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Mgalula
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00668-x
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Journal of Ethnobiology
and Ethnomedicine
An ethnobotanical study ofwild edible
fruits inmiombo woodlands ofTabora region
inWestern Tanzania
Michael Elias Mgalula1*
Abstract
Background Wild edible fruits found in Tanzania’s miombo woods are an indispensable source of food and medicine.
Unfortunately, with the rapid expansion of human activities and urbanisation in the Tabora rural, Uyui and Sikonge
districts of Western Tanzania, some wild fruits are disappearing due to the loss of plant diversity. The objectives of this
study wereL: to document the knowledge related to wild edible fruits; to quantify the use and cultural significance,
and to determine their threats.
Methods The ethnobotanical study was conducted from June 2022 to February 2023 involving 244 local informants.
The study used field visits, the collection of plant parts, and semi-structured interviews with locals for its data collec-
tion. Descriptive statistics and correlation test were used to analyse the knowledge related to wild fruits. Frequency
citation (f) and use reports (UR) were computed to understand the diversity and cultural significance (CI).
Results The study documented 27 wild edible fruit species used for food and medicine. The life form constituted
deciduous shrubs or trees (64%), shrub trees (21%) and evergreen or deciduous trees (15%). About (56%) of wild
edible fruits were collected from June to August after the rainy season, (33%) were harvested between December
and May during the rainy season, and (11%) were gathered from September and November before the rainy season.
Household size and sex of the respondents were significantly correlated to the knowledge of wild edible fruits. Higher
utilisation frequency (f) was recorded for Vitex mombassae Vatke (f = 0.84), Strychnos spinosa Lam. (f = 0.82), Vitex payos
(Lour.) Merr. (f = 0.56), Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog. (f = 0.45), Vangueria infausta Burchell (f = 0.45), Tamarindus
indica L. (f = 0.38), Parinari curatellifolia (f = 0.25), Landolphia parvifolia K.Schum. (f = 0.22) and Microcos conocarpa Burret
(f = 0.22) fruits species. Additionally, Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog. (UR = 56), Vitex mombassae Vatke (UR = 56),
Tamarindus indica L. (UR = 37), Strychnos spinosa Lam. (UR = 14) and Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Verdc. (UR = 11), have
higher use reports (UR) and considered culturally important. Wild fruits were used to cure diabetes, gastrointestinal,
reproductive, and respiratory infections ailments.
Discussion andconclusion Multiple uses as well as the related knowledge of wild fruits have been documented.
Friesodielsia obovata, Grewia flavescens Juss and Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm. are the medicinal fruit species reported
for the first time. Harvesting of wood plants, charcoal activities, crop cultivation, grazing expansion, and environmen-
tal change, have had an impact on the diversity of wild edible fruit plants. Over the past three decades, the use of wild
fruits has been impacted by the loss of plant diversity due to decline of cultural norms on the forests management.
*Correspondence:
Michael Elias Mgalula
mgalulamike@yahoo.com; mgalulamike@googlemail.com; michael.
mgalula@udsm.ac.tz
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
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Page 2 of 16
Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
Given the variety of uses for wild fruits, promoting markets for native fruits, sensitising the locals about the cultural
importance and innovation on processing techniques are necessary to spur conservation efforts.
Keywords Wild edible fruits, Ethnobotany, Indigenous knowledge, Utilisation, Cultural significance, Degradation
threats
Introduction
Wild edible fruits are essential food and medicine sources
in many communities [1]. ese fruit species are not cul-
tivated but are grown spontaneously in their wild natural
environments, such as forests and shrublands [2]. Wild
fruits are essential to local diets and are a food source in
all parts of the world that support the global food basket
[3–5]. Unfortunately, wild edible fruits are characterised
by limited development relative to their potential [6].
Traditional plant uses is declining in many communities
in the world [7]. is declining is caused by alteration or
disappearance of rural ecosystems in conserving forests
or landscapes, many younger generations tend to ignore
these native fruits [8], and increased reliance on exotic
fruits and modern medicines [9]. Declining of cultural
practice of wild fruits would inevitably lead to loss of
indigenous knowledge of plant use, potentially affecting
traditional plant knowledge into future [7]. In many rural
communities worldwide, the use of wild fruits remains
important because rural families do not have access to
modern or exotic fruits. If they are available, they are
relatively expensive [10]. As a result, most rural families
in many developing countries remain undernourished
because they do not have a variety of food to meet their
daily requirements, and many more people are deficient
in one or more micronutrients [11]. It is estimated that
nearly 800 million people are chronically hungry, and 2
billion individuals are undernourished due to micronu-
trient deficiencies [12]. Consuming wild edible fruits can
be a good source of vitamins and supplement micronu-
trient deficiencies [13, 14]. e diversity of wild edible
fruits across different ecological zones in Africa, such as
miombo woodlands is essential because wild edible fruits
are rich sources of vitamins, minerals and valuable phy-
tochemicals [15].
Wild fruits are the most widely known non-timber
forest products (NTFPs) [16]. If well utilised, they can
supplement diet, medicine, and material substance and
are important sources of income essential for purchas-
ing required household goods in rural settings [17, 18].
However, ever-increasing demands for land resources
to produce food and the privatisation of land altogether
have resulted in the degradation of natural ecosys-
tems due to deforestation [19]. While those dynamics
are happening, there is much concern about increas-
ing global hunger due to a rising human population
and urbanisation on the one hand and, on the other,
climate variability, which is exponentially increasing.
ese stresses suppress the availability and utilisation
of wild edible fruits in most rural communities in the
sub-Saharan Africa. As a result, the use of wild fruits as
food has declined mainly except for a few rural commu-
nities who continue utilising these indigenous fruits in
their natural habitats [8].
In Eastern Africa, studies have documented numer-
ous indigenous plants; coupled with [20, 21] nearly
3–8% of the estimated 7000 higher plants of Ethiopia
are edible, 25% of which are cultivated. ere are also
many wild edible plants (WEPs) that produce quantities
of food. In Kenya, the country is endowed with nearly
6293 indigenous plants [22], including 800 are food
[23]. Nevertheless, there are more unrecorded wild
plant species that thought to be edible [20]. Certainly,
there is insufficient documentation about the diversity
of wild fruits. Recording the knowledge about diversity
and changes of untamed wild fruits can improve our
knowledge related to food security and conservation in
these countries [24].
In Tanzania, over 12,000 species of higher plants have
been reported, and about 10% are estimated to be used
as medicines to treat different human health condi-
tions [25]. However, few ethnobotanical studies have
been conducted to analyse the diversity of wild edible
fruits, their uses, cultural significance and the threats,
especially from the miombo woodlands of Tanzania.
Miombo woodlands of Tanzania are known for their
diversity of plant species [26]. However, most ethno-
botanicals have slightly documented the cultural sig-
nificance of wild edible fruits, including diversity and
uses. Despite this lacuna, wild fruit species are continu-
ing to become rare. Studies such as [27] reported on
the nutritional composition and antioxidant properties
of four species of wild edible fruits in southern Tanza-
nia, and [28] reviewed usable wild plant species in rela-
tion to elevation and land use in mountainous areas of
Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Few studies have documented
Tanzania’s availability, preference, and consumption
of wild edible fruits [29–33]. However, studies on the
cultural significance of wild fruits and the threats due
to human modifications are missing, especially in the
miombo woodlands of western Tanzania. Given that
a larger portion of Tanzania’s western regions has
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
extensive miombo woodlands with potential wild edi-
ble fruits, it is imperative to document the traditional
knowledge about wild edible fruits in the context of
societal and environmental change.
Traditionally, plants bearing edible fruits have been
purposefully retained during land clearing for crop fields’
expansion or charcoal extraction [34], because they are
food sources and can provide cash earnings. However, the
growing disruptions caused by human activities continue
to infringe on the variety of wild edible fruits. Research
has indicated that while some wild edible plants adapt
well to disturbances like grazing and plant harvesting [35,
36] or fire [37], others are more susceptible to changes in
land use. Unlike modern fruit trees, which are more sus-
ceptible to climate change or land use change, wild edible
trees possess adaptive traits that increase their resilience
to stresses. To address this gap, the present study inter-
viewed the local inhabitants of the districts of the Tabora
region to document the knowledge about the diversity of
wild edible fruits, uses and their cultural significance. e
main aim of this ethnobotanical study is to document the
diversity of wild edible fruits, their utilisation, cultural
significance and threats facing wild edible fruits in the
miombo woodlands of Tabora rural, Uyui and Sikonge
districts in Tabora region of western Tanzania. e spe-
cific objectives are: (1) to document the knowledge about
the diversity and seasonal availability of wild edible fruits;
(2) to quantify utilisation frequency, use reports and
cultural significance of wild fruits; (3) to determine the
threats to wild edible fruits and conservation options.
Materials andmethods
Description ofthestudy areas
e study was conducted in the Tabora region, located in
Western Tanzania (Fig.1). ree districts, namely Tabora
Rural, Uyui, and Sikonge lie between latitude 3° 00′–7°
00′ South and longitude 32° 00′–34° 00′ East were sur-
veyed. e region’s elevation lies at 1000–1500m above
Fig. 1 Location map of the three surveyed districts
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
sea level, with lowlands and hilly areas rising to 1800m
above sea level [34]. e districts surveyed feature three
agroecological zones based on their topography, which
varies from low-lying plains, flat to undulating with
isolated hills and ridges with outcrops of more resist-
ant basement rocks. e climate is warm, and the mean
annual temperature is around 23°C, with a maximum
monthly temperature varying between 27 and 30 °C,
while the minimum monthly temperature varies from 15
to 18°C [33]. e region’s cooler months begin from May
to July, with warmer periods from August to November.
Rainfall is unimodal, occurring from November to May
during the wet season while from June to October is the
dry season. e studied locations exhibit slight variations
in rainfall.
In the Western Uyui districts, North West Sikonge
districts, and Tabora rural, the average annual rainfall
is over 1000 mm, but decreases to 700 mm or less in
the Eastern Uyui and Northern Sikonge districts [34].
Soils are 80–90% sand (ferric acrisol), with low organic
carbon ranging between 0.4 and 0.8%. Vegetation com-
munity varied across the study locations; Sikonge dis-
trict is endowed with miombo woodlands dominated by
Brachystegia species, as well as Isoberlinia angolensis,
Julbernardia globiflora, or Julbernardia paniculata. Some
Acacia and Combretum species [38] are interspersed
with other plants, bushland thicket interspersed with
grassy grasslands, riverine and wetland vegetation. In
Tabora rural, two conserved forest reserves are covered
by miombo or interspersed with other vegetation com-
munities, bushland thickets interspersed with grassy,
wetland vegetation. In the Uyui district, a more signifi-
cant portion of its land is dominated by bushland thicket,
lowland grassy, wetland vegetation, miombo woodlands
and wetland vegetation. e closed miombo woodland is
protected as game and forest reserves.
e people in the study locations have diverse
livelihood activities. e main socio-economic
activities include crop farming, livestock keeping [33],
and beekeeping [39]. Farmed crops include cash (tobacco,
groundnut and sunflower) and subsistence (maize, sweet
potatoes, cassava, millet, rice, and beans). Maize, sweet
potatoes, cassava and rice are the main staple foods in
the study locations. e extraction of firewood, charcoal
production and petty business are other activities in the
research areas. e ethnic groups in the study locations
include the majority Nyamwezi, who speak Kinyamwezi;
the Sukuma, who speak Kisukuma; and the minority Ha,
who speak Kiha, but the official language spoken by the
majority is Kiswahili. Most inhabitants in the studied
locations are Christians or Muslims, with the numbers
almost balanced, and very few people practice traditional
worship. Since ancient time, wild plants have played an
essential nutritional role in human survival in Tabora
regions and medicinal applications.
Ethnobotanical information
e study collected ethnobotanical data through semi-
structured interviews and questionnaires from June 2022
through February 2023, which targeted key informants,
herders, farmers, beekeepers and the people engaged in
wood plant harvesting and charcoal extraction. A total of
244 respondents from eight (8) wards: Ndevelwa in Tab-
ora Rural, Ufuluma, Ilolangulu, Upuge and Kigwa in Uyui
district and Sikonge, Kisanga and Chabutwa in Sikonge
district with ages ranging from 18 to 70 + were involved
in the surveys (Table 1). During data collection, the
researcher asked participants to describe habitats where
wild edible fruits grow, their availability, uses and deg-
radation threats. e questions about wild edible fruits
mainly focused on local or vernacular names. e speci-
mens of all 27 wild edible fruits recorded including parts
of pants and the leaves were collected in the study sites by
their vernacular names. e National Forestry Resources
Monitoring and Assessment of Tanzania [40] book was
referred to guide identification and documentation.
Table 1 Study villages, locations, elevation and number of households interviewed
Districts Wards Villages GPS location Elevation (m) Total
households Households
interviewed Percent
Tabora rural Ndevelwa Inara 5° 05′ 53″ S 32° 52′ 29″ E 1216.27 221 30 12.3
Uyui Kigwa Kalofya- Ng’ambo 5° 08′ 59″ S 33° 07′ 54″ E 1238.96 350 30 12.3
Upuge Kasenga 4° 55′ 11″ S 32° 56′ 03″ ″E 1228.29 221 30 12.3
Ilolangulu Mpenge 3° 18′ 32″ S 32° 05′ 21″ E 1226.65 258 31 12.7
Ufuluma Umanda 4° 56′ 38″ S 32° 23′ 08″ E 1139.55 92 28 11.5
Sikonge Sikonge Mkolye- Isunda 5° 33′ 22″ S 32° 40′ 14″ E 1167.83 306 30 12.3
Kisanga Chag’ombe 5° 33′ 38″ S 32° 52′ 52″ E 1240.13 200 32 13.1
Chabutwa Kikungu 5° 58′ 59″ S 34° 06′ 59″ E 1487.01 320 33 13.5
244 100
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
Species identification was restricted to trees and shrubs,
where participants identified trees and shrub species,
including edible fruits grown in their environment. e
botanist at the College of Natural and Applied Sciences
(CONAS) of the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) in
Tanzania identified all specimens and give the voucher
numbers. e specimens of all 27 species of wild edible
fruits are stored at the Department of Botany herbarium
of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Selection andsampling ofthestudy areas
e study deployed purposive and stratified sampling
techniques in order to guarantee representation from
each important strata based on the presence of forest
reserves such as Kigwa Lubuga, Urumwa and Ulyankulu
and the rangelands with a diversity of wild edible fruits.
e selection of study villages from the respective dis-
tricts considered carefully the agro-ecological zones,
upland/hill vegetation landscapes, lowland and riverine
vegetation and wetland vegetation, and land uses, such
as cultivated land, open grazing areas, and beekeeping
zones. After being informed about the purpose of the
study in all study locations, an official list of total house-
holds in each selected village was obtained from ward
offices. Based on the total number of households in each
study village, a 10% sample size of all households was pre-
ferred, and household questionnaire surveys were admin-
istered to obtain information about the diversity, use and
degradation threats to wild edible fruits. Key informants
such as forest officials from the Tanzania Forest Service
(TFS), elderly members of the community and small pro-
cessors of edible fruits were considered in the household
sampled and interviewed to obtain in-depth ethnobotan-
ical information about wild edible fruits.
Data analysis
Ethnobotanical information collected from 244 heads of
households was analysed using IBM SPSS v20 software
and Ms Excel. Descriptive statistics was run to gener-
ate frequencies, percentages, and means of variables. In
addition, to test the association between the socio-demo-
graphic information such as sex, age, household size,
duration of stay, and education levels with the indigenous
knowledge about wild edible fruits, the Pearson Correla-
tion test (r) two–tailed test was computed. e ethnobot-
anical indices described below were determined to obtain
information about utilisation frequency, use reports and
cultural significance of the wild edible fruits.
Utilisation frequency (f)
Utilisation frequency (f) [41] was computed to quantify
the use frequency of certain species listed by participants
using the formula below:
where f represents the utilisation frequency, Nm is the
number of informants mentioned in certain species, Ni
represents the total number of informants. e higher
the value of f, the more frequent the fruit species used.
Use Reports (UR)
Use Report (UR) information of a species mentioned by a
participant within one use category was calculated by the
formula below:
Cultural Importance Index (CI)
Cultural Importance Index (CI) expressed in [42], was
computed in order to determine the diversity of use and
the consensus of respondents using the equation below:
where N is the total number of respondents, and NC is
the total number of use categories. us, the Cultural
Importance Index (CI) is the sum of the proportion of
households that mention each of the use categories for a
given species. e index indicates the spread of the use
(number of respondents) of each species and the diversity
of its uses. e relative importance of each fruit species
is determined by additional use category. erefore, the
higher the CI value is an indicator of multiple uses.
Frequency ofCitation (FC)
Frequency of Citation (FC) was computed by dividing the
citation of a particular species mentioned by participants
(Ci) over the total number of times (N) that all species
were mentioned, multiplying by 100.
Results
Socio‑demographic andeconomic characteristics
oftherespondents
In this ethnobotanical study, a total of 244 local inhabit-
ants from eight wards were interviewed to obtain infor-
mation about the diversity of wild edible fruits, seasonal
availability, their uses and threats. e respondents’
socio-demographic and economic characteristics were
considered in this study (see Table 2). e majority of
respondents were female, and the minority were male.
(1)
f=
Nm
Ni
(2)
UR
=
i=i
UR
ui
(3)
CIs
=
U
NC
U
=
U1
iN
i
=
i
1
URUi/N
(4)
FC
=
Ci
N
×
100
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
e average household size was 5.86 ± 3.34 (s.d.) persons.
e majority of participants’ households comprised 1–5
members, followed by 6–10, and the remaining house-
holds consisted of 11–15 members, 16–20 and a small
number of households with more than twenty people.
e age of the respondents ranged from 20 to 98, with the
majority falling within the 20–29 age group. e results
show that a more significant majority had completed
primary education, compared to those who attained sec-
ondary level, higher education, and fewer people had
never attended school. Married respondents made up the
majority compared to respondents who were single, sep-
arated, widowed, and widower. Crop farming is a signifi-
cant economic activity, followed by small or petty trades,
livestock keeping and employment (Cf. Table2).
Knowledge aboutwild edible fruits, seasonal availability
anddiversity
e respondents reported 27 wild edible fruits and the
ethnobotanical information recorded about these plants,
including their vernacular names, seasonal availability,
habitat, life form and use category. Of the respondents
interviewed, 94.3% possessed strong knowledge of wild
edible fruits found in their area, whereas 5.7% lacked
knowledge. A significant association was found between
socio-demographic information and the knowledge of
wild edible fruits. Pearson product correlation of knowl-
edge about wild fruits and household size was low and
statistically significant (r = 0.221**, p < 0.001). e knowl-
edge about wild fruits and sex was very low and nega-
tively statistically significant (r = − 0.128*, p < 0.048). No
correlation was found between the knowledge about wild
fruits and the socio-demographic variables such as age,
education levels, length of stay and marital status. ere
was a mean difference between the age of the respond-
ents and knowledge of wild edible fruits (Table 3).
Respondents aged 20–29 had better knowledge about
wild edible fruits compared to other age cohorts.
Of the wild edible fruits reported, 64% were decidu-
ous shrubs or small trees, 21% were shrub trees, and
15% were evergreen or deciduous trees. e results show
that 56% of wild edible fruits were harvested from June
to August after the rainy season, 33% between Decem-
ber and May during the rainy season, and 11% from
September to November before the rainy season. Local
people harvested various wild edible fruits at a consid-
erable distance from homesteads; the locals had to trek
to locations such as hilly areas, and bottomlands such as
wetlands. Only a few species, including Vitex mombassae
Vatke, Tamarindus indica L, and Strychnos spinosa Lam.,
were collected near homesteads since the local inhabit-
ants are conserving and preserving them effectively.
Use reports, utilisation frequency andcultural signicance
e survey results indicated that out of 1411 citations, the
top most cited wild edible fruit with higher use reports
was Vitex mombassae, with 276 citations, followed by
Strychnos spinosa, with 228 citations, Phyllogeiton dis-
color (Klotzsch) Herzog., with 175 citations, Vitex payos
(Lour.) Merr. with 150 citations, Tamarindus indica L.
with 137 citations, Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Verdc.,
with 136 citations, Vangueria infausta Burch., with 111
citations, Parinari curatellifolia (Planch. ex Benth.) with
61 citations, Landolphia parvifolia K.Schum., with 54
Table 2 Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants in
the study location
Sex Frequency Percent
Female 107 56.1
Male 137 43.9
Education
Primary education 158 64.8
Secondary education 23 9.4
Higher education 1 0.4
None 62 25.4
Marital status
Married 200 82.0
Single 19 7.8
Separated 2 0.8
Widow 11 4.5
Widower 12 4.9
Households size
1–5 136 55.7
6–10 90 36.9
11–15 15 6.1
16–20 1 0.4
> 20 2 0.8
Occupation
Crop farmers 195 72.8
Livestock keepers 18 6.7
Crop and livestock farmers 24 9
Small or petty business 26 9.7
Employed 5 1.9
Table 3 Mean age of the respondents
Age of the
respondents Mean N Std. error of mean
20–29 1.0755 ± 0.26668 (s.d.) 53 0.03663
30–39 1.0000 ± 0.00000 (s.d.) 47 0.00000
40–49 1.0750 ± 0.26675 (s.d.) 40 0.04218
50–59 1.0732 ± 0.26365 (s.d.) 41 0.04118
60–69 1.0667 ± 0.25371 (s.d.) 30 0.04632
70+ 1.0606 ± 0.24231 (s.d.) 33 0.04218
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
citations and Microcos conocarpa Burret with 53 citations
(Table4). e higher cultural significance (CI) obtained
in the findings denotes the multi-functionality of the
fruits, mainly in the food and medicinal categories. Most
participants in all study areas agreed that fruit species
were considered culturally significant. In terms of utilisa-
tions, the most wild edible fruits with higher utilisation
frequency (f) include Vitex mombassae (f = 0.84), Strych-
nos spinosa (f = 0.82), Vitex payos (f = 0.56), Phyllogeiton
discolor (f = 0.45), Vangueria infausta (f = 0.45), Tama-
rindus indica (f = 0.38), Parinari curatellifolia (f = 0.25),
Landolphia parvifolia (f = 0.22) and Microcos conocarpa
(f = 0.22) (Table4). e reasons given by the participants
for taking the wild fruits included views that they were
tasteful, had therapeutic properties, were traditionally
conditioned, fun, nutrient-dense, and could reduce hun-
ger (Fig.2).
e local inhabitants in the study areas consumed
diverse wild fruit species daily as food. e use reports
(UR) showed that almost all wild fruits recorded were
commonly eaten fresh. In addition, Tamarindus indica
and Phyllogeiton discolor species were cooked alongside
traditional dishes such as oatmeal (porridge). e per-
centage of participants who cited using wild fruits more
than five times a week was higher, followed by those
who use them two to four times a week and once a week
(Fig.3). e findings show that the usage of wild fruits is
related to the daily dietary needs and food supplements
in the studied locations.
Species like Strychnos spinosa and Tamarindus indica
were processed into local brew or juice. At the same
time, Phyllogeiton discolor was dried and crushed to form
nutrient-rich flour mainly used for children and ill per-
sons. Most wild fruits have higher use frequency (Cf.
Table4) due to their multiple uses, such as food, medi-
cine and cultural purposes.
Besides the food use category, the local participants in
the study areas cited the species of wild fruits with phar-
macological applications. A total of 10 medicinal fruit
species used for therapeutic categories were documented
(Table 5). e local participants in this research listed
the different ailments treated using wild edible fruits and
other ingredients. Among the ailments treated includes
diabetes, anaemia, respiratory tract infections (RTI) and
cough, pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTI), con-
stipation, Intestinal inflammation and syphilis, general
stomach and constipation problems, gynaecological
problems such as infertility, menstrual cycle problems
and over bleeding issues (Table5).
e dependence on natural medicine amongst the
local participants is due to a lack of modern medical
amenities and an inability to pay for modern treat-
ment services where available. According to the survey
results, out of 10 species cited (Cf. Table5), Phyllogei-
ton discolor, Vitex mombassae and Tamarindus indica
are the species with high use reports and are used most
frequently due to their versatility in treating various ill-
nesses. e medications of the cited species are mixed
with tea, milk, or hot water; a patient can take medica-
tion three or four times a day until they feel better. A
patient may be prescribed a dosage of 250 to 500 mil-
lilitres of a pharmaceutical mixture depending on one’s
illness condition. Given the pharmacological function
of the recorded wild fruit species in this ethnobotanical
survey, the use of wild fruits for pharmacological pur-
poses is essential because it influences conservation.
Admittedly, these medicinal species are culturally val-
ued in the studied locations.
Threats towild edible fruits
According to respondents from all study villages, natu-
ral causes and land use practices threatened wild edible
fruits in the study locations. e main threats to wild
edible fruits and their abundance mentioned by the
respondents were environmental change, deforestation
and cultivation expansion with more citations, settlement
expansion, charcoal production and expansion of grazing
(Fig.4). According to the respondents, the results showed
that from 1990 until 2023, 85% of locals cited that there
had been less of both variety and quantity of wild fruits,
compared to 12% who cited no change and 3% cited that
wild fruits were easily found. e majority 90% of partici-
pants cited that environmental change, such as climate
has impacts on wild edible fruits, compared to 2% who
disagreed and 8% were unsure.
e respondents cited fruit species that have dimin-
ished in abundance, including Parinari curatellifolia, with
more citations, followed by Friesodielsia obovata, Vitex
payos, Strychnos spinosa, Vitex mombassae and Micro-
cos conocarpa were hardly found (Table 6). Respond-
ents’ consensus on the diminishing rate is higher for
very quick responses, compared to quick and slow ones
(Table6). According to the local inhabitants’ knowledge,
they cited that the consumption of wild fruit from 1990
through 2023 has declined. e survey showed that 59%
agreed that the consumption had decreased, compared to
36% who said it had stayed the same, and 5% who thought
it had increased. e percentage of respondents who
cited a decrease in wild fruit consumption confirmed
that, among other things, deterioration of rural systems
of forest resource conservation and the erosion of cus-
toms around the use of natural fruits by younger genera-
tions are reasons to blame. e loss of plant diversity is
another factor mentioned, as it contributed to a decrease
in the consumption of wild fruits between 1990 and 2023.
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
Table 4 List of wild edible fruits utilised by the locals in Tabora rural, Uyui and Sikonge districts and the different indices
Vernacular name Scientic name Botanical family Life forms Voucher number Frequency
food use FC fFrequency
medicine
use
UR CI
Mpunguswa Grewia flavescens Juss Malvaceae Scrambling shrub MEM 01 35 2.48 0.14 5 43 0.2
Msingilwa Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr Salicaceae A deciduous shrub or small tree MEM 02 8 0.57 0.03 8 0.0
Msungwi/Mtalali Vitex mombassae Vatke Verbenaceae A small deciduous tree MEM 03 205 14.53 0.84 56 276 1.1
Bonga pori/ Ungoungo Landolphia parvifolia K.Schum Apocynaceae An evergreen climbing shrub MEM 04 54 3.83 0.22 54 0.2
Mkwadunda Hexalobus monopetalus (A.Rich.) Engl.
& Diels Annonaceae A deciduous shrub or small
with a scattered spreading canopy MEM 05 40 2.83 0.16 40 0.2
Sekela Antidesma venosum E.Mey.ex Tul Phyllanthaceae an evergreen to semi-deciduous tree
or shrub MEM 06 3 0.21 0.01 3 0.0
Nguwalu Vangueria infausta Burch Rubiaceae A deciduous tree MEM 07 111 7.87 0.45 111 0.5
Msaada/Saada Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel Rubiaceae A shrub or small deciduous tree MEM 08 7 0.50 0.03 7 0.0
Mgogwa Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst Anacardiaceae A deciduous tree MEM 09 8 0.57 0.03 8 0.0
Msalasi/Salasi Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Verdc Annonaceae Scrambling shrub or very small tree MEM 10 106 7.51 0.43 22 136 0.6
Tundwa Ximenia americana L Olacaceae A semi scandent bush-forming shrub
or small tree MEM 11 19 1.35 0.08 19 0.1
Makulwa/Mkome Strychnos pungens Gagnep Loganiaceae A deciduous to sometimes evergreen
tree MEM 12 8 0.57 0.03 8 0.0
Mtonga Strychnos spinosa Lam Loganiaceae A deciduous tree MEM 13 199 14.10 0.82 14 228 0.9
Nkonze Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard A shrub or small tree MEM 14 33 2.34 0.14 33 0.1
Mkoma Grewia bicolor Juss Tiliaceae A multi-stemmed shrub or small tree MEM 15 5 0.35 0.02 1 6 0.0
Mwange/Mwage Strychnos spinosa Lam Loganiaceae MEM 16 18 1.28 0.07 18 0.1
Ukwaju Tamarindus indica L Fabaceae MEM 17 93 6.59 0.38 37 137 0.6
Gogondi Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog Rhamnaceae Evergreen tree with drooping twigs MEM 18 111 7.87 0.45 56 175 0.7
Mkamu Canthium burttii Bullock Rubiaceae A shrub or a small tree MEM 19 42 2.98 0.17 42 0.2
Mtowo Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm Malvaceae A small shrub or semi-deciduous tree MEM 20 13 0.92 0.05 1 15 0.1
Mpulu Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr Verbenaceae A shrub or small tree with a rounded
crown MEM 21 2 0.14 0.01 2 0.0
Mfulu genge Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr Verbenaceae MEM 22 136 9.64 0.56 4 150 0.6
Mtinje Lannea humilis (Oliv.) Engl Anacardiaceae A deciduous shrub MEM 23 1 0.07 0.00 1 0.0
Muyongoyongo Multidentia crassa (Hiern) Bridson &
Verdc Rubiaceae A deciduous shrub or small tree MEM 24 1 0.07 0.00 1 0.0
Mpundu Strychnos innocua Delile Loganiaceae MEM 25 39 2.76 0.16 39 0.2
Mbula/Mbola Parinari curatellifolia (Planch. ex Benth.) Chrysobalanaceae An evergreen shrub or tree
with a dense, mushroom-shaped
crown
FMM4209 61 4.32 0.25 61 0.3
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
CF Frequency of Citation, f utilisation frequency, UR Use Reports, CI Cultural Importance index
CI Cultural Importance index was computed based on participant consensus; CI index indicates the spread of the use (number of respondents) of each species and the diversity of its uses. The additional use category
determines the relative importance of each fruit species; therefore, the higher the CI value is an indicator of multiple uses
Table 4 (continued)
Vernacular name Scientic name Botanical family Life forms Voucher number Frequency
food use FC fFrequency
medicine
use
UR CI
Ndati Microcos conocarpa Burret Malvaceae
subfamily
Grewioideae
A deciduous shrub FMM4212 53 3.76 0.22 53 0.2
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
Discussion
Socio‑demographic characteristics oftherespondents
andtheknowledge ofwild edible fruit
In this study, different socio-demographic character-
istics were compared with the knowledge about wild
edible fruits (Cf. Table2). Research shows that socio-
demographic factors affect how people use and under-
stand natural resources, making them a valuable source
of indigenous knowledge for ethnobotanical studies
like the ones conducted in the Chlef region of Alge-
ria [43] and Bahia [44] in Salvador. e average num-
ber of members in a household obtained in this study
is comparable with the Tanzania national 2022 popu-
lation and housing census [45]. However, the findings
could not reveal its influence on the wild fruits utili-
sation. Illiteracy levels in the current study were very
high as the majority of the respondents had completed
primary education, and it is comparable to [46], as
they found in their ethnomedicinal survey that 67% of
the participants in Nsenda ward in Urambo District,
central western Tanzania had attained primary edu-
cation level. Surprisingly, with regards to age and the
knowledge related to wild fruits, most respondents fall
within the 20–29 age group and possess a good knowl-
edge concerning wild edible fruits (Cf. Table3). e
findings signify that customary of utilising wild edible
fruits in the study locations is deeply entrenched in
the local culture. e reasons for that is, the younger
generations in the study locations are the ones who are
intensely involved in charcoal production. us, they
have a higher likelihood of exploring and knowing fruit
diversity in their locations. On the contrary, individuals
aged 60–70 + possessed relatively moderate knowledge
about the diversity of edible fruits in their locations.
e situation is due to their inability to walk far from
their homestead to obtain the fruits.
Also, the respondents’ sex constituted the female
majority who headed their households different
from males. In contrast [47] reported a similar cus-
tom in the North West Province where many house-
holds were female-headed. ere was a significant
association between respondents’ sex and wild edible
Fig. 2 Reasons for utilising wild fruits
Fig. 3 Utilisation of wild fruits weekly
Table 5 Top most wild edible fruits with therapeutic uses in Tabora rural, Uyui and Sikonge districts
UR Use Reports represents quotation frequency of species i mentioned by participant N and the consensus about its use importance
Species Disease cured UR Percent Literature supporting
Phyllogeiton discolor Diabetes health problems, anaemia and gum problems 56 30 [57]
Vitex mombassae Cough and respiratory tract infections 56 30 [46]
Strychnos spinosa Stomach problems 14 8 [58]
Friesodielsia obovata Gynaecological problems 11 6 Not reported
Tamarindus indica Urinary Tract Infection, stomach and constipation 37 20 [46]
Grewia flavescens Cough, pneumonia and bacterial throat infection 5 3 Not reported
Vitex payos Diabetes health problems, headache 4 2 [25]
Thespesia garckeana Chest pains, cough, infertility, liver problems and sexually transmitted
infections 1 1 Not reported
Grewia bicolor Anaemia, Intestinal inflammation and syphilis 1 1 [59]
Parinari curatellifolia Stomach problems, reproductive disorders, anaemia and diabetes 2 1 [58]
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
fruits knowledge. Admittedly, female respondents have
better knowledge of wild fruits because they often inter-
act closely with nature in their daily activities. Women in
the study locations frequently collect plants for firewood
and other wild fruits as domestic activities than males,
who are herding cattle, charcoal production and bee-
keeping activity. is is comparable to [48] meta-analy-
sis on ethnomedicinal knowledge that was related with
respondent’s sex. Furthermore, a significant correlation
between household size and wild edible fruit knowledge
was evidenced in the study locations. Furthermore, It is
assumed that the education level attained can be asso-
ciated with wild fruit knowledge. However, the findings
revealed no significant correlation between the educa-
tion levels of the respondents and their knowledge of
edible wild fruits. is is similar to [49] study conducted
in Kenya whereas they discovered that formal education
was not significantly correlated with ethnomedicinal
knowledge. Furthermore, the age, length of stay, marital
status, and occupation of the respondents were also not
correlated with ethnobotanical knowledge in the present
study.
Utilisation frequency, use reports andcultural signicance
related towild edible fruits
e availability of wild fruits influences traditional
plant use in the research areas. According to the sur-
vey’s findings, all the recorded 27 wild edible fruit spe-
cies have multiple uses such as food, medicine and
cultural practices. Wild fruits’ diversity and seasonal
availability are important components in this study
because the local inhabitants have more selections to
obtain their food and dietary needs. e diversity of
natural habitats may be advantageous to different plant
utilisation [49]. As revealed in the findings, most wild
fruits were obtained from trees rather than shrubs.
is finding aligns with [47] the ethnomedicinal survey
conducted in the Urambo district of the Tabora region
in central western Tanzania, where they reported that
from wild fruits were obtained trees. e wild edible
fruit species with higher utilisation frequency (f) and
use reports (UR) were Vitex mombassae, Strychnos
spinosa, Vitex payos, Phyllogeiton discolor, Vangueria
infausta, Tamarindus indica, Parinari curatellifolia,
Landolphia parvifolia and Microcos conocarpa (Cf.
Table 4), the also considered cultural significant (CI)
because of their multifunction uses. e reasons cited
for consuming wild edible fruits in the study locations
were: the fruits’ enjoyable taste, their medicinal appli-
cations, the locals’ tradition, nutrition benefits, and,
less frequently, hunger prevention (Cf. Fig.2). e local
Fig. 4 Threats to wild edible fruits in the study locations
Table 6 Wild edible fruits that are less common in Tabora rural, Uyui, and Sikonge districts
FC Frequency of Citation conrms list of fruit species that have decreased from a period from 1999 to 2023
Species Frequency FC Extent of diminishing
Very quickly (3) Quickly (2) Slow (1)
Grewia flavescens 12 4.55 2
Vitex mombassae 25 9.47 3
Parinari curatellifolia 40 15.15 3
Thespesia garckeana 5 1.89 1
Friesodielsia obovata 39 14.77 3
Manilkara mochisia 7 2.65 2
Strychnos pungens 7 2.65 2
Microcos conocarpa 24 9.09 3
Strychnos spinosa 26 9.85 3
Vitex payos 34 12.88 3
Strychnos spinosa 7 2.65 2
Strychnos innocua 13 4.92 3
Berchemia discolor 4 1.52 1
Tamarindus indica 3 1.14 1
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Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
inhabitants agreed that all fruits recorded were con-
sumed fresh because they are a good source of nutri-
ents in their localities. e later observation echoes
observations reported by [50] in eastern Bhutan where
wild fruits were consumed fresh and regarded as part
of their food. e nutritive value of wild fruits was
reported by [30, 51, 52] in other parts of Tanzania and
by [53] from Southern Africa.
Apart from being consumed fresh, Tamarindus
indica serves as a special recipe that is cooked along
with maize flour to make oatmeal (a local dish called
porridge) in the study areas. Berchemia discolor is also
pounded to create nutrient-dense flour cooked with
maize flour to feed children and ill people. In urban
areas, Tamarindus indica is largely processed to make
juice or ice cream. In a lesser use, Strychnos spinosa is
fermented to make local wine. e use of wild edible
fruits in the study locations has a positive indication
of the transmission of traditional knowledge for native
plant conservation. e utilisations have resulted in the
conservation of plant species such as Vitex mombassae,
Strychnos spinosa, Berchemia discolor, Vitex payos, and
Tamarindus indica. e seasonal obtainability of wild
fruits has the potential to play a role in the food secu-
rity of the local inhabitants year-round to meet their
daily needs and nutrient supplements. Obtaining mod-
ern or exotic fruits is hard to come by, and when they
are, the price is so high that the average person cannot
afford to buy them. As a result, native edible fruits have
higher ethnobotanical importance in the present study
because they are a big source of vitamins. In the coastal
forests of Tanzania, [51] reported the potential of wild
fruits as dietary supplements to the local inhabitants.
In addition to having higher (f) and (UR) indices
obtained in Table 4, the majority of wild fruit species
recorded in this ethnobotanical study have low market
values. is assertion is consistent with [54], who ear-
lier observed that income from selling wild fruits is more
for subsistence than as a capital asset for the household
in the semi-arid Kondoa District of Tanzania. Very few
wild fruits were sold in urban areas for cash generation.
Yet, the local inhabitants are owing to a lack of markets.
ere have been similar constraints on the market for the
native forest foods from the Eastern Arc Mountains areas
of Tanzania [31]. In the research location, processing
local fruits to add value and extend their shelf life is at an
infant stage. is fact is unlike [53, 55], who claimed that
products like jam, juice, and wine could be made from
wild fruits. Short of understanding about value addition
to process the fruits, lack of capital and markets are the
setbacks hindering the processing of wild edible fruits in
the study locations.
Besides the food use category, wild fruits are utilised as
a natural medicine to cure various ailments. Tanzania’s
rural population mostly depends heavily on medicinal
herbs as their primary health care [56]. e current study
found that the absence of contemporary medical facili-
ties and treatment services has taught the locals to rely
on local fruits for medication. e top ten species used
for treating ailments were recorded. Berchemia discolor,
Vitex mombassae and Tamarindus indica have higher
use reports because of their multifunction in treating dia-
betes, anaemia, cough, respiratory tract infections (RTI),
pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTI), constipation,
intestinal inflammation and syphilis, stomach problems,
gynaecological and infertility conditions (Table 5). e
medicinal use value documented in the current study
are in agreement with other ethnopharmacological stud-
ies, whereas [57] reported about cultural significance
Berchemia discolor in Namibia and [46] documented the
application of Vitex mombassae and Tamarindus indica
for treating diarrheal in central western Urambo district
of Tabora region in Tanzania. Parinari curatellifolia and
Strychnos spinosa were other species reported by [58] in
treating stomach, anemia and diabetes in Ujiji Kigoma of
Tanzania. Similarly, [59] reported Grewia bicolor specie
for treating hemorrhoids in the Urambo region of west-
ern Tanzania. Besides the fact that the cited wild fruits
species are used by the locals in the study locations to
treat different ailments, the study suggests the need for
further investigation to understand their effectiveness.
Based on the available literature, the active function is
yet to be established. As documented in this study, phar-
macological knowledge related to wild fruits utilisation is
crucial. erefore, it is important to promote experimen-
tal research relating to the safety and effectiveness of the
therapeutic use in the study areas and in another places
of Tanzania. Unfortunately, the knowledge and expertise
in utilising wild fruits for therapeutic practices have been
left to older generations, which poses the risk of losing
this vital knowledge in the study locations. Similar obser-
vations were reported by [60] in eastern Tanzania and
only a few people were familiar with the pharmacological
use of wild plants in Morogoro.
Threats towild edible fruits andtheindigenous knowledge
e diversity and abundance of wild edible fruits depend
on the ecology of a given area and management. is
study contends that various wild fruits are found in natu-
ral forests, which pastoral tribes or crop farmers primar-
ily inhabit. Deforestation caused by increased need for
grazing lands and farmland expansion severely threatens
plant diversity in these places. Besides the cultural sig-
nificance of the wild edible fruits cited, the study find-
ings from all study locations found that numerous human
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Page 13 of 16
Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
activities have contributed to a loss of plants. In addi-
tion, field observations revealed that, settlement expan-
sion and charcoal production have increased and putting
wild fruit plants under threat of extinction (Cf. Fig.3).
In comparison with other studies [50] in eastern Bhu-
tan, [61] in Ethiopia and [46] in Tanzania anthropogenic
threats to wild fruits were reported as major threats to
wild plants. Charcoal production in the study locations
has caused severe loss of plant species with edible fruits.
Illegal charcoal makers are clearing some valuable spe-
cies (Microcos conocarpa, Tamarindus indica) to produce
charcoal. According to the participants, the situation has
been mainly amplified by the erosion of rural systems of
landscape conservation amongst younger generations.
Many younger informants regarded the consumption of
wild fruits as an indicator of poverty and less importance.
e similar conditions was reported by [62] in a study in
northwest Yunnan province whereby many middle-aged
generations ignored the consumption of native fruits. e
younger generations in the study areas have a low inter-
est in wild fruit use and even conservation. e situation
has contributed to ignoring native fruits, as obtained in
the current survey. Since the consumption of wild fruits
has diverse benefits, such as nutrients and minerals,
to food sources, the loss of their diversity impacts food
security for local populations. As obtained in this study,
fruit species such as Parinari curatellifolia, Friesodielsia
obovata, Vitex payos, Strychnos spinosa, Vitex mombas-
sae and Microcos conocarpa have disappeared consider-
ably. e loss of diverse wild fruit species may contribute
to the disappearance of traditional knowledge related to
wild fruits. In addition to the effects of humans on wild
fruits, environmental changes such as droughts and cli-
mate have considerably affected plant species’ produc-
tivity. e local inhabitants explicated the loss condition
and during the transect surveys it was revealed that Vitex
mombassae, Parinari curatellifolia, Microcos conocarpa
species have become less productive in the study loca-
tions. Based on the study findings, the researcher insists
on sensitising locals about the worth of wild fruits in
their areas and the potential for conserving the environ-
ment. Among the strategies suggested by informants to
improve the conservation of wild fruit plants were mak-
ing nurseries for domesticating wild species, prioritising
the conservation of species with cultural importance,
and providing public education on conserving wild fruit
plants. ere were also suggestions on promoting mar-
kets for native fruits and capacity-building regarding pro-
cessing and storage.
Implications ofthestudy
is study has documented valuable information about
the use, significance and threats to wild edible fruit in
the miombo woodlands of Tanzania. e indices (f,
CI, UR and CI) computed have created a better under-
standing of wild fruit species’ diversity, use and cultural
significance in the study areas. e present study found
that the diversity of wild edible fruits has a crucial role
in food and medicine. Wild edible fruits are a good
source of nutrients and minerals for rural populations
in the study areas because they do not have varieties in
their daily diets. Admittedly, [63] showed that African
baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a good source of nutri-
tion and other health benefits. Of the total 27 fruit spe-
cies recorded, ten species have medicinal importance.
More important, in the present findings species such as
Friesodielsia obovata, Grewia flavescens and espesia
garckeana are reported for the first time and are useful
against ailments (Cf. Table5). e present study insist-
ing the need to investigate their effectiveness against
ailments and analysing the phytochemical and bioactiv-
ity potential to human health. Besides the cultural sig-
nificance of the wild edible fruits recorded in the current
study, there has been a downward trend in consumption
from 1990 to 2023. e deterioration of rural systems of
nature conservation amongst the younger generation has
contributed to the decreasing culture of wild fruit con-
sumption and related indigenous knowledge. Raising
awareness about the nutritional benefits of wild fruits in
the study locations is imperative in order to attract con-
servation interest. Investing in processing wild fruits into
products such as jam, wine and juice, provision of capi-
tal, equipment and market soliciting are the options to
value addition and can motivate the conservation of the
wild fruits species. Policymakers should introduce formal
or informal programs about indigenous fruits to inform
younger generations about the importance of wild plants,
sustainable use and management for future generations.
Given agricultural technologies, there is potential for the
domestication of some species of wild fruits that can be
adapted to local environments, including those on the
verge of going extinct. For the most part, understanding
the phytochemical properties of the wild fruit species
could provide better pathways to safe use [64].
Limitations
is study has some limitations. First, the researcher
could not record information about the availability index,
frequency of use index, and parts of species used index.
Recording this information could have been worthwhile
in quantifying the cultural food significance index (CFSI),
which considers various factors in evaluating a specific
wild edible. Second, this study did not capture the quan-
tity of harvested wild edible fruits, income generated
from selling them, and their contributions to local econo-
mies. Besides the limitations the quality of this research
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Page 14 of 16
Mgalula Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2024) 20:23
has not been pretentious. e study has managed to doc-
ument the indigenous knowledge related to the diversity
of wild edible fruits, utilisation frequency, and cultural
significance. Certainly, future research should quantify
the CFSI index for better understanding of the multi-
functionality of wild fruits.
Conclusion andrecommendations
is study has documented 27 species of wild edible
fruits and the related indigenous knowledge in Tabora
Rural, Uyui and Sikonge districts. It computed specific
quantitative indices to determine wild edible fruits’ use
and cultural significance. It was found that the local
inhabitants in the study locations rely on wild fruits for
different purposes. More importantly, the study docu-
mented for the first time three Friesodielsia obovata,
Grewia flavescens and espesia garckeana, beneficial
species against ailments. Nevertheless, the study found
that there has been a downward trend in utilisation of
wild fruits from 1990 to 2023 and it has been caused
by alteration of rural systems on nature conserva-
tion, expansion of human activities and environmental
changes which have contributed to loos of some wild
edible fruits near homesteads. It recommended sen-
sitising the locals about the benefits of wild fruits and
promoting consumption. e researcher supposes that
markets soliciting and enhancing post-harvest storage
and processing of fruits into other products is necessary
to motivate the conservation of wild species and their
habitats. e researcher also calls for further research
on wild fruits’ phytochemical and bioactive properties
to ensure the safe consumption of these fruits. Lastly,
the study insists on preserving indigenous knowledge
associated with wild plants to ensure this valuable
knowledge can continue for future generations.
Abbreviations
°C Celsius
Cf. Confer
CFSI Cultural Food Significance Index
CI Cultural Importance Index
CONAS College of Natural and Applied Sciences
f Utilisation frequency
FC Frequency of Citation
MUCE Mkwawa University College of Education
NAFORMA National Forest Resources Monitoring and Assessment of Tanza-
nia Mainland
NTFPs Non-Timber Forest Products
s.d A standard deviation
TFS Tanzania Forest Service Agency
UDSM University of Da es Salaam
UR Use Reports
WEPs Wild Edible Plants
Acknowledgements
I thank the University of Dar es Salaam – Mkwawa University College of Educa-
tion for permitting me to undertake fieldwork data collection. I also express
my gratitude to the office of the Regional Administrative Secretary of Tabora
and its allied District Executive Director Offices of Tabora, Uyui and Sikonge
Districts for their support during data collection. I am also indebted to sin-
cerely thank my assistant researchers sincerely, Dr. L.D.M, Ms. V.R and Ms. M.E.S,
for their support during data collection. Lastly, special thanks should go to the
facilitators and local people involved in this study for sharing their knowledge
on this ethnobotanical study.
Author contributions
MEM prepared the study design, data collection, data analysis and interpreta-
tion of the results. The author drafted the manuscript, edited and revised it
and approved this submission.
Funding
The University of Dar es Salaam – Mkwawa University College of Education
provided the research funds through its 4th call competitive research and
innovation grants for the year 2022/2023 ID number MUCE-22026 to facilitate
the conceptualisation, design, data collection, analysis, and preparation of the
manuscript.
Availability of data and materials
The data presented in tables and figures in this article will be made available
on request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The author asked for permission from the local respondents and authorities
regarding data collection and publication of the study results.
Consent for publication
The University of Dar es Salaam agreed that this manuscript can be published.
Competing interests
The author declares that there is no competing interest.
Author details
1 Mkwawa University College of Education, University of Dar es Salaam, Post
Office Box 2513, Iringa, Tanzania.
Received: 28 October 2023 Accepted: 21 February 2024
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