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The anti-parasitic activity of Thymus vulgaris (Thyme): A literature review
Zuhair DARDONA 1, Mounia AMANE 2, *, Ayman DARDONA 3 and Samia BOUSSAA 4
1 Microbial Biotechnologies, Agrosciences and Environment Laboratory (BioMAgE), Research Unit Labelled CNRST N°4, 2
Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco.
2 ISPITS-Higher Institute of Nursing and Technical Health Occupations, Ministry of Health and Social Protection,
Marrakech, Morocco.
3 Department of Botany, University Science of Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
4 ISPITS-Higher Institute of Nursing and Technical Health Occupations, Ministry of Health and Social Protection, Rabat,
Morocco.
International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 2024, 11(01), 2243–2258
Publication history: Received on 06 January 2024; revised on 16 February 2024; accepted on 19 February 2024
Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2024.11.1.0302
Abstract
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is an enduring herb belonging to the mint family, Lamiaceae. It originates from the
Mediterranean region and is characterized by its small, aromatic leaves, and sturdy stem. Appreciated for its robust and
delightful scent, thyme is widely embraced as a culinary herb. However, its significance extends far beyond the kitchen,
as it has been utilized medicinally for centuries. This is owing to the occurrence of active compounds like thymol and
carvacrol, which possess noteworthy antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory attributes. Throughout history,
thyme has been employed in the treatment of respiratory disorders, digestive ailments, and other diseases. The main
objective of this study was to conduct an extensive review of the thyme plant, encompassing its classification, historical
background, geographical distribution, chemical composition, and both economic and medicinal applications,
particularly emphasizing its antiparasitic properties. In conclusion, apart from its well-known culinary and medicinal
uses, scientific research has indicated that thyme exhibits promising effectiveness against diverse parasites. Notably,
research has shown that thyme exhibited antiprotozoal activity against protozoan parasites such as Giardia lamblia,
Trichomonas vaginalis, Toxoplasma gondii, Entamoeba histolytica, and others. Specific thyme extract components have
shown great activity against these parasites. Thyme also has larvicidal properties, meaning that it can kill larvae. This
includes Anisakis larvae, which can cause anisakiasis in humans. Thyme essential oil has been shown to effectively
eliminate these larvae, suggesting that it could be used to prevent anisakiasis. Furthermore, it has also been studied for
its potential to treat hepatic coccidiosis in rabbits. Research has shown that thyme oil, along with Moringa oleifera oil,
can effectively reduce the number of oocysts shed by infected rabbits and improve the clinical signs of the infection.
This suggests that thyme oil may be a promising therapeutic agent for tackling hepatic coccidiosis.
Keywords: Thyme; Thymus vulgaris; Lamiaceae; Anti-Parasitic; Medicinal use; Chemical constituents
1. Introduction
Thymus vulgaris (thyme) is a medicinal perennial botanical herb that belongs to the mint family, the Lamiaceae family,
which is one of the largest flowering plant families in general, with approximately 220 genera and 4,000 species
worldwide. It is also referred to as common thyme (Al-Rawi and Chakravarty, 1988; Preedy, 2015). Furthermore, T.
vulgaris L., also known as "garden thyme," is a flowering, aromatic plant; additionally, the word "thymus" may have
derived from the Greek word thuô, which means fumigation, or from thio, which means perfume; on the other hand,
"vulgaris" is the Latin word for "common" (Novak and Blüthner, 2020). Moreover, others claim that genus the Thymus
includes more than 350 species found all over the world, including numerous taxa such as satureja, oregano, and thymus
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(Al-Fatimi et al., 2010). Thyme is an intriguing herb that has been recognized for thousands of years, having been utilized
by ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Sumerians (3500 BC), and Egyptians. Although T. capitatus is believed to be
the most probable species, it was the Romans who introduced thyme to Northern Europe. Later on, European settlers
transported it to North America around the 16th century (Amouretti and Comet, 1993). Notably, the Romans played a
significant role in spreading thyme across Europe, where they employed it to cleanse and perfume their rooms. They
also used it as a flavorful addition to cheese and alcoholic beverages. The Romans held the belief that the combination
of thyme and water in bathing contributed to energy transmission. Furthermore, Pliny, the Roman scientist and
philosopher, recommended burning dried thyme to eliminate harmful organisms in the surrounding area (Grieve, 1931;
Hanrahan and Odle, 2005). Furthermore, thyme is widely distributed worldwide, regardless of its original location,
whether it is in southern Europe or any other region (Hosseinzadeh et al., 2015). Several factors contribute to its
extensive spread. Firstly, thyme is a plant that thrives in arid and harsh environments, particularly in dry and unshaded
soil. It favors constant exposure to sunlight and coarse, mountainous terrain with well-drained soil. Interestingly, these
conditions are not suitable for the growth of many other plant species, giving thyme a competitive advantage in its
propagation (Javed et al., 2013; Kuete, 2017). Garden or common thyme, scientifically known as T. vulgaris, is an
herbaceous plant known for its delightful aroma. Moreover, its flowers, leaves, and oil are frequently utilized to add
flavor to various dishes and possess medicinal properties. It contains natural compounds that have the potential to
assist in the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections. In addition, it is also known for its effectiveness in alleviating
coughs and its antioxidant properties. Throughout history, thyme has been employed to address an array of health
concerns, including coughs, alopecia areata (patchy hair loss), dementia, and various other ailments (Büechi et al., 2005;
Conrad and Kemmerich, 2006). With a rich history in traditional medicine, thyme has been utilized for centuries to
address various health conditions, particularly respiratory disorders. In addition, it has emerged as a versatile herb with
numerous potential health benefits that have long been acknowledged. Over time, it has transitioned from a folk remedy
to a credible choice in scientific phytotherapy, supported by scientific evidence demonstrating its effectiveness in
treating diverse diseases. Also, thyme shows promise for enhancing cognitive function and memory retention. It serves
as an excellent complement to any diet and can be easily incorporated into meals or taken as a supplement to maximize
its health benefits (Abd El Kader and Mohamed, 2012; Dauqan and Abdullah, 2017).
2. Scientific classification and Morphology
Thyme belongs to the extensive plant family Labiatae (Lamiaceae), which accounts for the abundance of thyme species.
The exact number of species is a topic of debate, with one claim suggesting 928 species. Among these, Thymbra,
Micromeria, Satureja, and Origanum are considered the most significant. Identifying the chromosomes of thyme species
is challenging due to their tiny size and similar morphological characteristics. Nevertheless, the classification of Thymus
species is strongly associated with their chromosomal information, which is considered an essential feature in the
classification process. Thymus is a notable genus that includes a diverse range of unique species. Therefore, thyme, as a
widely distributed plant, consists of numerous species and genera (Al-Fatimi et al., 2010; Patil et al., 2021). The scientific
classification of T. vulgaris is further explained in detail below.
Kingdom: Plantae
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Subfamily: Nepetoideae
Genus: Thymus L.
Species: Thymus vulgaris L. (Prasanth et al., 2014).
Thyme has been recognized since ancient times; nevertheless, the formal description of the T. vulgaris species was first
documented over 270 years ago in the initial edition of Linné's book Species Plantarum in 1753. However, there may
have been earlier descriptions by Dodonaeus in 1616 and Bauhin in 1623 (Novak and Blüthner, 2020). It is crucial to
emphasize that T. vulgaris is a semi-evergreen, aromatic perennial herbaceous shrub. The height of the stem can reach
10–50 cm and spans 40–50 cm in width, depending on the temperature and geographical conditions. The plant features
several branches that are either upright or creeping (Dajawi, 1996; Morales, 2002; Hanrahan and Odle, 2005).
Additionally, the stem of thyme has a quadrangular shape and tends to become woody as it ages. Depending on the
variety, the stem can appear slender or even square (Morales, 2002). Its leaves are characterized by their small size,
noticeable color contrast, and oblong-linear to lanceolate shape. They are typically marked with glandular spots and do
not exceed lengths of 5–10 mm, with widths ranging from 0.8–2.5 mm. The leaves also have distinctive margins that are
frequently present (Malhotra and Peter, 2012). Furthermore, the shape and density of the hairs on these leaves vary
significantly, which can be attributed to the diverse types of thyme. Each type of thyme leaf has its own unique aroma,
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distinct from the scent of other species. Thyme plants prefer sunlight and do not thrive in shaded areas, as sunlight is
essential for their optimal growth (Prasanth et al., 2014).The plant produces small flowers that range in color from pink
to purple. These blossoms possess a remarkable fragrance, attributed to their high concentration of essential oils. The
flowers are characterized by a sinuous tube and have sepals measuring 3–4 mm in length. The appearance of the flowers,
much like the leaves, can vary depending on whether they are found in the wild or cultivated (Tutin et al., 1976; Morales,
2002). Lastly, the fruits of the thyme plant are tiny and consist of capsules containing clusters of wrinkled black seeds.
These fruits are visually distinctive due to their unique shape, fragrance, and slightly sweet taste. It is noteworthy that
T. vulgaris seeds are easy to cultivate and can thrive in various soil types (Davis, 1982; Dajawi, 1996; Hanrahan and
Odle, 2005).
3. Origin and Distribution
Despite its widespread existence across numerous regions worldwide, there is a significant divergence in determining
the native habitat of thyme. Some argue that thyme is native to the western Mediterranean region, including areas from
Spain and the Balearic Islands to southern Italy. Conversely, other researchers contend that it originates from southern
and central Europe, along with parts of Africa and Asia (Amouretti and Comet, 1993; Silva et al., 2021). Moreover,
natural populations of T. vulgaris have been observed in a number of geographical locations, including the northern
regions of the western Mediterranean, such as Spain, France, and Italy, as well as the Italian Alps, Portugal, and Greece
(Rey, 1989; Cabezudo et al., 2009). Regardless of whether its origin can be attributed to Southern Europe or another
location, there is undeniable evidence that thyme is a plant that has achieved global distribution. It can be found
abundantly not only in the European Mediterranean region as a whole but also in North African countries like Egypt,
Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco. Furthermore, it thrives in various African countries, such as Nigeria and Cameroon.
Additionally, thyme is well-established in the European countries situated along the coastal regions of the
Mediterranean Sea, as previously mentioned (Stahl-Biskup and Sáez, 2002; Hosseinzadeh et al., 2015).
4. Chemical Constituents
Overall, there is unquestionable evidence that the common thyme plant contains numerous chemical constituents with
significant benefits and applications. However, the phytochemical profile of T. vulgaris, particularly its monoterpenes,
varies due to various factors such as genotype, environmental conditions, and cultivation practices. These factors
include aspects like location, altitude, cultural practices, harvest time, drying methods, and storage conditions (Novak
and Blüthner, 2020). Several studies have been conducted to identify the chemical ingredients of T. vulgaris L. using
different techniques such as gas mass spectrometry (GCMS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and
thin-layer chromatography (HPLC/HPTLC). These studies have concluded that thyme primarily consists of a wide range
of chemical compounds classified as phenolic compounds, terpenoids, flavonoids, stimulants, alkaloids, tannins, and
saponins. Most of these compounds are volatile chemicals derived from plant oils (Abdelli et al., 2017; Al -Asmari et al.,
2017). Impressively, thyme possesses a notable concentration of flavonoids and phenolic antioxidants, including
zeaxanthin, lutein, apigenin, naringenin, luteolin, and thimonin. Moreover, among all herbs, thyme stands out for having
the highest levels of antioxidants, particularly when it is fresh. Additionally, it is rich in minerals and vitamins, which
are crucial for maintaining good health, thus establishing it as an exceptional herb due to its significant chemical
components (Komaki et al., 2016). Whereas thyme contains various essential chemicals such as carvacrol, eugenol,
linalool, apigenin, rosmarinic acid, and many others, thymol, which is 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol, stands out as the
most well-known compound. Thymol is a monoterpenoid phenol found in Thymus vulgaris and other plants of the
Lamiaceae family (Buckingham, 1995; Javed et al., 2013). Numerous studies have revealed that thyme, especially its
leaves and essential oils; contain approximately 40 active phenols and terpenoids. The concentrations of these
compounds vary depending on the type of thyme. Phenols such as thymol and carvacrol are prominent constituents,
with a concentration of 51.34%. Other compounds present include Pinen, Limonene, Cymen, and monoterpene
hydrocarbons. Thyme extracts also exhibit oxygenated monoterpenes (56.53%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (5.04%),
oxygenated sesquiterpenes (1.84%), and four butanol-soluble acetophenone glycosides (Hänsel et al., 1994). It is worth
mentioning that a study conducted on Moroccan thyme using GC/FID and GC/MS identified 43 chemical compounds,
which accounted for 97.85% of the total contents of the 1% oil sample. The main components observed included
camphor, camphene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, borneol, and β-pinene. Camphor was found to be the most abundant
compound, comprising 38.54% of the total, followed by camphene at 17.19%. β-pinene and 1,8-cineole made significant
contributions to the oil composition, accounting for 9.35% and 5.44%, respectively. Borneol and β-pinene were also
present in notable concentrations, constituting 4.91% and 3.90% of the total, respectively. These findings provide
insights into the chemical constituents of Moroccan thyme oil and highlight its potential applications in medicine,
cosmetics, and food production (Imelouane et al., 2009). Besides, approximately 100 grams of thyme leaves are
estimated to contain around 276 calories, 7.8% water, 9.1 grams of protein, and 7.4 grams of fat. They also provide
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approximately 64 grams of carbohydrates and around 19 grams of fiber. Thyme leaves are rich in important minerals,
including 1890 mg of calcium, 201 mg of phosphorus, 123.6 mg of iron, 220 mg of magnesium, 55 mg of sodium, and
814 mg of potassium. The zinc content is approximately 6.2 mg. Thyme leaves are known to contain various essential
vitamins and minerals, making them a valuable addition to any diet. They provide 3800 mg of vitamin A, serving as an
excellent source of this crucial nutrient. Thyme leaves also offer 0.51 mg of thiamine (B1), 0.4 mg of riboflavin (B2), and
4.94 mg of niacin. Overall, thyme leaves are a nutrient-rich food that provides a wide range of essential minerals and
elements (Duke and Ayensu, 1985).
5. Economical and Edible Uses
Thyme has long been acknowledged for its multitude of advantages, spanning medicinal, economic, and nutritional
realms, dating back to ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and Romans. Its aromatic nature has made it a popular
choice for fragrance throughout history. Moreover, thyme remains a prominent ingredient in culinary applications,
adding flavor to cheese, meat, beverages, and herbal mixtures. Its essential oil content also lends itself to the treatment
of hair loss and dental plaque(Mewes et al. 2008; Hosseinzadeh et al. 2015; Satyal et al. 2016).Thyme is increasingly
employed in the manufacturing of various cosmetics, including shampoos, toothpastes, hair conditioners, colognes,
soaps, detergents, and creams (Lawrence and Tucker, 2002).Moreover, it a versatile plant that has been utilized by
various industries throughout history. In addition to its culinary uses, it has been employed in diverse applications such
as deodorants, pesticides, sedatives, and stimulants. Its antibacterial properties make it a valuable ingredient in
deodorants and personal care products.Thyme oil acts as a natural repellent against pests, effectively warding them off
from plants and homes. As a sedative, thyme can alleviate tension and promote relaxation. Conversely, it can also serve
as a stimulant, boosting energy levels and enhancing focus. With its distinct flavor profile and ability to enhance the
taste of other ingredients, thyme is commonly incorporated into appetizers (Duke, 2002; Mandal and DebMandal,
2016).The applications of this plant also extended to the preservation of food products such as meat, chicken, and fish,
in addition to its usage for ornamental purposes, flowering, perfumery, and fumigation industries (Basch et al., 2004;
Mogoşanu et al., 2017; Vouillamoz and Christ, 2020).It is important to highlight that two key chemical components
present in thyme, namely thymol and carvacrol, possess insecticidal properties that are effective against a wide range
of insects. These chemicals have demonstrated potential as natural alternatives to synthetic pesticides due to their
effectiveness and low toxicity to humans and the environment. They can disrupt the nervous system of insects, inhibit
their feeding, and affect their growth and development (Szczepanik et al., 2012). Moreover, thyme leaves and flowers
are used in their raw form in salads, as well as for garnishing and adding flavor to cooked dishes. Additionally, it should
be mentioned that thyme tea can be prepared using either fresh or dried leaves (Lust, 1983; Facciola, 1990; Bown,
1995).
6. Medicinal Uses
Thyme has been historically utilized in traditional medicine for treating various ailments. The herb is renowned for its
anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It is rich in vitamins and minerals. Throughout the centuries, thyme has
been employed to address respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and asthma, as well as digestive issues such as
bloating and indigestion. Moreover, thyme has exhibited antibacterial characteristics that aid the body in combating
harmful microorganisms. Topically, thyme oil is utilized to treat skin conditions such as acne and eczema (Khare, 2008;
Patil, et al., 2021; Taher et al., 2021). Meanwhile, thyme exhibits antibacterial, antiviral, antispasmodic, mild analgesic,
and expectorant properties. It is used for the treatment of coughs and colds. The German Commission has approved the
use of T. vulgaris in the treatment of bronchitis, whooping cough, and upper respiratory catarrh. Additionally, it is
employed for the treatment of stomatitis. The flavonoid fraction has demonstrated significant effects on smooth muscle
in the trachea and ileum. Thymol, one of the essential chemical constituents of thyme, serves as an expectorant and
antibacterial agent. Whereas thymol and carvacrol possess spasmolytic characteristics. Furthermore, thymol exhibits
anti-anthelmintic properties in addition to a urinary system antiseptic (Duke, 2002; Khare, 2008; Nabissiet al.,
2018).Moreover, the utilization of T. vulgaris L. for wound treatment is widely recognized due to its undeniable healing
and antibacterial properties. It is also significant to highlight that in ancient Europe, the aerial parts of this plant were
employed for fumigation and the treatment of various skin and respiratory ailments, and these practices continue to be
prevalent in most regions of the world nowadays (Basch et al., 2004; Kuete, 2017). In addition to the aforementioned
properties, thyme also possesses anti-rheumatoid arthritis, anti-calcium, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, fungicide,
hypolipidemic, hypotensive, and mucolytic properties (Duke, 2002).Additionally, T. vulgaris L. is believed to possess
astringent and carminative properties, and it appears to be effective in combating intestinal infections as well as
infections caused by ascarids, hookworms, fungi, yeast, and bacteria. It has also been utilized in the treatment of various
skin issues, including acne, greasy skin, dermatitis, insect bites, sciatica, and rheumatic pain (Diánez et al., 2018; Gucwa
et al., 2018; Tian et al., 2018). Besides its antibacterial properties, thyme exhibits antiviral activity, specifically against
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the HSV-1 and HSV-2 viruses, including the resistant strain of HSV-1. Additionally, thyme is employed in the treatment
of laryngitis, diarrhea, and gastritis. It is important to mention that thyme also possesses antifungal and anti-yeast
properties (Leung and Foster, 1996; Abe et al., 2003). Aljelehawy et al. conducted a study investigating the diverse
pharmacological effects of thymol, a naturally occurring compound found in thyme and other plants. Researchers have
attributed several properties to thymol, including anti-neurodegenerative, anti-cancer, and anti-diabetic effects. The
anti-neurodegenerative effect of thymol is thought to be associated with its ability to protect neurons against damage
caused by oxidative stress. Likewise, its anti-inflammatory properties have been linked to antirheumatic activity, as
thymol has demonstrated the ability to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines. Thymol's efficacy as an anticancer agent
is attributed to its ability to induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells and inhibit their proliferation and
invasion. as well, thymol has shown potential as an anti-diabetic agent by improving glucose tolerance and insulin
sensitivity (Aljelehawy et al., 2023).Numerous studies have extensively documented the antibacterial and antioxidant
properties of the plant. For instance, Aldosary et al. (2021) conducted a study investigating the antioxidant and
antimicrobial effects of T. vulgaris essential oil and its combination with silver nanoparticles. The researchers found
that the essential oil displayed significant antioxidant activity, characterized by high levels of total phenolic and
flavonoid content. Moreover, the essential oil exhibited antibacterial activity against various bacterial species, including
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Aldosary et al., 2021).It is fascinating to note that
this herb is recognized as an herbal remedy for enhancing activity in cases of anxiety, offering a natural alternative for
addressing physical and mental weakness, as well as potentially aiding in the treatment of insomnia. T. vulgaris contains
various flavonoids such as thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, phenols, luteolin, and tetramethoxylates, which contribute to its
medicinal properties. Additionally, several recent studies have suggested the use of thyme as a potential alternative for
cancer prevention (Abd El Kader and Mohamed, 2012).Tonsillitis and gum disease can be treated externally and
topically with this plant. The whole herb is utilized for treating digestive problems, soothing sore throats, managing
fevers, and addressing various other health conditions. Thyme essential oil holds significant importance in the field of
aromatherapy as well (Westwood, 1991; Bown, 1995). Furthermore, this plant has been employed as a pain reliever,
including for menstrual pain in women, as evidenced by the study conducted by Salmalian et al. The study revealed that
both T. vulgaris and ibuprofen were effective in reducing the severity of menstrual pain. This suggests that Thymus
vulgaris could be as beneficial as ibuprofen in alleviating symptoms of primary dysmenorrheal (Salmalian et al., 2014).
7. Anti-Parasitic activity of T. vulgaris
A pathogenic parasite is characterized as an organism that relies on the host for its nutrition and vitality, nonetheless
instead of benefiting the host, it causes harm. On the other hand, a parasitic disease is defined as an infectious disease
caused by parasites, including protozoa and helminthes, and may also include arthropods (ectoparasites) that either
directly induce disease or function as carriers for various infections. Overall, parasitic diseases of various kinds are
considered a public health concern that poses a threat to human and animal well-being, as well as the environment, in
numerous regions across the globe (Wang, 2017; Hikal, 2020). The range of parasitic ailments can vary from minor
symptoms to potentially life-threatening conditions if left untreated. The severity and prevalence of these diseases differ
across different geographical regions, with developing countries often being the most affected. Parasitic tropical
diseases encompass a variety of types, with notable examples including lymphatic filariasis, schistosomiasis,
onchocerciasis, leishmaniasis, African trypanosomiasis, malaria, and others (Hikal et al., 2021). Shockingly, it is
estimated that around 200,000 people lose their lives each year due to severe ailments caused by approximately 300
species of helminthes and 70 species of protozoa that can lead to parasitic diseases in humans. It is worth noting that
the pharmacopoeia used to treat neglected tropical diseases has seen limited changes since the mid-20th century,
possibly because these diseases disproportionately affect the most impoverished populations worldwide (Hotez et al.,
2006; Melo et al., 2017). Since relying solely on medication to tackle parasitic diseases is insufficient, as the environment,
water, and food serve as significant sources of infection, it is noteworthy to note that indiscriminate use of
pharmaceuticals can contribute to the development of drug resistance among parasites. As a result, the significance of
medicinal plants in research has been acknowledged, as they provide an alternative approach to treating parasitic
infections (Strothmann et al., 2022). Consequently, there has been a shift in focus towards medicinal herbs as a safe and
natural therapeutic alternative to combat parasites. Among these plants, T. vulgaris L. stands out as one of the most
significant, with numerous studies demonstrating its anthelmintic properties. This plant has gained a strong reputation
within the medical community for its remarkable efficacy in treating intestinal diseases and infections caused by
roundworms and hookworms (Stahl-Biskup, and Venskutonis, 2012; Patil et al., 2021).
7.1. The anti-parasitic activity of Thymus vulgaris against Trypanosoma spp
The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is responsible for causing Chagas disease, also known as American
trypanosomiasis. The transmission of this parasite occurs through triatomine bugs, commonly referred to as "kissing
bugs," which infect both humans and animals in Central and South America. It is noteworthy that this devastating
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disease affects an estimated 11 million individuals in the New World, spanning from Argentina to the southern United
States of America. Furthermore, due to migration patterns, the disease has become increasingly prevalent in numerous
other countries across the globe, with significant cases identified in Canada, North America, Europe, and
Australia.(Coura and Vi˜nas, 2010).The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi includes several stages. The parasite undergoes
replication in the stomach of the insect vector, known as a triatomine bug, in the form of replicating trypomastigotes.
When the bug feeds on blood, it excretes waste, releasing infective trypomastigote forms onto the skin. These
trypomastigotes can enter the host through mucous membranes, or insect bite sites. Once inside the host, T. cruzi
transforms into intracellular amastigotes, which multiply in various tissues, including the heart muscle, digestive
system, and brain system. Furthermore, amastigotes possess the ability to invade and propagate within the cells of
several organs, leading to tissue damage and inflammation (Gunn and Pitt, 2022). On the other hand, the protozoan
parasite Trypanosoma evansi is responsible for surra, also known as surra fever. This disease affects animals, with a
particular emphasis on domestic livestock like cattle, horses, camels, and water buffaloes. Nevertheless, it has the ability
to infect other animals, including dogs, cats, in addition to humans (More et al., 2017). Controlling T. cruzi is a daunting
task due to its ability to infect not only humans but also a diverse array of domestic and wild species. This includes dogs,
cats, bats, rats, and armadillos (Gunn and Pitt, 2022). Due to the toxicity, high cost, inefficacy, rapid development of drug
resistance, and frequent recurrence rates observed with current available medications, as well as their detrimental
impact on both trypanosomes and the organs of the host, where they accumulate metabolic waste products causing
damage, there has been a shift in focus towards herbal medicine. This shift aims to explore natural alternatives that do
not have any side effects(Tasdemir et al., 2005; Gressler et al., 2012).
In an effort to explore potential effects on Trypanosoma, researchers have directed their attention towards thyme. In a
study conducted by Farrag et al. (2021), the anti-trypanosomal activity of aqueous extracts from thyme (Thymus
vulgaris), mint (Mentha piperita), and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) against Trypanosoma evansi was
investigated. Among the three extracts, thyme was found to exhibit the highest efficacy in terms of its trypanocidal
activity. In vitro experiments revealed that thyme, mint, and cardamom aqueous extracts at doses of 2500, 2000, and
1000 μg/ml, respectively, immobilized T. evansi parasites. Furthermore, the extracts demonstrated a reduction in both
the number of parasites and their infectivity. In an animal model, rats were infected with T. evansi and subsequently
treated with aqueous extracts of thyme, mint, and cardamom, as well as the reference medication Intropar®. All three
extracts demonstrated effectiveness in reducing parasitemia and enhancing the survival rates of the infected rats
(Farrag et al., 2021). On another hand, Santoro et al. (2007) conducted a study on the in vitro impact of oregano
(Origanum vulgare L.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) essential oils on Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite responsible for
Chagas disease. Both essential oils exhibited effectiveness in inhibiting the growth of T. cruzi. The IC50 values for oregano
and thyme essential oils were determined to be 175 and 77 μg/ml, respectively. This indicates that oregano essential
oil inhibited the growth of 50% of T. cruzi cells at a concentration of 175 μg/ml, while thyme essential oil achieved the
same inhibition at a concentration of 77 μg/ml. The researchers also examined the ultrastructure of T. cruzi cells treated
with oregano and thyme essential oils, revealing induced morphological abnormalities, including cytoplasmic
enlargement, plasma membrane rupture, and flagella damage. These findings suggest that oregano and thyme essential
oils possess anti-trypanosomal properties. Further research is necessary to validate these findings and investigate the
mechanisms of action underlying these essential oils' effects (Santoro et al., 2007).
7.2. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Echinococcus granulosus
Echinococcus granulosus is a parasitic tapeworm capable of infecting both animals and humans. It is recognized as the
main cause of cystic echinococcosis (CE), commonly known as hydatid disease. Adult tapeworms mostly inhabit the
small intestines of dogs and other canids. Moreover, the eggs are excreted in the feces of infected dogs and can remain
viable in harsh environmental conditions for several years. Human infection can occur through various routes, such as
direct contact with contaminated soil, ingestion of contaminated food or water, or inhalation of the eggs. Upon ingestion,
the eggs hatch in the human intestines, and the larvae migrate to different organs, including the liver, lungs, and brain.
Consequently, the larvae can trigger a range of symptoms, including cough, fever, weight loss, nausea, vomiting,
jaundice, seizures, headaches, and visual impairments (Budke et al., 2006; Bogitsh et al., 2018). Among the studies
conducted in this field, Pensel et al. (2014) conducted research on the effectiveness of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and
oregano (Origanum vulgare) essential oils against Echinococcus granulosus. The study focused on in vitro experiments
using isolated cells and cell clumps from hydatid cysts. The researchers examined the impact of various doses of
essential oils on cell viability and reproduction. The results indicated that both thyme and oregano essential oils
demonstrated efficacy in eliminating E. granulosus cells. Notably, thyme essential oil exhibited greater effectiveness
compared to oregano essential oil, even at lower doses. The study concluded that both thyme and oregano essential oils
possess antiparasitic potential for the treatment of cystic echinococcosis (CE) (Pensel et al., 2014).In addition, Fabbri et
al. (2016) conducted a study to evaluate the effectiveness of carvacrol against Echinococcus granulosus both in vitro and
in vivo. Interestingly, carvacrol is a highly significant chemical compound present in several plant species, with common
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thyme being the most notable source (Buckingham, 1995; Javed et al., 2013). For more detailed insights, the study was
conducted using in vitro methods, utilizing isolated cells and cell clumps obtained from hydatid cysts. Carvacrol, at
various concentrations, was evaluated to assess its impact on cell viability and proliferation. Remarkably, carvacrol
exhibited effectiveness in eliminating E. granulosus cells, with (LC50) of 10μg/ml required to kill 50% of the cells.
Furthermore, the results demonstrated that carvacrol impeded the growth of E. granulosus cells. The investigation also
explored the in vivo efficacy of carvacrol by infecting mice with E. granulosus and subsequently administering carvacrol.
Encouragingly, carvacrol was found to reduce the number of cysts in mice. In conclusion, this study revealed that
carvacrol possesses antiparasitic properties, which could be utilized as a potential treatment for cystic echinococcosis
(Fabbri et al., 2016).
7.3. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Leishmania spp.
Leishmania, a pathogenic parasite, is responsible for causing leishmaniasis, a group of diseases that can affect both
humans and animals. The transmission of this parasite occurs through the bites of sand flies. Leishmaniasis can be
categorized into two main types: cutaneous and visceral. Cutaneous leishmaniasis results in the development of skin
ulcers, while visceral leishmaniasis affects internal organs such as the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. Additionally, the
parasite exists in two distinct forms: promastigotes and amastigotes. Promastigotes represent the motile form of the
parasite found within sand flies, while amastigotes are the non-motile form that thrives inside the host's cells. The life
cycle of Leishmania commences when a sand fly, which injects the promastigotes into the host’s bloodstream, bites an
infected animal or human. Subsequently, they migrate to either the skin or internal organs, where they multiply and
initiate the disease. The course of the disease caused by Leishmania varies based on the parasite species and the immune
response of the host. In certain instances, the infection may remain asymptomatic or result in only mild symptoms.
However, in other cases, the infection can progress to a severe and potentially life-threatening condition. Symptoms of
Leishmania infection may include fever, weight loss, anemia, and skin lesions. Besides, in some cases, the infection can
affect internal organs like the liver and spleen (Ridley, 2012; Zeibig, 2012). It is crucial to note that research on the
antiparasitic properties of the thyme plant has expanded to include the Leishmania parasite. In one study,
Nilforoushzadeh et al. (2008) assessed the efficacy of three herbal extracts, namely thyme, yarrow, and propolis, in
treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in Balb/c mice. These herbal extracts were compared to systemic glucantime, a
commonly used therapy for cutaneous leishmaniasis. The results of the study demonstrated that the herbal extracts
were more effective than glucantime in reducing lesion size. The thyme group exhibited a 43.29% reduction, the
propolis group showed a 43.77% reduction, and the yarrow group demonstrated a 36.09% reduction in lesion size. In
contrast, the glucantime group only exhibited an average reduction of 22.57% in lesion size. The laboratory animals
tolerated the herbal extracts well, as indicated by the research. Based on their findings, the authors concluded that the
herbal extracts of thyme, yarrow, and propolis could be beneficial in treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in mice
(Nilforoushzadeh et al., 2008). Furthermore, Agha and Baaj (2018) conducted a study in the same context, aiming to
examine the chemical composition of the volatile oil present in the leaves of Thymus vulgaris L. and evaluate its anti-
Leishmania activity, specifically against Leishmania infantum, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis. Remarkably,
the results demonstrated the significant efficacy of thyme volatile oil in combating visceral leishmaniasis. Based on the
outcomes of this investigation, the authors concluded that thyme volatile oil holds immense potential as a natural
treatment for bacterial infections, as well as visceral leishmaniasis (Agha and Baaj, 2018).
7.4. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Haemonchus contortus
Haemonchus contortus is a parasitic nematode, commonly known as a roundworm, which infects ruminant animals,
particularly sheep and goats. This parasite is considered one of the most economically significant and detrimental
parasites affecting small ruminants worldwide. Haemonchus contortus sustains itself by feeding on the blood of its host,
leading to anemia and severe damage to the abomasum, the fourth compartment of the ruminant stomach. The intensity
of the infection depends on factors such as the number of worms present, the age and nutritional status of the host, as
well as the presence of concurrent ailments. Without proper treatment, heavy infestations can result in weight loss,
stunted growth, decreased milk production, and, in severe cases, even death (Roberts and Janovy, 2000; Emery et al.,
2016). Research on the antiparasitic properties of thyme has expanded its focus to include veterinary applications. One
study in this field aimed to investigate the effects of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil and its main component, thymol, on
the parasitic worm Haemonchus contortus. The researchers obtained mature Haemonchus contortus worms from
naturally infected sheep and exposed them to different concentrations of Thymus vulgaris essential oil and thymol. They
examined the effects on egg hatching, larval growth, and adult motility. Astonishingly, the study revealed that both
Thymus vulgaris essential oil and thymol exhibited significant anthelmintic activity against Haemonchus contortus. The
essential oil demonstrated dose-dependent effects in inhibiting egg hatching and larval growth. Thymol, the primary
active ingredient of thyme essential oil, displayed a highly effective mechanism for restricting larval development and
reducing the movement of adult worms. These promising findings undoubtedly open up new possibilities for the
potential use of thyme in veterinary applications (Ferreira et al., 2016).
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7.5. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Blastocystis hominis
Blastocystis hominis is a highly prevalent parasite worldwide, with observed cases reaching up to 60% in tropical,
subtropical, and poor countries (Tan, 2004). An anaerobic parasite relies on oxygen-free environments to survive.
However, the majority of infected individuals do not display any symptoms. Some people may experience symptoms
such as diarrhea, stomach discomfort, gas, and weight loss. These symptoms can resemble those of other digestive
conditions like irritable bowel syndrome or food poisoning, making diagnosis challenging. Unfortunately, there is no
specific treatment available for this disease, and in most cases, the infection resolves on its own. However, certain
patients may require antibiotics or mainstream antiparasitic drugs. Blastocystis hominis is believed to spread through
the fecal-oral route, which means it can be transmitted by consuming contaminated food or water. Currently, there is
no vaccine to prevent human infection. Additionally, this parasite can reproduce both sexually and asexuall y through
processes such as binary fission and the extension and retraction of pseudopodia (Tan, 2004; Cuomo et al., 2009;
Mehlhorn, 2010). El-Sayed (2009) conducted a study to assess the effectiveness of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) and
common thyme (Thymus vulgaris) extracts against Blastocystis hominisin vitro. Fresh leaves of the plants were used to
prepare the extracts, which were then assessed against B. hominis. The study findings demonstrated that thyme extract
inhibited the development of thetrophozoites by 98.2% at a concentration of 100 mg/ml,additionally; the growth of B.
hominis cysts was inhibited by 99.64% at the same concentration of thyme extract. These results indicate that ethanol
extracts of sweet basil and thyme have the potential to act as agents against Blastocystis hominis. The emergence of anti-
Blastocystis hominis properties in sweet basil and thyme extracts is significant in the field of medication, particularly
because there are limited treatment options available for this protozoan parasite. Notably, thyme extract demonstrated
encouraging results in inhibiting the development of B. hominis trophozoites and reducing cyst growth at a
concentration of 100 mg/ml. These findings suggest that natural plant extracts could serve as a viable alternative to
conventional medications for the treatment of B. hominis infections (El-Sayed, 2009).
7.6. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Cryptosporidium spp.
Cryptosporidium is a parasitic protozoan that can cause diarrhea in both humans and animals. It is present in the feces
of infected individuals and can be transmitted through contaminated water, food, or surfaces. The onset of symptoms
typically occurs within 2–10 days after infection and can persist for several weeks. While the disease is usually mild in
individuals with a healthy immune system, it can be more severe in those with weakened immune systems. Due to its
resistance to many disinfectants, Cryptosporidium necessitates boiling water or filtering to be removed. A study revealed
that between 2005 and 2015, Cryptosporidium spp. caused over 1 million deaths, with half a million occurring in children
under the age of 5, and more than 71 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were affected. Developing countries,
particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa, experienced the highest rates of mortality (Schmidt and Roberts, 2013; Meurs
et al., 2017). In a particular investigation, rats were spotted to determine the occurrence of cryptosporidium infection
and assess the potential impact of thyme extract. The results indicated that thyme extract demonstrated effectiveness
in both preventing and treating rat cryptosporidiosis. Particularly the prophylactic group of rats treated with thyme
extract exhibited significantly lower levels of Cryptosporidium parvum infection compared to the control group.
Furthermore, the treatment group displayed substantially reduced infection levels compared to the infected group.
These impressive findings led the researchers to conclude that administering thyme extract orally is a safe and effective
treatment for rats exhibiting cryptosporidiosis (Kara et al., 2023).In further research, the impact of essential oils,
including thyme and its major constituents such as thymol and carvacrol, on Cryptosporidium baileyi and
Cryptosporidium galli oocysts was assessed using a direct contact technique. The results revealed that all essential oils
and their major components were capable of eliminating both forms of Cryptosporidium. Thymol, carvacrol, and eugenol
exhibited the highest effectiveness, with LC50 values below 0.4 mg/ml (the dosage required to eliminate 50% of the
oocysts). Given that the other essential oils had slightly higher LC50 values, they still demonstrated efficacy in eradicating
the oocysts. Hence, the researchers concluded that essential oils, including thyme and its core constituents, held
significant potential as a novel therapy for cryptosporidiosis (Tanghort et al., 2019).
7.7. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Toxoplasma gondii
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite capable of infecting humans and other warm-blooded animals. Intriguingly,
it possesses the distinction of being the most pervasive parasitic infection worldwide, with an estimated 2–3 billion
individuals affected. The parasite can be transmitted through numerous means, including the feces of infected cats,
consumption of undercooked meat, contaminated water, and soil that may harbor the parasite (Tanter et al., 2000). In
most individuals, T. gondii infection typically does not cause any obvious symptoms. However, certain people, such as
pregnant women, newborn babies, and individuals with compromised immune systems, are likely to experience more
severe effects. The symptoms of toxoplasmosis can vary depending on the individual's immune status. In individuals
with a healthy immune system, the disease often remains asymptomatic. Nonetheless, some people may develop mild
flu-like symptoms (Mohanty et al., 2012; Torgerson and Mastroiacovo, 2013). Moreover, T. gondii has the potential to
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cause serious congenital defects in infected fetuses, such as hydrocephalus and intellectual impairments. In addition,
neonates infected with T. gondii might develop chorioretinitis, a potentially serious eye ailment. On the other hand,
patients with compromised immune systems, such as those suffering from HIV/AIDS, are more vulnerable to severe
toxoplasmosis. Fever, headache, muscular soreness, exhaustion, convulsions, and the existence of brain lesions are all
possible symptoms (Zeibig, 2014; Leventhal and Cheadle, 2019).In a study conducted by Eraky et al. (2016), researchers
investigated the effects of an ethanolic extract derived from Thymus vulgaris on chronic toxoplasmosis in mouse models
in order to evaluate the potential therapeutic impact of thyme on Toxoplasma gondii. The findings of the study
demonstrated that this extract possesses significant preventive and therapeutic properties against chronic
toxoplasmosis. Prior to infection with T. gondii, the mice were administered the extract for a duration of 5 days.
Remarkably, the mice treated with the alcoholic extract of thyme exhibited a lower number of brain cysts compared to
the control group. Subsequently, following infection, the infected mice received the extract for 10 days as part of the
treatment investigation. As a result, the treated mice displayed considerably fewer brain cysts and reduced
degenerative damage in comparison to the control group, which is an encouraging outcome. The study suggests that the
alcoholic extract of thyme holds potential as a novel natural medicinal agent for the treatment of chronic toxoplasmosis
(Eraky et al., 2016).Another study, in line with the previous research conducted by Farag et al. (2019), aimed to
investigate the therapeutic effectiveness of ethanolic extracts derived from Thymus vulgaris and Myristica fragrans
Houtt (Nutmeg) against toxoplasmosis using a rat model. The study unambiguously demonstrated that both extracts
were successful in reducing the number of brain cysts and the associated damage caused by Toxoplasma gondii. It is
worth noting that their study utilized a rat model, and the extracts were administered orally for duration of 10 days.
Besides, the results indicated that both extracts were effective in reducing brain cysts in rats with toxoplasmosis, while
the thyme extract showing greater efficacy compared to the nutmeg extract. Importantly, both extracts were well
tolerated by the rats and did not induce any significant side effects. The study suggested that both nutmeg and thyme
extracts have the potential to be utilized as therapeutic agents for toxoplasmosis. However, further research is
necessary to validate these findings, establish the optimal dosage, and determine the appropriate duration of treatment
(Farag et al., 2019).
7.8. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Entamoeba histolytica
Entamoeba histolytica, a unicellular parasite, is responsible for the development of amoebic dysentery, a highly
hazardous gastrointestinal disorder. This infection is common worldwide, affecting a significant number of individuals,
estimated to be between 50 and 100 million. The parasite is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, through the
consumption of contaminated food or water. Additionally, contact with contaminated soil or objects that are
contaminated can also contribute to its transmission. Upon ingestion, the active form of the parasite, known as
trophozoites, migrate to the intestines, where they cause inflammation and the formation of ulcers. Amoebic dysentery
manifests through symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, fever, and the existence of blood in the stool. The
main drugs utilized for the treatment of E. histolytica infection are metronidazole and iodoquinol. Even though these
medications effectively eradicate the parasite, they can also result in side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
(Chou and Austin, 2020). Behnia et al. (2008) conducted a study to investigate the potential anti-amoebic properties of
different extracts derived from thyme (Thymus vulgaris) against Entamoeba histolytica. The results indicated that all
tested extracts displayed some degree of inhibitory effect on the growth of E. histolytica, with the hydroalcoholic extract
showing the highest efficacy. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the hydroalcoholic extract was
determined to be 4 mg/ml, demonstrating that this concentration was sufficient to hinder parasite development.
Importantly, the research revealed that thyme extracts operated through a distinct mechanism compared to the
commonly used drug metronidazole, which is an encouraging finding. Metronidazole is known to alter the parasite's
DNA, whereas thyme extracts were observed to cause damage to the parasite's cell membrane. In conclusion, the study
suggested that thyme extracts could potentially serve as an alternative treatment for E. histolytica infection (Behnia et
al., 2008).
Dardona and Al-Hindi (2014) conducted another study to investigate the effects of various extracts, including thyme
(Thymus vulgaris L.), on Entamoeba histolytica. Their research demonstrated that all the tested extracts exhibited some
amoebicidal effect on E. histolytica. Among them, the alcoholic extract of pomegranate (P. granatum pulp) was
determined to be the most effective. The study revealed that while thyme extracts do possess some anti-amoebic
activity, they are not as potent as other plant extracts, such as pomegranate. Moreover, the study findings showed that
thyme extracts do not exhibit a synergistic effect when combined with metronidazole (Dardona and Al-Hindi, 2014).
7.9. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Toxocara vitulorum
Toxocara vitulorum is a parasitic worm frequently prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, predominantly
infecting cattle, buffalo, zebu, and sheep. The adult worms are large and appear white, whereas their eggs range in size
from 69 to 95 µm in length and 60 to 77 µm in width. The life cycle of this parasite is relatively uncomplicated, with
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vertical transmission through milk being the major mode of transmission. In calves, infection with T. vitulorum can
result in stunted growth, inflammation of the intestines (referred to as catarrhal enteritis), diarrhea, intestinal blockage,
and peritonitis. Water buffalo, in particular, are highly susceptible, exhibiting severe anemia, diarrhea, loss of appetite,
and weight loss, which can be fatal. Treatment choices include the administration of benzimidazoles and ivermec tin,
which help prevent the larvae from reaching maturity within the 3–6-week age range (Woodbury et al., 2012). In the
study conducted by Amin and El-Kabany (2013), the aim was to examine the protective and therapeutic effects of thyme
oil derived from Thymus vulgaris on Toxocara vitulorum (T. vitulorum) infection in rats. Interestingly, the results
demonstrated that thyme oil exhibited both protective and therapeutic effects against T. vitulorum infection in rats.
Specifically, rats that received thyme oil prior to being infected with T. vitulorum showed a significantly lower likelihood
of developing VLM (visceral larva migrans) compared to rats that did not receive thyme oil. Furthermore, rats that were
already infected with T. vitulorum and subsequently treated with thyme oil displayed noticeable improvements in their
clinical symptoms and a reduction in the parasite load within their bodies. Based on these findings, the study concluded
that thyme oil shows great potential as a natural product for both the prevention and treatment of T. vitulorum infection
(Amin and El-Kabany, 2013).
7.10. The anti-parasitic activity of T. vulgaris against Anisakis simplex
Anisakis simplex is a parasitic nematode that can cause anisakiasis, a foodborne disease, in humans. The larvae of this
nematode are found in the stomachs of marine mammals such as whales, dolphins, and seals. When these mammals
defecate, the larvae are released into the water, where fish can ingest them. Within the fish, the larvae mature into
adults. If humans consume raw or undercooked fish containing Anisakis larvae, the larvae can penetrate the intestinal
wall and cause an infection. The most common symptoms of anisakiasis include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea. In some cases, anisakiasis may also trigger allergic reactions such as hives, angioedema, and anaphylaxis
(Pravettoni et al., 2012). Giarratana et al. (2014) conducted a study to examine the therapeutic properties of thyme
essential oil (TEO) in eradicating Anisakis larvae. The findings revealed that TEO demonstrated significant larvicidal
activity against Anisakis larvae when assessed in laboratory conditions. At concentrations of 10% and 5%, TEO caused
complete mortality of the larvae within 7 and 14 hours, respectively. Even at lower concentrations, TEO exhibited some
effectiveness, although it required a longer time to achieve larval death. Based on these findings, the researchers suggest
that TEO has the potential to be used as a larvicidal agent for the prevention of anisakiasis. They also propose the
incorporation of TEO into the industrial marination process as a means to eliminate Anisakis larvae in seafood products
(Giarratana et al., 2014).
7.11. Other Parasites
Thyme's ability to combat parasites extends beyond the ones mentioned and has been observed against various
parasites over time. For instance, in a particular study, the researchers investigated the antiprotozoal activity of a thyme
methanol extract against three different protozoan parasites: Giardia lamblia, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Entamoeba
histolytica. They divided the extract into various components, or fractions, and assessed the antiprotozoal activity of
each fraction. Furthermore, the methanol extract of thyme exhibited significant antiprotozoal activity against all three
parasites. The fraction containing ursolic acid showed the highest activity, with IC50 values of 8.12 μg/ml against G.
lamblia and 5.51 μg/ml against T. vaginalis. In addition, these findings suggest that thyme has potential as a natural
antiprotozoal agent (Garza-González et al., 2017).Yet, investigations into the antiparasitic characteristics of thyme have
extended to Trichinella spiralis, a parasitic nematode known to cause trichinellosis in humans. In a certain study,
researchers examined the effects of myrrh and thyme extracts on both the enteral and parenteral phases of T. spiralis
infection in mice. The extracts were administered orally or intraperitoneally, followed by infection with T. spiralis larvae.
The scientists assessed the larval count in the mice's tissues and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)
in these tissues. Intriguingly, both myrrh and thyme extracts demonstrated efficacy in reducing the number of larvae in
the mice's tissues. During the enteral phase of infection, the myrrh extract exhibited greater effectiveness in reducing
larvae; however, the thyme extract showed more effectiveness during the parenteral phase. Moreover, both extracts
increased the expression of iNOS in the mice's tissues (Martins et al., 2015).Thyme has also been shown to be effective
in treating ascariasis, a parasitic infection caused by the roundworm Ascaris caninum. A study was conducted to evaluate
the effectiveness of thyme extract as a treatment for naturally infected puppies with ascariasis. The puppies were
divided into two groups: the treatment group received oral administration of thyme extract for 10 days; meanwhile the
control group did not receive any treatment. The researchers evaluated the number of worms detected in the puppies'
feces and observed their clinical symptoms. The results of the study showed that the thyme extract was effective in
reducing the number of worms present in the puppies' feces. At the end of the study, the treatment group exhibited
significantly fewer worms compared to the control group. Additionally, the puppies in the treatment group developed
fewer clinical symptoms associated with ascariasis compared to the control group. These findings suggest that thyme
extract may be a safe and effective treatment for ascariasis in puppies. However, further research is needed to confirm
these findings and determine the optimal dosage and duration of treatment (Duru et al., 2023).Eventually, Abu El Ezz et
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al. (2020) evaluated the therapeutic effects of Moringa oleifera and Thymus vulgaris oils on hepatic coccidiosis in
experimentally infected rabbits. Their study aimed to assess the efficacy of these oils in treating hepatic coccidiosis, a
parasitic infection of the liver caused by the protozoan parasite Eimeria stiedae. This infection can be fatal in rabbits,
and currently, there are no approved drugs available for its treatment. The findings of the study indicated that both
Moringa oleifera and Thymus vulgaris oils showed effectiveness in treating hepatic coccidiosis in rabbits. These oils were
able to decrease the number of oocysts, which are the infective stages of the parasite, shed by the rabbits. Likewise, the
oils improved the clinical signs associated with the infection. Based on these results, the study concluded that both
Moringa oleifera and Thymus vulgaris oils have potential as treatments for hepatic coccidiosis in rabbits (Abu El Ezz et
al., 2020).
8. Conclusion
The present investigation revealed that Thyme has been utilized for millennia for its therapeutic benefits, which are
attributed to the existence of bioactive compounds such as thymol, carvacrol and others. These compounds have
antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. Thyme has long been used to heal respiratory diseases,
digestive issues, and as a natural disinfectant. In addition to its traditional usage, thyme has been demonstrated to have
antiparasitic particularly, antiprotozoal, and larvicidal activity against a variety of parasites and diseases. Ongoing
research continues to reveal the therapeutic properties of thyme, confirming its significance in both traditional and
modern medicine.
Compliance with ethical standards
Disclosure of conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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