
pesticides on the soil microenvironment,
airborne pollution, and human exposure
generally which are non-targeted species in
our environment. This raised a major concern
about the understanding of the relevance of the
pesticidal drift and its hazardous impact on
living beings. It has been estimated that about
97% of the applied pesticides caused
enormous harm to the non-targeted organisms
due to their wide spreading capacity and high
persistence in nature. Pesticidal droplets show
extreme persistence and the residue may be
observed in almost every corner including
targeting and on-targeting sites.
Exposure and threats to humans and other
living organisms have the alarming concerns
for the past few decades. It may be causing
harm to human health directly and indirectly.
Pesticide manufacturing sites, transport, and
applications in the field triggered direct
contact with the human body. During the field
application of pesticides, there is a risk of the
adsorbed or absorbed molecules being carried
P
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down through leaching or surface runoff,
potentially accumulating in groundwater or
adjacent water bodies. The utilization of this
contaminated water by all living organisms
could significantly contribute to its entry into
the food chain for both humans and animals.
The indirect exposure of the pesticide’s
molecule through the dietary intake enters the
food chain and surrounding environment. The
operators, who are going to apply pesticides in
the agricultural field might be the major
targeted living being exposed to the
detrimental impact of pesticides. Molecules
get adsorbed in their clothes, and skin, enter
through the lungs, and are affected in several
ways including respiratory problems, asthma,
dermal disease, and even cancer.
Factors affecting pesticide drift
The use of pesticides and their application
methods are being designated based on the
characteristics of the pest habit, their feeding
nature, lifecycle, and the composition of the
pesticidal active ingredient. The commonly
used pesticide application methods are foliar
spraying, band application, broadcast spraying,
soil application, and spot treatment. Detailed
descriptions of various factors contributing to
drift hazards for the sprayer are provided
below, encompassing aspects such as droplet
size, flow rate, pressure, boom height, wind
speed, and direction.
1. Size of droplets
The droplet size of the spraying particles is
one of the major factors that determines the
carrying capacity of the pesticidal active
ingredients in the air shown in Table 1. The
smaller the droplet size, the more likely to be
float by the air movement in a broad range of
area. The larger size droplets, heavier than air
parcels easily fall into the ground. Therefore,
small-size droplets along with heavy wind, can
persist in the air for long periods and blow out
into the targeted as well as nontargeted areas.
Table 1. Effect of droplet size on the
potential drift hazards
Size of
droplets
Droplet
diameter (µ)
Persist in
the air
Very fine
<100
Very long
Fine
100
long
Medium
240
Medium
Coarse
400
less
(Source: Kruger et al., 2019)
2. Application Equipment and
Techniques
The type of equipment used and the
application techniques employed can
significantly influence drift. Properly
maintained and calibrated equipment, along
with correct application practices, can reduce
the risk of drift. Nozzle in a sprayer is one of
the major components, that determines the
pressure on the liquid, and droplet distribution.
A flat-fan nozzle enables the liquid droplets to
spread in a thin sheet. Several factors can
influence the hazard and extent of pesticide
drift. It is important to consider these factors to
minimize the risk of unintended pesticide
movement.
3. Wind Speed and Direction
Wind speed and direction are some of the main
reasons that induce most of the pesticide loss
from the targeted area and travel more distance
as the wind speed increases. Wind is a major
factor influencing pesticide drift, especially if
the wind is blowing toward sensitive areas.
Wind direction is crucial in determining where
the drift is likely to occur.
4. Application Height and Angle
The height at which pesticides are applied can
affect drift. Spraying closer to the target and
using proper nozzle angles can help minimize
drift. Lowering the boom height or using
shielded equipment can also be effective in
reducing drift.
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5. Temperature and Humidity
Environmental conditions, such as
temperature and humidity, can impact the
volatility of pesticides. High temperatures and
low humidity may increase vaporization,
leading to drift. Applicators should consider
weather conditions before spraying.
6. Pesticide Formulation and Volatility
The formulation of the pesticide plays a role
in its potential for drift. Some formulations are
more prone to drift than others. Additionally,
the volatility of certain pesticides can
contribute to drift, as they can turn into vapors
and move away from the target area.
7. Surface runoff
Runoff means an excessive amount of water
flowing over the soil surface without entering
the soil profile. The flow of water over the soil
surface may carry every minute stuff present
on the soil surface including, soil particles,
inert materials, and to some extent pesticide
residue. Surface runoff may increase the
potential threat to the movement of pesticidal
residue from crop fields to sensitive areas.
Human Exposure routes to pesticides
1) Types of Exposures
Due to the increment in the applicability of
pesticides in agricultural systems, almost every
individual globally is exposed to pesticides to
some extent causing numerous health issues.
There are multiple ways a person can be
exposed to pesticides. Consuming pesticides as
a means of suicide can be counted under
intentional exposure. Due to the easy
availability of toxicants like pesticides,
drinking them to give away life has become
very common leading to 14-20% of suicidal
deaths (Gunnel et al., 2007). Dwelling near a
pesticide-exposed area leading to unknowing
or accidental exposure leading to serious
health issues is termed unintentional exposure
(Boedeker et al., 2020). The exposure of the
workers to pesticides by directly meeting
manufacturing, packaging, and application in
the field is called occupational exposure.
Among them, the farmers and farm laborers
directly linked with its application at the field
level are most severely affected by to drift of
toxicants. They do not follow the proper
guidelines for spraying i.e. using a PPE kit,
gloves, mask, etc. adds up the susceptibility of
the exposed farmers. Apart from these types of
exposure, dietary exposure is also very
common these days. Harvesting the
agricultural produce within the waiting period
of pesticide application leads to the persistence
of pesticide residue (active ingredient) in the
food. Upon consuming this unhealthy food, the
toxicants enter the human body and cause
various diseases. Even it can be transmitted to
the mother’s milk and the baby foods
(Palaniyappan et al., 2022). The frequency,
dose, and exposure time are very important
and decide its impact on the human body.
2) Routes of Pesticide Entry
The pesticide enters the human body mainly
through three routes, respiratory, dermal, and
oral routes.
i. Entry through the respiratory route
Entry of the volatile compounds present in the
pesticide through the nose via inhalation or
breathing is very common among the farmers
who spray the pesticide in the crops. The
breathing organs and the lungs are directly
affected by inhaling air contaminated with
pesticides (Tudi et al., 2022).
ii. Entry through the oral route
Entry of pesticides directly (intentionally or
accidentally) or via contaminated food
material is also common these days. Improper
cleaning of hands after pesticide manufacture
and application may lead to the entry of
toxicants through the mouth. Severe food
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poisoning is very common in this case of
exposure (Damalas et al., 2011).
iii. Entry through the dermal route
Pesticide residue may enter the body through
the skin. Dermal exposure to pesticides is very
common among agricultural laborers who do
not use recommended protection measures
while mixing and application of pesticides in
the field. Intensive skin irritations can occur
due to dermal pesticide exposure (Krieger et
al., 2000).
Health risks due to pesticide exposure
Exposure to pesticides causes numerous health
problems causing severe diseases like cancer
and even death. The health effects can be
classified as acute and chronic based on their
occurrence. The spectrum of general health
disorders encompasses minor manifestations
of discomfort, including but not limited to
nausea, headache, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Respiratory allergies, stemming from diverse
pest-repellent sprays, contribute to an intricate
cascade of physiological responses. Many
pesticide compounds, upon absorption into the
gastrointestinal tract, precipitate hormonal
imbalances and endocrine disruption in
humans. Alterations in sex hormones manifest
concomitantly as reduced sperm count,
abnormal sperm morphology, defective
fertilization, and give rise to neurological
dysfunctions and respiratory disorders. The
well-documented carcinogenic effects of
pesticides underscore the heightened
susceptibility to various malignancies,
encompassing cancer of the blood, breast,
ovary, lungs, and prostate those subjected to
chronic pesticide exposure (Bonner et al.,
2017). Furthermore, pesticides exhibit a
propensity to induce neurological symptoms
and syndromes, notably Alzheimer’s and
Parkinson’s disease, in a significant proportion
of exposed individuals (Sa´nchez-Santed et al.,
2016). Respiratory complications, including
wheezing, nasal irritation, cough, chest
tightness, breathlessness, and dry/sore throat,
emerge as prevalent consequences of pesticide
exposure (Zuskin et al., 2008). This synthesis
underscores the imperative for rigorous
regulatory measures and further investigational
pursuits aimed at mitigating the adverse health
effects concomitant with pervasive pesticide
exposure.
Environmental impact
Pesticide residues persisting in soil present a
significant threat to soil-dwelling
microorganisms integral to nutrient cycling,
disrupting the delicate ecological balance
depicted in Fig 1. This imbalance permeates
through ecosystems, impacting soil health and
the intricate relationships within the soil
microbiome. Runoff of pesticides from crop
fields into nearby water bodies exacerbates the
issue, fostering biomagnification and
bioaccumulation of toxicants. Aquatic
ecosystems suffer as water quality parameters
degrade, disturbing the equilibrium of aquatic
flora and fauna. Instances of mortality among
aquatic organisms become prevalent,
underscoring the severity of the ecological toll
(Kaur et al., 2023). Simultaneously, pesticide
drift compounds the issue, severely impacting
populations of beneficial pests, pollinators,
natural enemies, and non-target pests (Serraoet
et al., 2022). This multifaceted impact across
soil and water ecosystems necessitates urgent
measures to mitigate the consequences,
emphasizing the importance of sustainable
agricultural practices and robust regulatory
frameworks to safeguard ecosystems and
promote environmental health.
Fig 1: Environmental impacts of pesticide drift
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Control Measure:
Pesticide drift refers to the unintentional
movement of pesticides away from the target
area during application. Various critical factors
influencing pesticide drift include the
generation of small-sized droplets through
high-pressure cone nozzles, increased wind
speed, elevated boom height (resulting in a
greater nozzle-to-crop canopy distance), and
environmental conditions such as relative
humidity and temperature. Additionally, the
use of spray thickeners can contribute to drift.
To mitigate pesticide drift, it is essential to
implement management practices
characterized by scientific precision.
1. Optimizing Application Equipment
To enhance application efficiency, minimize
spray solution loss, and reduce pesticide
residue in the environment, the critical first
step is selecting the appropriate sprayer type.
Studies suggest that choosing battery-powered
backpack sprayers, standing upwind, and
monitoring boom nozzles from a distance can
effectively reduce inhalation exposure.
Additionally, utilizing flat spray nozzles for
herbicide application in pump backpack
sprayers may further decrease inhalation
exposure.
2. Pesticide Formulation Strategies
Select formulations less prone to drift, such as
granules or pellets, and avoid ultra-low
volume (ULV) formulations that produce
smaller, more drift-susceptible droplets.
3. Adhering to Label Instructions
Thoroughly understand and follow label
instructions to ensure the safe and effective
use of pesticides while minimizing
environmental risks. Each pesticide has
specific application sites and methods, and
non-compliance can lead to increased drift
hazards.
4. Effective Use of Additives
Incorporate recommended additives according
to label guidelines to maximize effectiveness
and minimize drift hazards.
5. Nozzle Selection for Drift Reduction
Option for drift-reduction nozzles that produce
larger droplets at low pressure. Choose nozzles
with a higher flow rate to generate larger
droplets and reduce the potential for drift.
6. Strategic Boom Configuration
Avoid high spray boom pressure, as it tends to
result in finer droplet size. Enhance boom
stability by using wide-angle nozzles and
maintaining a low boom height. Operate the
sprayer perpendicularly to prevent the boom
from rising significantly above the target
surface.
7. Consideration of Wind Conditions
Maintain a wind velocity within the range of 3
mph to 10 mph for lower drift hazard. Avoid
spraying during temperature inversions that
can trap and concentrate pesticide droplets
close to the ground. Additionally, be mindful
of high wind flow towards sensitive areas,
such as crops, livestock, or water bodies.
Establishing buffer zones is recommended to
reduce the risk of pesticides reaching non-
target areas.
CONCLUSIONS
The application of pesticides in the crop field
while safeguarding human health risks, as well
as non-targeted species in the environment,
should be the emerging topic of research.
Several factors including droplet size, flow
rate, boom height, wind speed, and direction,
foster the potential risks associated with
pesticide drift. Addressing these issues
necessitates a comprehensive approach that
integrates precise application techniques,
advanced technology, and stringent regulations
to mitigate the adverse effects of pesticidal
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drift on our health and the environment. It
underscores the importance of sustainable
agricultural practices that prioritize the
protection of both human welfare and the
delicate balance of our ecosystems.
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... The main route of public exposure to pesticides is intake of contaminated food products, leading to chronic health effects. To manage public exposure to pesticides, maximum residue levels (MRLs) in food products have been set by both the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) and national regulatory bodies (Dey et al., 2024;Pascale and Laborde, 2020;Marín-Sáez et al., 2024;Li, 2023;El-Nahhal and El-Nahhal, 2022). ...
... Concurrently, pesticide drift exacerbates the problem by negatively affecting populations of pollinators, natural enemies, beneficial pests, and non-target pests. Urgent action is required to lessen the effects of this complex influence on soil and water ecosystems, highlighting the significance of sustainable farming methods and strong regulatory frameworks to protect ecosystems and advance environmental health (Dey et al, 2024). Despite their immediate advantages, pesticides can eventually be fatal and seriously harmful to human health. ...
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Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high product quality. Although pesticides are developed through very strict regulation processes to function with reasonable certainty and minimal impact on human health and the environment, serious concerns have been raised about health risks resulting from occupational exposure and from residues in food and drinking water. Occupational exposure to pesticides often occurs in the case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of house pests. Exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs primarily through eating food and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues, whereas substantial exposure can also occur in or around the home. Regarding the adverse effects on the environment (water, soil and air contamination from leaching, runoff, and spray drift, as well as the detrimental effects on wildlife, fish, plants, and other non-target organisms), many of these effects depend on the toxicity of the pesticide, the measures taken during its application, the dosage applied, the adsorption on soil colloids, the weather conditions prevailing after application, and how long the pesticide persists in the environment. Therefore, the risk assessment of the impact of pesticides either on human health or on the environment is not an easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the periods and levels of exposure, the types of pesticides used (regarding toxicity and persistence), and the environmental characteristics of the areas where pesticides are usually applied. Also, the number of the criteria used and the method of their implementation to assess the adverse effects of pesticides on human health could affect risk assessment and would possibly affect the characterization of the already approved pesticides and the approval of the new compounds in the near future. Thus, new tools or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human health and the environment. On the other hand, the implementation of alternative cropping systems that are less dependent on pesticides, the development of new pesticides with novel modes of action and improved safety profiles, and the improvement of the already used pesticide formulations towards safer formulations (e.g., microcapsule suspensions) could reduce the adverse effects of farming and particularly the toxic effects of pesticides. In addition, the use of appropriate and well-maintained spraying equipment along with taking all precautions that are required in all stages of pesticide handling could minimize human exposure to pesticides and their potential adverse effects on the environment.
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Pesticides are synthetic chemicals used for controlling pests in agriculture, households, and other domestic purposes, including public health. The global consumption of pesticides is steadily rising due to increased agricultural productivity to meet global food demand. However, extensive and indiscriminate uses of pesticides have resulted in serious health impacts as humans are readily exposed to pesticides in several ways. Under this context, the chapter comprehensively presents various health effects caused by pesticides. Along with general disorders, carcinogenic, respiratory, neurologic, reproductive, and genetic health effects were discussed. Besides critically reviewing the health effects, advanced management strategies to overcome/mitigate health effects caused by pesticides are also discussed. At the closure, the review emphasizes the need for health advisory database, strict regulations on policy and execution, proper monitoring systems, systematic documentation of effects, possibilities for international cooperation, and the way forward in addressing the health issues.
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