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2024, Retos, 54, 224-234
© Copyright: Federación Española de Asociaciones d e Docentes de Educación Física (FEADEF) ISSN: Edición imp resa: 1579-1726. Edición Web: 1988-2041 (https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/index)
-224- Retos, número 54, 2024 (marzo)
Exploration of Children's Motor Skills with Stunting Vs. Non-Stunting
Exploración de las habilidades motoras de los niños con retraso del crecimiento vs. Sin retraso del
crecimiento
Nuridin Widya Pranoto*, Varhatun Fauziah*, Arif Fadli Muchlis*, Anton Komaini*, Rayendra Rayendra*, Nugroho Susanto* Gema
Fitriady**, Hendra Setyawan***, Ratko Pavlovic****, Alexandre Sibomana*****, Japhet Ndayisenga*****
*Universitas Negeri Padang (Indonesia), ** Universitas Negeri Malang (Indonesia), ***Universitas Negeri yogyakarta (Indonesia),
**** University of East Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina), ***** University of Burundi in Institute (Barundi)
Abstract. Background: Stunting is a growth problem that occurs in children due to chronic nutrition deficiency over a long period of time. This
health problem often occurs in society and is very worrying. Unfortunately, its impact on children's development is not yet fully understood. Motor
skills are often associated with the children’s nutritional status. These skills are important for children as the basis for their ability to move when
carrying out activities. This study aimed to evaluate differences in the motor skills of children diagnosed with stunting and non-stunting. Method: This
research used a comparative approach. The sample consisted of 48 children with criteria aged 3 to 5 years. These children were divided into the
stunting-diagnosed group (N=24) and the non-stunting group (N=24). Children's motor skills were measured using the TGMD-2 (Test of Gross
Motor Development-2) motor skills test. The test has been tested for validity and reliability before being distributed to the participants. The Shapiro-
Wilkoxon test was used to check normal data distribution. Results & Discussion: The study showed a significant difference between children diagnosed
with stunting and non-stunting children by comparison (P<0.05). Children diagnosed with stunting were reported to have lower motor skills on
average gross Motor Quontientx87. This value is below average category, while non-stunting children have Gross Motor Quontientx111.125, which
is beyond the average category. In male stunting children, the highest performance was in the kick movement skill with a value of ±4.25, while the
lowest performance was in the gallop skill with a value of ±2.00. For girls with stunting, the highest performance was in the object control skill,
striking a stationary ball with a value of ±3.53. On the other hand, the lowest performance was in the gallop skill, with a value of ±1.32. In terms of
motor skills, normal boys performed better than girls in jumping, hopping, and sliding (P<0.05). For non-stunting boys, the highest performance
was in hop movement skills with a value of ±7.05, while the lowest was in stationary dribble skills with a value of ±4.77. Non-stunting girls resembled
the boys as the highest performance was in the locomotive hop skill with a value of ±7.67, while the lowest performance was in the underhand roll
skill with a value of ±5.11. In terms of motor skills, non-stunting children performed better than stunting boys and girls (P<0.05). Conclusion: There
were significant differences in motor skills between the two groups. Children diagnosed with stunting have lower motor skills compared to non-
stunting children. These results provide a better understanding of the impact of stunting on children's motor development. This research also empha-
sizes the importance of early intervention to improve the motor skills of children diagnosed with stunting. These findings have the potential for efforts
to prevent and treat stunting in children and promote the welfare of children's overall development.
Keywords: Locomotor skills; Object control skills; Basic motor skills; Children; Development; Nutritional status.
Abstracto. Antecedentes: El retraso del crecimiento es un problema de crecimiento que ocurre en los niños debido a una deficiencia nutricional
crónica durante un largo período de tiempo. Este problema de salud ocurre frecuentemente en la sociedad y es muy preocupante. Desafortunada-
mente, aún no se comprende completamente su impacto en el desarrollo de los niños. Las habilidades motoras suelen estar asociadas con el estado
nutricional de los niños. Estas habilidades son importantes para los niños como base de su capacidad de moverse al realizar actividades. Este estudio
tuvo como objetivo evaluar las diferencias en las habilidades motoras de niños diagnosticados con retraso del crecimiento y sin retraso del crecimiento.
Método: Esta investigación utilizó un enfoque comparativo. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 48 niños con criterios de edad de 3 a 5 años. Estos niños
se dividieron en el grupo con diagnóstico de retraso del crecimiento (N=24) y el grupo sin retraso del crecimiento (N=24). Las habilidades motoras
de los niños se midieron mediante la prueba de habilidades motoras TGMD-2 (Test of Gross Motor Development-2). Se ha probado la validez y
confiabilidad de la prueba antes de distribuirla a los participantes. Se utilizó la prueba de Shapiro-Wilkoxon para comprobar la distribución normal de
los datos. Resultados y discusión: En comparación, el estudio mostró una diferencia significativa entre los niños diagnosticados con retraso del creci-
miento y los niños sin retraso del crecimiento (P<0,05). Se informó que los niños diagnosticados con retraso en el crecimiento tenían habilidades
motoras más bajas en promedio en el cociente motor brutox87. Este valor está por debajo del promedio de la categoría, mientras que los niños sin
retraso en el crecimiento tienen un cociente de motricidad gruesax111.125, que está por encima de la categoría promedio. En los niños varones con
retraso del crecimiento, el mayor rendimiento fue en la habilidad de movimiento de patada con un valor de ±4,25, mientras que el menor rendimiento
fue en la habilidad de galope con un valor de ±2,00. Para las niñas con retraso en el crecimiento, el rendimiento más alto fue en la habilidad de control
de objetos, golpeando una pelota estacionaria con un valor de ±3,53. Por otro lado, el menor rendimiento se presentó en la habilidad de galope, con
un valor de ±1,32. En términos de habilidades motoras, los niños normales obtuvieron mejores resultados que las niñas en saltos, brincos y desliza-
mientos (P<0,05). Para los niños sin retraso en el crecimiento, el rendimiento más alto fue en habilidades de movimiento de salto con un valor de
±7,05, mientras que el más bajo fue en habilidades de regate estacionario con un valor de ±4,77. Las niñas sin retraso del crecimiento se parecían a
los niños, ya que el rendimiento más alto fue en la habilidad de salto locomotor con un valor de ±7,67, mientras que el rendimiento más bajo fue en
la habilidad de rodar hacia abajo con un valor de ±5,11. En términos de habilidades motoras, los niños sin retraso del crecimiento obtuvieron mejores
resultados que los niños y niñas con retraso del crecimiento (P<0,05). Conclusión: Hubo diferencias significativas en las habilidades motoras entre los
dos grupos. Los niños diagnosticados con retraso del crecimiento tienen habilidades motoras más bajas en comparación con los niños sin retraso del
crecimiento. Estos resultados proporcionan una mejor comprensión del impacto del retraso del crecimiento en el desarrollo motor de los niños. Esta
investigación también enfatiza la importancia de la intervención temprana para mejorar las habilidades motoras de los niños diagnosticados con retraso
en el crecimiento. Estos hallazgos tienen el potencial de impulsar esfuerzos para prevenir y tratar el retraso del crecimiento en los niños y promover
el bienestar del desarrollo general de los niños.
Palabras clave: Habilidades locomotoras; Habilidades de control de objetos; Habilidades motoras básicas; Niños; Desarrollo; Estados nutricionales.
Fecha recepción: 29-11-23. Fecha de aceptación: 06-02-24
Nuridin Widya Pranoto
nuridin@fik.unp.ac.id
2024, Retos, 54, 224-234
© Copyright: Federación Española de Asociaciones d e Docentes de Educación Física (FEADEF) ISSN: Edición imp resa: 1579-1726. Edición Web: 1988-2041 (https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/index)
-225- Retos, número 54, 2024 (marzo)
Introduction
The last decade has seen an unprecedented increase in
attention to the problem of malnutrition. This is reflected
by various nutrition initiatives around the world, such as
setting global goals for nutrition and publishing high-level
scientific papers that emphasize the urgency of the issue.
Among children under five years of age, an estimated 22
percent will be affected by stunting in 2020 in West Africa,
Southeast Asia, Europe, and Central Asia (Liu, Liang, &
Chen, 2024; Mudadu Silva et al., 2023a). Around 149
million preschool children aged up to five years, mostly
from low- and middle-income countries, are stunted
(Akseer et al., 2022; Taib & Ismail, 2021).
Therefore, reducing stunting rates in children has
become a key focus, as reflected in the World Health
Assembly's first global nutrition targets. This assembly aims
to reduce the number of children under five who are
stunted by 40% by 2025(Prendergast & Humphrey, 2014a;
Rukiko, Mwakalobo, & Mmasa, 2023). This target can be
achieved by carefully observing the children's development
and growth as early as possible. One skill often associated
with children's overall development and long-term physical
literacy is fundamental movement skills (FMS). However,
FMS is not acquired naturally but needs to be
trained.(Bossavit & Arnedillo-Sánchez, 2023; Sulistiyowati
et al., 2022; D. Zhang et al., 2023)
Acquiring motor skills is very important for children's
development because it is related to cognitive
development. However, access to early detection of motor
developmental delays is limited (de Onis & Branca, 2016a;
Faber, van den Bos, Houwen, Schoemaker, & Rosenblum,
2022).
Fundamental movement skills (FMS) have a crucial role
as a foundation that can be observed and used to develop
further skills needed in various types of physical activity,
both recreational and competitive. Identifying the status of
children's motor skills earlier plays an important role in
their development throughout childhood and life because it
will shape their overall movement patterns (Webster,
Martin, & Staiano, 2019).
Children, especially those aged 2-7 years, acquire basic
skills through reflexive and basic exercises and are able to
develop further skills in certain stages of sport (Gandotra et
al., 2020; Jones, Innerd, Giles, & Azevedo, 2020). The
ability to fully master FMS, especially in terms of object
control, is critical to understanding more complex sporting
patterns and increasing the chances of success in a wide
variety of sports in the future (Van Biesen, Van Damme,
Pineda, & Burns, 2022). Conversely, if impairments in
basic movement skills are not identified at an early age,
children may experience impairments in motor skills
throughout their lives (McKenzie et al., 2002). Therefore,
attention to FMS development at an early age is essential to
ensure children have a strong foundation in motor skills that
will help them participate in a variety of physical activities
and sports throughout their lives.
Stunting can affect children's motor development,
especially in children aged 3-5 years, a critical period in
motor development. Children who experience stunting
tend to have physical weaknesses, including muscle
weakness, poor coordination, and delays in gross and fine
motor development. Gross motor development includes
body movements involving large muscles, such as walking,
running, and jumping. Children diagnosed with stunting
tend to experience delays in gross motor development, so
there may be a delay in their ability to walk, run and play
with their peers. It is driven by common factors through the
process of accumulating nutritional deficits and effectively
placing children most at risk of short-term death (Thurstans
et al., 2022).
The lack of nutrition status in children can lead to
several health problems. For example, it can result in low
cognitive and motor skills in children, which impacts their
growth as adults. This situation can be seen regarding the
cognitive and motor levels of stunted children (Mastuti &
Indahwati, 2021a). Particularly, motor disorders affect
children's activity and participation levels and lead to low
levels of physical activity, fitness and health into adulthood.
While severe motor deficits are usually diagnosed before
two years of age, mild motor deficits may not become
apparent until children are in preschool and elementary
school settings, where they face increasingly complex tasks
and are compared with their peers. A 2015 study published
in the Journal of Frontiers in Physiology found that poor
nutritional conditions in pregnant women can affect
children's growth, including stunting. The study also found
that adequate nutritional intake in pregnant women can
help reduce the risk of stunting (Rahman et al., 2018)
Although many scholars agree on the negative
consequences caused by stunting, research on fundamental
movement skills (FMS) proficiency in preschool children in
low- and middle-income countries is limited. In fact,
children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds
may experience delays in developing their motor skills,
which can have a negative impact on their health (Aye, Oo,
Khin, Kuramoto-Ahuja, & Maruyama, 2017). In addition,
findings from research on ethnic differences in sports skills
show that ethnic groups with higher physical health risks
tend to have lower sports skills. The complex relationship
between ethnicity and socioeconomic status may amplify
the risk for health problems and delayed sports abilities in
children. Therefore, it is important to investigate this
concept as well.
In the context of low- and middle-income countries,
attention to motor skill development in preschool children
from economically disadvantaged backgrounds is important
to improve the well-being and health of these children
(O'Brien, Belton, & Issartel, 2016). Additionally, a better
understanding of the role of ethnicity and socioeconomic
status in sports skills may help design more effective
interventions to address health problems and delayed sports
abilities in vulnerable children.
2024, Retos, 54, 224-234
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Method
Design
This research involved participants from two different
sampling groups, obtained using a descriptive cross-sec-
tional study sampling method. The participants were chil-
dren aged 3-5, selected based on their stunting and non-
stunting nutritional statuses. Data were collected by testing
children's locomotor and object control with the TGMD-2
test. TGMD-2 measures 12 basic movement skills, divided
into two subtests: locomotor and object control. The
movement consists of run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal
jump, slide, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand
throw, and underhand roll.
Participant
This research recruited 48 preschool children within the
various age ranges. The mean age of the participants was
±4.98 years old. The children were divided based on their
nutritional status, namely children diagnosed with stunting
and normal children. The group of stunted children con-
sisted of 24 children (12 girls and 12 boys). The stunting
condition was determined by looking at the height, which
was shorter compared to other children at this age. The cri-
teria were classified based on the standard deviation (SD)
value of the child's average height, which should be appro-
priate for his age, using a standard measure called the Z-
score. Meanwhile, the normal child group consisted of 24
children (12 girls and 12 boys) who lived in Nagari Sako
Selatan, Sungai Pagu District, South Solok Regency. This
district ranked 3rd with the highest stunting status in West
Sumatra, with a figure of 31.7.
Procedure
Data was collected from September to October 2023.
Information regarding each child's age, weight, and height
was obtained twofold by gathering data from the Integrated
Healthcare Center (Posyandu) and testing the children
again directly. After that, the fundamental motor skills
(FMS) were measured using the Gross Motor Skills Devel-
opment Test (TGMD-2), validated for the Indonesian pop-
ulation. As the research involved human participants, it has
requested and received approval from Padang State Univer-
sity. In addition, children who served as the subject of this
research have been given the consent of their parents.
TGMD-2 measures 12 basic movement skills, divided
into two subtests: locomotor and object control. The
movement forms consist of run, gallop, hop, leap, horizon-
tal jump, slide, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand
throw, and underhand roll. The researchers were trained
and obtained test qualification permits from Padang State
University of Sports Science, the TGMD-2 testing author-
ity. Each test group consisted of two children, two testers,
and one photographer. Subjects repeated the test twice af-
ter observing a demonstration of the examiner's actions.
The scores obtained from the different skills were added to-
gether to obtain a locomotor skills score (6 skills, with a
maximum score of 46) and an object control skills score (6
skills, with a maximum score of 46). The sum constituted
the total FMS score (with a maximum possible score of 92).
For example, when performing running skills, four points
of performance criteria were applied.
In the evaluation of running skills, four performance cri-
teria were considered. First, the arms were moved opposite
the legs with the elbows bent. Second, there was a short
period where both feet did not touch the ground. After
that, the placement of the feet was narrowed so that they
landed on the heel or toes. Finally, the legs without support
were bent about 90 degrees, so the feet were close to the
buttocks. For each performance criterion that was carried
out correctly, a score of 1 was given. Meanwhile, if the per-
formance criteria were not met, a score of 0 was given. The
maximum score that could be obtained for running skills
was 8, with the evaluation being repeated twice. A maxi-
mum of 4 points could be obtained for each evaluation time.
In this research, mastery was defined as the correct perfor-
mance of all criteria in two trials (e.g., 8 for running or 2
for one aspect of performance). Near mastery was defined
as the correct performance of all but one performance cri-
terion in two trials or a score of 1 for one performance as-
pect. Meanwhile, poor mastery was defined as incorrect
performance/absence of more than one performance crite-
rion in two trials or a score of 0 for one performance aspect.
Statistical Analysis
FMS data were analyzed using SPSS version 23.0 for
Windows. The software calculated descriptive statistics for
mastery level, locomotor skills, and object control. Data
are presented as mean ± SD. Bivariate correlation analysis
was employed to evaluate the relationship between BMI and
raw skill scores. Further, the Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) was used to determine the correlation
between children's nutritional status and the impact on their
motor skills. For variables with interaction effects, simple
effects analysis was used.
This research also compared group differences. In so
doing, the main effect analysis was used. Statistical
significance was set at P<0.05. Bonferroni adjusted alpha
was calculated at 0.017 (p/3) to control for Type I error.
Result
This study involved 24 children diagnosed with
stunting. The mean age of boys (N = 12) was 4.03 years
old, while the mean age of girls (N = 12) was 4.19. Further,
children with normal nutritional status were slightly older
where boys (N = 12) were 5.91, and girls (N = 12) were
5.82. Participant information is shown in Table 1.
The table above classifies participants based on their
nutritional categories. The classification was based on the
children's height, weight, and BMI. For example, the
"stunting" category had an average height of 92.9 cm, an
average weight of 12.00 kg, and an average BMI value of
13.92 ( with their respective standard deviations). Girls in
2024, Retos, 54, 224-234
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this group had an average height of 93.6 cm, an average
weight of 14.53 kg, and an average BMI of 16.56 (with
respective standard deviations).
Meanwhile, in the "normal" category, the participants
showed higher measures. For example, boys in this group
had an average height of 103.1 cm, an average weight of
17.29 kg, and an average BMI of 16.26 (with respective
standard deviations). Further, girls had an average height of
102.4 cm, an average weight of 16.06 kg, and an average
BMI of 15.32 (with respective standard deviations).
Table 1. Participant descriptions were divided by nutritional status, age, and
gender (average±SD)
Category
Gender
N
Age
Height(cm)
Berat(Kg)
BMI
Stunting
man
12
4,03
92,9
12,00
13,92
woman
12
4,19
93,6
14,53
16,56
Normal
man
12
5,91
103,1
17,29
16,26
woman
12
5,82
102,4
16,06
15,32
Table 2.
Description Differences in skills of stunted and non-stunted children by sex with
TGMD2
Skills
stunting
Normal
Average
P
lk
Pr
lk
Pr
Run
3,92
3,83
7,08
7,58
5,27
0,0020
Gallop
2,00
1,08
6,58
7,5
4,09
0,0020
Hop
3,08
3,75
7,75
7,75
5,29
0,0020
Leap
3,58
2,75
5,5
5,00
4,02
0,0020
Horizontal jump
3,33
3,33
5,91
5,75
4,51
0,0020
Slide
3,17
2,66
5,66
5,58
4,07
0,0020
Stricking a stationary ball
3,92
3,5
6,33
6,41
4,91
0,0020
Stationary dribble
2,25
2,58
5,41
5,75
3,79
0,0020
Battle
3,25
3,08
5,41
5,5
4,21
0,0020
Kick
4,25
2,75
6
5,58
4,50
0,0020
Over hand throw
3,25
3
5,66
5,91
4,29
0,0020
Under hand Roll
3,00
2,58
5,16
5,25
3,86
0,0020
Table 2 provides a comparative description of motor
skills between stunting and non-stunting children. The
comparison is made following gender, using the Movement
Perception Skills Test (TGMD2). Each motor skill average
value was measured for both groups and described by gen-
der.
As shown in Table 2, children with stunting have a
lower average score than normal children in each type of
skill. The P-value recorded in column 'P' indicates the sta-
tistical significance of this comparison. A low P value indi-
cates a significant difference between the two groups in cer-
tain aspects of motor skills. For example, on the skill "run,"
boys with stunting had an average score of 3.92, while nor-
mal boys had an average score of 7.08. This difference was
significant, with a P value of 0.0020, indicating a real dif-
ference in running skills between the two groups.
There are six locomotor skills (run, gallop, hop, leap,
horizontal jump, slide) and six object control skills (striking
a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand
throw, and underhand roll). Among these, the highest per-
centage of mastery was hopping (±5.29) and striking a sta-
tionary ball (±4.91). Meanwhile, the lowest percentages
were leap (±4.02) and stationary dribble (±3.79). These
occurred in both categories. Further analysis of this study
focused on the specific problem where the highest percent-
age of possession in four running parameters was the second
point (95%), “a brief period in which both feet do not touch
the ground.” The highest percentage of mastery in the four
slide aspects was given to "slide to the right continuously
four times" and "slide to the left continuously four times,"
namely 78% and 79%, respectively. Meanwhile, the per-
centage rate of poor mastery of the 3-point gallop skill was
always low: the child's hands were positioned in front of the
body with bent elbows (25%), the arms were extended to
grab the ball as it came (26%), and the ball was caught with
the bare hands (22%). In TH's five-point shot, the highest
percentage of bad possessions went to “this ball sent it
straight forward,” as 33% of kids missed the ball com-
pletely.
This research also analyzed the t-test results to examine
the influence of nutritional status (stunting/normal) on in-
dividual motor skills. Scores are summarized in Table 3.
There were significant differences in FMS or OC detected
between stunted and normal children. In addition, signifi-
cant differences were found in LM between girls and boys.
Tabel 3.
Tests of Normality Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic
df
Say.
Statistic
df
Say.
normal male motor
.246
9
.125
.914
9
.348
motor stunting male
.200
9
.200*
.911
9
.324
motor women women
.330
9
.005
.819
9
.034
motor stunting for women
.317
9
.010
.815
9
.030
The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test show sta-
tistical and significance values (Sig.) for each group, while
the results of the Shapiro-Wilk test provide statistics and
significance, which can provide a further picture of the nor-
mality of the data distribution. In general, if the significance
value (Sig.) is greater than 0.05, it can be considered that
the data distribution is not significantly different from the
normal distribution. Conversely, a significance value
smaller than 0.05 indicates evidence that the data distribu-
tion is not normal.
Table 3 indicates that the "normal male motor skills"
group does not have significantly different data distribution,
both according to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-
Wilk tests. The "male stunting motor" group showed a
value less than 0.05 in the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, indi-
cating a distribution that was significantly different from the
normal distribution. Although the results of the Shapiro-
Wilk test did not provide the same significance, the "female
normal motor" group showed that the data distribution was
significantly different from the normal distribution accord-
ing to both test methods. The "female motor stunting"
group showed similar results, where the data distribution
was significantly different from the normal distribution ac-
cording to both tests. However, due to the minimal number
of participants, the above data is not consistently normal.
Therefore, non-parametric statistical analysis was em-
ployed using the Wilcoxon rank test, as illustrated in Table
4. Based on the statistical tests, the motoric values of stunt-
ing children (boys and girls) were smaller than those of nor-
mal ones (boys and girls). Girls were better than boys in
several movements, like jumping (P<0.05), skipping
2024, Retos, 54, 224-234
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(P<0.05), and sliding (P<0.05). Due to significant differ-
ences between both boys and girls in certain FMS skills, to
exclude the influence of gender, boys and girls were studied
separately when studying the influence of environmental
and ethnic differences on FMS. Meanwhile, when compar-
ing the raw scores of certain skills, six locomotor skills (run,
gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, and slide) and six object
control skills (striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble,
catch, kick, overhand throw, and underhand roll) showed
significant differences between the stunting groups and nor-
mal. After adjusting the significance level using the Bonfer-
roni method, it was found that six skills (run, gallop, hop,
leap, horizontal jump, slide) with statistically significant dif-
ferences were found in the stunting and normal groups.
Meanwhile, in the object control skills test, no signifi-
cant difference was found between children. Likewise, in
normal children, no significant differences were found in
the control object test. In the implementation of the loco-
motor test, a statistically significant difference occurred be-
tween the stunting-diagnosed group, which got the highest
gap in gallop skills, and the normal who got the highest
score in this skill with a ratio of 4.55. In contrast, the test
that had a fairly low comparison was the locomotor test in
the skills test, with a comparison score of 2.03.
Table 4.
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
motor stunting male -
motor normal mal e
Negative Ranks
12a
6.50
78.00
Positive Ranks
0b
.00
.00
Ties
0c
Total
12
motor stunting women -
motor women women
Negative Ranks
12d
6.50
78.00
Positive Ranks
0e
.00
.00
Ties
0f
Total
12
Information:
a. motor stunting of men < motor of normal men
b. motor stunting of men > motor of normal men
c. motor stunting male = motor normal male
d. motor stunting of women < motor of women women
e. motor stunting for women > motor for women women
f. motor stunting female = motor female female
Differences in nutritional status
(stunting/normal) in FMS
In comparing 2 groups with different nutritional
statuses, there were significant differences between the
stunting and normal groups in locomotor scores and control
objects. Analysis showed that stunted children had a
significantly lower sum of LM and OC scores than normal
children (all P<0.05). The Wilcoxon was then used to
adjust the significance level of the paired tests. Differences
in locomotor and control object scores between stunting
and normal groups (all adjusted P<0.05).
Before carrying out inferential statistical tests to
determine the significance value between the motor skills
of stunted and normal children in this study, a normality
test was carried out using Shapiro-Wilk. The results
showed that there was inconsistency/non-normality in each
variable (data) so that normality was ignored.
Differences in gender (Male/Female) and
Nutritional Status (stunting/normal) in FMS
In comparing 2 groups of different genders, there were
significant differences between the stunted male group and
normal male group and between the stunted female group
and normal female group. These differences especially
happened in the FMS and OC scores. Analysis showed that
stunted boys had significantly lower LM and FMS scores
than normal boys (P<0.05 each). After adjusting the
significance level using the t-test method, the scores and
groups that had statistically significant differences were
obtained. LM: Stunted and normal boy groups (adjusted
p<0.05 each).
As for boys, when comparing the raw scores of specific
skills, the 3 LM skills (running, galloping, and sliding)
showed statistically significant differences between the two
groups.
Six OC skills (striking a stationary ball, stationary
dribble, catch, kick, overhand throw, and underhand roll)
have P<0.05. After adjusting the significance level using the
Bonferroni method, it was found that skills and gender had
significant differences between the 2 groups (all P<0.05).
After adjusting the significance level using the paired
method, it was found that skills and gender did have
statistically significant differences (all adjusted P<0.05).
The men's group obtained the highest score in jumping and
attacking skills from both the stunting and normal groups.
Meanwhile, the women's group got the highest score in hop
skills.
Table 5 describes the mean score for children's motor
skills between those with stunting and normal status. In the
FMS stunting program, the average motor skill was 18.65
with elementary school 1.15. Meanwhile, the FMS
program for normal children had an average of motor skills
of 36.52 with ± sd 0.36.
Table 5.
Paired Samples Test
Sumber
Statistics
Man
Woman
Total
Raw Score
Lokomotor
Raw
Score
Raw Score
Lokomotor
Raw Score
Control
objects
Control
objects
Stunting
n
231,00
239,00
212,00
213,00
895,00
x
19,25
19,92
17,67
17,75
18,65
sd
8,14
6,89
5,38
6,36
1,15
Normal
n
463,00
408,00
470,00
413,00
1754,00
x
38,50
34,00
39,17
34,42
36,52
sd
2,75
2,45
1,99
1,93
0,39
Discussion
The researchers' main findings indicate that children
with stunting tend to have lower levels of motor skills
compared to non-stunting children. This is consistent with
previous research showing a relationship between physical
growth and motor development in childhood (Arruda et al.,
2022). An investigation of 48 preschool children aged
between 3–5 years from preschools throughout South Solok
showed that BMI and nutritional status had minimal
influence on FMS skills(Niemistö, Finni, Haapala, Cantell,
& Sääkslahti, 2019). In our study, to clarify the relationship
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between BMI and FMS, a correlation analysis was run. The
results were consistent with previous studies, and the
correlation was very weak.
Scholars argue that linear growth failure serves as a
marker for a variety of pathological disorders, such as
increased morbidity and mortality, loss of physical growth
potential, decreased neurodevelopmental and cognitive
function, and increased risk of chronic disease in
adulthood(López-Valenciano, Ayala, De Ste Croix,
Barbado, & Vera-Garcia, 2019; Phytanza, Burhaein, &
Pavlovic, 2021). The severe irreversible physical and
neurocognitive damage that accompanies stunted growth
represents a major threat to human development.
Therefore, increasing awareness of the magnitude of
stunting and its devastating consequences is critical and
perceived as a key global health priority. This has become
the focus of the international community at the highest
levels, with global targets set for 2025 and beyond
(Griffiths, Toovey, Morgan, & Spittle, 2018; Luengo et al.,
2019).
Stunting is a major contributor to child morbidity and
mortality; thus, providing evidence for more effective
policies and programs is vital to prevent child malnutrition
and the associated lifelong disability. Such evidence is also
critical to achieving the global nutrition targets for 2025
adopted by the World Health Assembly and has been
proposed as a key indicator for the post-2015 development
agenda (Akombi et al., 2017). It is important to note that
the early childhood period is a critical time to promote
physical activity. The health benefits of vigorous physical
activity from dawn have not been confirmed. It is
recommended that physical activity be encouraged in young
children to help develop their motor skills (McCoy et al.,
2020; Oktavia et al., 2019).
Several studies have shown gender differences in
fundamental motor skills (FMS) proficiency, with boys
tending to score higher than girls (Bala & Katić, 2009).
However, evidence regarding gender differences in
locomotor skills remains inconsistent, with some studies
reporting superiority in girls (Kim, Carlson, Curby, &
Winsler, 2016; Zhou et al., 2023). Moreover, other studies
support the current findings that there was no significant
difference between boys and girls(Oberer, Gashaj, &
Roebers, 2017).
Another study (Arini, Mayasari, & Rustam,
2019)showed that a relationship was found between the
degree of stunting and impaired cognitive and motor
development in children. Research (Mastuti & Indahwati,
2021b) reported that children who experienced stunting
had lower personal social, language, fundamental, and fine
motor development scores compared to children who did
not experience stunting. The results of research by Susiani
(2019) showed that the fine motor development status in
the suspected stunting category of toddlers with stunting
was higher (71.7%) compared to non-stunting (47.4%). It
was found that fundamental motor development status in
the suspect category of stunted toddlers was higher (60.4%)
than non-stunting children (35.1%). There are differences
in the development of fine motor skills and fundamental
motor skills in stunting and non-stunting children with
values (P= 0.016 and P= 0.014).
One reason may be that at ages 3 to 5, boys and girls are
biologically similar, but gender roles and social perceptions
may influence how they engage in competitive activities.
This may result in differences in the performance of certain
motor skills(Houwen, van der Veer, Visser, & Cantell,
2017; Roebers et al., 2014). In this study, girls showed
significantly better performance in locomotor skills, such as
jumping, hopping, and sliding, compared with boys.
Therefore, in analyzing the influence of environment and
ethnicity on FMS, research subjects were divided into
groups of boys and girls. If left untreated, low motor skills
can have a negative impact on a child's physical, cognitive,
and social development, as well as an active lifestyle (Michel
& Molitor, 2022; van der Fels et al., 2015). Motor skills are
a person's ability to carry out movements or physical
activities that require coordination between muscles,
nerves, and sensory systems. They can be divided into two
categories, namely fundamental motor skills and fine motor
skills(Vidranski, 2015).
Handling stunting in the form of providing nutritious
food and accompanied by physical activity in the form of
traditional games for school children is very
necessary(Welis, Darni, Khairuddin, Rifki, & Chaeroni,
2022).Fundamental motor skills are needed as a basis for
developing motor skills in the future(Pranoto, Sibomana, et
al., 2023).These skills are children's basic movements that
should be mastered in childhood (Harris, Alnedral, Taufan,
Aulia, & Gusril, 2023). Regardless of the importance of
these skills, data about them among children, both
preschool and elementary school children, in Indonesia are
still limited due to a lack of understanding of these
disciplines in Indonesia(Bakhtiar, 2014). In fact, lack of
physical activity will cause various kinds of problems,
especially related to cardiovascular disease, obesity, and
difficulty in solving problems. Scholars suggest that
endurance and strength physical activity programs can
increase the life satisfaction of obese children and even
increase the satisfaction of their school life (Chaeroni,
Komaini, Pranoto, & Antoni, 2022).Under normal
conditions, children, especially kindergarteners, acquire
and apply these motor skills in the school environment
(Pranoto, Chaeroni, Rifki, Ilham, & Susanto, 2023).
In this study, children's FMS performance varied across
environments. The FMS scores of children in this area were
lower than in other areas. These findings are consistent with
research from other countries (Galdi, D'Anna, Pastena, &
Paloma, 2015; Weston, Siegler, Bahnert, McBrien, &
Lovell, 2015). Research shows that low-income children in
rural areas perform significantly better than high-income
children in urban areas and low-income children in urban
areas (P=0.028 and P=0.009, respectively). Other
research focused on socioeconomic and family factors and
found that children living below the poverty line tended to
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have better fundamental motor skills. In addition, they
discovered that girls had better locomotor skills than boys
(Leroy & Frongillo, 2019a; Zeng et al., 2017). Children
from rural areas have the potential to spend more outdoor
time. Differently, children from metropolitan areas are
most often involved in organized sports (Black et al., 2008;
Eliasson et al., 2006). It is unclear whether ethnicity
influences the development of FMS in young children.
Previous results have been mixed. A 3-year longitudinal
study of 313 kindergartners, for instance, showed that
Hispanic children greatly increased sedentary behavior and
lower MVPA than non-Hispanic children (Zhang, Chen, &
Gu, 2020).
In contrast, studies investigating FMS in catching,
balancing, and jumping in 4- to 12-year-old Euro-American
children (N=103) and Mexican–American children
(N=104) found no significant differences between the two
groups in these tasks(Keskinen et al., 2015). Only, we
observed that they found no ethnic differences because
many activities were similar in both cultures during the
early years of childhood. In contrast, in Eyre's study, in the
white and South Asian groups, at baseline, there were
significant differences between ethnicities in running,
stationary dribbling, throwing, tumbling, 7-skill scores,
and medicine ball throwing. The majority of South Asian
children were categorized as those with poorer motor
performance on the skill component and/or White children
had higher levels of mastery of the motor component
(Saidmamatov, Nascimento, Cerqueira, Rodrigues, &
Vasconcelos, 2022).
Stunting can affect the development of the brain and
central nervous system, which play a key role in
coordinating body movements and motor skills. Children
who experience stunting may face challenges in developing
their motor skills, such as running, jumping, and
performing other movements(Mudadu Silva et al., 2023b;
Taib & Ismail, 2021).
Apart from nutritional aspects, psychosocial factors also
play an important role. Children who are stunted may face
stress and a lack of optimal stimulation, which can affect the
development of their motor skills. Appropriate
interventions can help reverse the impact of stunting on
central nervous system development and motor skills.
(Leroy & Frongillo, 2019b). These simulations include
providing adequate nutrition and a supportive environment
for development. Prevention and early intervention efforts
can also play a role in ensuring children have the best
opportunity to develop their potential motor skills(de Onis
& Branca, 2016b). In this context, a holistic approach,
including nutrition, environmental stimulation, and
psychosocial support, can be the key to improving the
health and development of children experiencing stunting
(Prendergast & Humphrey, 2014b; Rahman et al., 2018).
Finally, our main finding indicates that most children's
FMS skills are strongly influenced by nutritional status. The
FMS skills of most stunted children are worse than normal
children. Such findings are common in both boys and girls.
Skill differences between genders are quite diverse and the
specific reasons are not explained in this study. Compared
to girls, boys' skills are more influenced by region and
ethnicity. The skills that are different between the women's
groups are also different in the men's groups. Conversely,
some skills are different in boys but not different in girls.
From a physiological point of view, although there are no
obvious physiological differences between boys and girls in
early childhood, boys tend to have easier access to activities
and encouragement. They also have more opportunities to
participate in competitive play, which causes differences in
skill performance between boys and girls.
Research limitations
Despite the promising results, caution is required in
interpreting the results, and some limitations must be
acknowledged. First, many factors can influence research
results. These include each child's individual characteristics,
such as age of independent walking, time spent sitting still
and outdoors, participation in organized sports activities,
and access to electronic devices. Family factors also play a
role, including parental education level, physical frequency,
and sedentary behavior. Another factor is the children’s
environment, such as the use of sports facilities. Delayed
development of motor competence is also associated with
decreased health-promoting physical activity, physical
fitness, perceived competence, and increased obesity
(Dapp, Gashaj, & Roebers, 2021). Other factors that may
be important but have not been considered or for which
data are not available include outdoor exposure,
community recreational activities, and genetic
predisposition. However, research usually focuses on
limited factors; no comprehensive studies have been
conducted. Due to the complexity of influencing factors,
the reasons for related differences between groups will be
addressed in further research.
Another limitation is that only one process-oriented
tool was used. Thus, certain FMS (such as stability skills)
were not checked in this research. Although the TGMD-2
is a valid tool that has been used in many international
studies, further research should consider the use of more
than one tool to evaluate FMS comprehensively.
Conclusion
In this study, children with different nutritional statuses
showed certain characteristics in FMS, indicating that they
were influenced by nutritional status and gender. This re-
search confirmed that boys and girls with stunting status had
poorer abilities in carrying out certain skills than others and
performed better in other skills. This suggests that certain
population groups may require a special focus on interven-
tions to improve their FMS levels. Further research will
provide greater clarity for improving targeted FMS inter-
ventions.
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Datos de los autores y traductor:
Nuridin Widya Pranoto
nuridin@fik.unp.ac.id
Autor/a
Varhatun Fauziah
fauziah44342@gmail.com
Autor/a
Arif Fadli Muchlis
arif_fmuchlis@fik.unp.ac.id
Autor/a
Anton Komaini
antonkomaini@fik.unp.ac.id
Autor/a
Rayendra Rayendra
rayendra@fip.unp.ac.id
Autor/a
PreferenciasNugroho Susanto
nugrohosusanto@fik.unp.ac.id
Autor/a
PreferenciasGema Fitriady
gema.fitriady.fik@um.ac.id
Autor/a
PreferenciasHendra Setyawan
hendra7777setyawan@uny.ac.id
Autor/a
PreferenciasRatko Pavlovic
pavlovicratko@yahoo.com
Autor/a
PreferenciasAlexandre Sibomana
alexamana37@gmail.com
Autor/a
Japhet ndayisenga
ndayisengajaphet@gmail.com
Autor/a
Mhs proofreading
+62 85750966821
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