Review of coastal land transformation: Factors, impacts, adaptation strategies, and future scopes

Abstract

Coastal land transformation has been identified as a topic of research in many countries around the world. Several studies have been conducted to determine the causes and impacts of land transformation. However, much less is understood about coupling change detection, factors, impacts, and adaptation strategies for coastal land transformation at a global scale. This review aims to present a systematic review of global coastal land transformation and its leading research areas. From 1,741 documents of Scopus and Web of Science, 60 studies have been selected using the PRISMA-2020 guideline. Results revealed that existing literature included four leading focus areas regarding coastal land transformation: change detection, driving factors, impacts, and adaptation measures. These focus areas were further analyzed, and it was found that more than 80% of studies used Landsat imagery to detect land transformation. Population growth and urbanization were among the major driving factors identified. This review further identified that about 37% of studies included impact analysis. These studies identified impacts on ecosystems, land surface temperature, migration, water quality, and occupational effects as significant impacts. However, only four studies included adaptation strategies. This review explored the scope of comprehensive research in coastal land transformation, addressing change detection, factor and impact analysis, and mitigation-adaptation strategies. The research also proposes a conceptual framework for comprehensive coastal land transformation analysis. The framework can provide potential decision-making guidance for future studies in coastal land transformation.

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Review of coastal land transformation: Factors, impacts, adaptation
strategies, and future scopes
Md. Abubakkor Siddik , Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam
PII: S2666-6839(24)00015-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geosus.2024.01.010
Reference: GEOSUS 183
To appear in: Geography and Sustainability
Received date: 12 July 2023
Revised date: 30 January 2024
Accepted date: 31 January 2024
Please cite this article as: Md. Abubakkor Siddik , Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam , Review of coastal
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Highlights:
⚫ The land transformation process is presented systematically.
⚫ The study suggests a framework for coastal land transformation.
⚫ Population growth and urbanization are identified as the key driving factors.
⚫ Lack of adaptation strategies is found in coastal land transformation research.
⚫ Comprehensive systematic research in coastal land transformation is strongly
suggested.

Review of coastal land transformation: Factors, impacts,
adaptation strategies, and future scopes
Md. Abubakkor Siddika,b, *, Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islamc,d,*
a Dr. Wazed Research and Training Institute, Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur 5404,
Bangladesh
b Department of Emergency Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology
University, Patuakhali-8602, Bangladesh
c Department of Disaster Management, Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur 5404,
Bangladesh
d Department of Development Studies, Daffodil International University, Dhaka-1216,
Bangladesh
*Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses
：
towfiq_dm@brur.ac.bd (A.R.M.T. Islam) masiddik@pstu.ac.bd
(M.A. Siddik).
Abstract: Coastal land transformation has been identified as a topic of research in
many countries around the world. Several studies have been conducted to determine the
causes and impacts of land transformation. However, much less is understood about
coupling change detection, factors, impacts, and adaptation strategies for coastal land
transformation at a global scale. This review aimed to present a systematic review of
global coastal land transformation and its leading research areas. Of 1,741 documents
from Scopus and Web of Science, 60 studies have been selected using the PRISMA-
2020 guideline. Results revealed that existing literature included four leading focus
areas regarding coastal land transformation: change detection, driving factors, impacts,

and adaptation measures. These focus areas were further analyzed, and it was found
that more than 80% of studies used Landsat imagery to detect land transformation.
Among the major driving factors identified were population growth and urbanization.
This review further identified that about 37% of studies included impact analysis. These
studies identified impacts on ecosystems, land surface temperature, migration, water
quality, and occupational effects as significant impacts. However, only four studies
included adaptation strategies. This review explored the scope of comprehensive
research in coastal land transformation, addressing change detection, factor and impact
analysis, and mitigation-adaptation strategies. The research also proposes a conceptual
framework for comprehensive coastal land transformation analysis. The framework can
provide potential decision-making guidance for future studies in coastal land
transformation.
Keywords: Coastal land transformation; Land use and land cover; Landsat; Population;
PRISMA
1. Introduction
Land transformation is a change in land use and land cover that may involve a shift
from one form to another or an intensification or modification of an existing one
(Kaliraj et al., 2017; Siddik et al., 2018). It may be the key component of global change
(Hooke et al., 2012) and has already altered about 60% of the global landscape (Ma et
al., 2019; Xystrakis et al., 2017). Land transformation is the result of the
interrelationship of quick population expansion, urbanization, industrialization, tourism,
succession, cultural morality, property transfer, educational development, social and
political conflict, war, and the direct or indirect effects of climate-induced natural
hazards, including cyclones, storm surges, floods, sea level rise, water logging, etc.
(Akhtar et al., 2018; Hasnat et al., 2018; Hooke et al., 2012; Kaliraj et al., 2017; Pham
et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2017b; Siddik et al., 2017, 2018, 2023).

Since the beginning of recorded history, and perhaps substantially towards future
centuries, the global land transformation has undergone chronological and geographical
changes (Idowu et al., 2020). The entire land area of Earth is about 510.072 million
km2, including 148.94 million km2 (29.2%) of land surface and 361.132 million km2
(70.8%) of water surface (World Bank, 2022). However, only a small part of the land
surface remains in its primary form (Bhatta, 2010). The coastal area comprises about
620 thousand kilometers worldwide (NASA, n.d.). Both high economic growth and
large population densities are vital characteristics of such places. More than 40 percent
of the world’s population lives within 100 km of the coast (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2019).
The massive population density causes aberrant coastal development. This significant
proportion of the population is responsible for the frequent and rapid transformation of
both public and private lands. These changes will continue because of the continuous
increasing trends of the global population and associated factors, including urban area
development, industrial concentration, tourism, etc. (Hawash et al., 202; Liang et al.,
2022; Tuan, 2022; Wardhani et al., 2022). The extent of urbanization and the
repercussions it brings are more widespread in coastal areas, and this has an effect on
both the availability and the level of quality of environmentally friendly natural
resources (Devi and Nair, 2021). Land transformation is also considered the result of
the construction of roads and bridges and the establishment of wetlands (Siddik and
Rahman, 2022). Although it continues to take place for the improvement of societal life
and well-being, it has an impact on a variety of other spheres that are intimately
connected to human existence, such as the economy, food stock, livelihood, water
quality, and climate change (Gani et al., 2023; Hanks et al., 2021; Hasnat et al., 2018;
Idowu et al., 2020; Regasa et al., 2021; Siddik and Zaman, 2021).
The coastal land transformation has been identified as a topic of research in many
countries around the world. First and foremost, numerous studies have emphasized the

spatio-temporal change of coastal land use. However, this change was detected using
several methods, for example, remote sensing (Datta and Deb, 2012; Tran et al., 2015;
Yagoub and Kolan, 2006), GIS and remote sensing (Hawash et al., 2021; Kaliraj et al.,
2017; Reis, 2008; Weng, 2002), and CORINE methodology (Kuleli and Bayazıt, 2022;
Sönmez et al., 2009; Yılmaz, 2010). Other researchers (Rahman et al., 2017a; Rahman
et al., 2017b; Rahman and Esha, 2022; Rahman and Ferdous, 2021) focused on land
use prediction. Moreover, few other researchers have focused on the driving forces or
impacts of coastal land transformation. Devi and Nair (2021), for instance, investigated
the connection between urbanization and coastal land transformation. Similar to this,
Li et al. (2010) investigated the connection between industrial development and coastal
land transformation. Some researchers focused on disaster-induced coastal land
transformation (Hartanto and Rachmawati, 2017; Siddik et al., 2018; Tran et al., 2019).
Additionally, Camacho-Valdez et al. (2014), Kankam et al. (2022), and Xu et al. (2022)
assessed the effects of land transformation on coastal ecosystems. Similarly, the impact
of coastal land use change on eco-tourism (Wardhani et al., 2022), water quality (Chen
et al., 2020b), surface temperature (Chanu et al., 2021), agriculture (Hasnat et al., 2018),
landslide risk (Reichenbach et al., 2014), and flooding risk (Hussein et al., 2020) were
also explored.
From the preceding discussion, it is evident that many studies have been conducted to
ascertain the factors that lead to and the effects of land transformation in coastal areas.
However, to the authors’ knowledge, no attempt has been made to conduct a critical
review on coastal land transformation. The review aimed to present a systematic critical
review of global coastal land transformation and its leading research areas. Such a
review is crucial for understanding the current state of knowledge and potential research
directions on coastal land transformation. The objectives are to identify factors and
associated impacts of land transformation in coastal areas, explore the strategies that
have been followed to adapt to the impacts of land transformation in the coastal world,

and identify the opportunities for further research in the fields of coastal land
transformation.
This research will consider the following questions:
(1) What are the driving factors and impacts of land transformation in coastal areas
worldwide?
(2) Which strategies have been followed to adapt to the effects of coastal land
transformation?
(3) What are the most significant research gaps on coastal land transformation in
the existing literature?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Search strategy
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)
2020 principles were followed for the current meta-analysis and systematic review
(Page et al., 2021). The Scopus and Web of Science databases have been used to
perform this systematic review. These databases have been acknowledged as being the
most popular and reputable platforms for carrying out systematic reviews and meta-
analyses of scientific productions that have been subjected to peer review (Singh et al.,
2021). When searching for relevant literature, the Boolean operators “OR” and “AND”
were used in various combinations. The main keywords used in this review are (a) land
transformation/land use and land cover change/land use change and (b) coastal
region/coastal/coast (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Search string including, a) Scopus, and (b) Web of Science platforms.
2.2 Data eligibility criteria
This review set several inclusion criteria, including: (i) publication year between 2000
and 2022, (ii) original research article about land transformation in the coastal region,
and (iii) final or finished production considering the English language. This review, on
the other hand, took into account a number of criteria for excluding studies. These
criteria included: (i) duplicate papers; (ii) publications that were not the result of
original research; (iii) languages other than English; (iv) global or regional focus; (v)
not focused on land transformation or focus other than land transformation issue; (vi)
partial land transformation focus, for example, focused on forest cover change or
urbanization; and (vii) partial coastal area focus, for example, used coastal area as a
part of the whole study area (e.g., coastal and inland area). These inclusion and
exclusion criteria were used to find out the relevant records to carry out this systematic
review with a concentration on land transformation in the coastal region.

2.3 Literature search results
This review considered the PRISMA-2020 guideline, where there are three main stages
of desired literature inclusion: identification, screening, and inclusion (Fig. 2). In the
first stage (identification), we identified a total of 1,741 records from two widely used
databases, i.e., Scopus (n = 1,039) and Web of Science (n = 702). After that, we
performed a duplicate check and removed a total of 234 records. The second stage
(screening) included three main sections: records screened, reports sought for retrieval,
and reports assessed for eligibility. After checking the title and abstract, 1,117 records
were excluded out of 1,507 records during the records screening. The main reasons for
exclusion were the wrong publication year, review paper, global or regional focus,
general focus on land use and land cover, and partial focus on coastal areas. Seven
records were not retrieved in the second section out of 390 screened records. For
eligibility checking, we had 383 papers in the third section of the second stage of the
PRISMA guideline. These records were selected for full-text review. After reviewing
383 full texts, 323 records were excluded following the exclusion criteria described in
the data eligibility criteria section. Finally, 60 papers were selected for this systematic
review in the included stage.

Fig. 2. Identification of relevant studies using the PRISMA guideline, including three
stages i.e., (i) the identification stage indicates the total number of available records in
the databases (here, Scopus and Web of Science), (ii) the screening stage includes
records screening, retrieval, and assessment for eligibility, and (iii) the included stage
includes selected records for performing the systematic review.
3. Results
3.1 Spatial and temporal distribution of the earlier literature
Figure 3 shows the number of scientific publications by year and country. This review
identified 17 relevant production years out of a total of 23 screened years (2000–2022).
The publication years 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2011, and 2016 were not considered
because there was no relevant scientific production throughout those years. This study

found an almost increasing trend in production during the study period. There were
three productions in the first production year of 2002, which finally increased to ten in
the year 2022, with an average output of 3.5 per year and an average annual growth of
6.20%.
Fig. 3. Scientific publication of documents (a) the annual publication from 2002 to
2022; (b) and (c) present the number of publications by countries.
This study covered 60 scientific studies that were conducted in 23 different countries.
Forty-three of the studies were carried out in eleven Asian countries, six in four African
countries, four in four European countries, two in two North American countries, and
five in two South American countries. The overall average of the studies was

determined to be 2.6, while the average of the studies conducted in Asian countries was
4.6. Among the Asian countries, the highest numbers of studies were found in Turkey,
with a total of 12. China follows with nine, while Bangladesh and India both have five
studies each. Conversely, only one study was carried out in some other countries,
including Algeria, Bahrain, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Greece, Indonesia, Italy, Poland, Saudi
Arabia, Spain, and Thailand. Meanwhile, Ghana, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, the UAE, the
USA, and Vietnam have represented multiple studies.
3.2 Leading focus areas of the studies
The supplementary table (Table S1) shows the study-wise leading focus areas with
details. This review identified four leading focus areas incorporated into the selected
60 scientific studies conducted in the different countries of Asia, Africa, Europe, North
America, and South America. It was discovered that the primary emphasis of all studies
was the identification of coastal land transformation, which may be referred to as
change detection (detail description in Section 3.3). In addition, 26 studies included
factor analysis linked with changes in land use and land cover (detail description in
Section 3.4), and 21 studies covered impact analysis associated with these changes
(detail description in Section 3.5). Moreover, only four of the studies discussed
adaptation measures to cope with the effects of coastal land transformation (detail
description in Section 3.6).
3.3 Identification of coastal land transformation
Land transformation is the process of changing land use and cover. This can be
accomplished by shifting to a new kind of land use or by intensifying or modifying an
existing land use. In the selected studies, land transformation was computed by
analyzing images from different satellites, including Landsat, SPOT, ASTER, GeoEye,
IKONOS, QuickBird, Sentinel, ALOS, RapidEye, WorldView, and Resourcesat. Aerial
photographs, OpenStreetMap, topographic maps, and several databases were also used.

It has been identified that the Landsat satellite image is the most often used satellite
image for assessing land transformation. Nearly 86.7% of the research included the use
of Landsat satellite imagery, with 71.7% of the studies using Landsat satellite imagery
exclusively and 15% combining images from other satellites (Table 1).
Table 1
Data used in identifying coastal land transformation in the reviewed studies (N=60).
Change detection method
Frequency
Landsat image
52 (86.7%)
Aerial Photograph
6 (10.0%)
SPOT image
5 (8.3%)
Database
3 (5.0%)
ASTER image
2 (3.3%)
GeoEye image
2 (3.3%)
IKONOS image
2 (3.3%)
QuickBird image
2 (3.3%)
Sentinel image
2 (3.3%)
ALOS image
1 (1.7%)
OpenStreetMap
1 (1.7%)
RapidEye image
1 (1.7%)
Resourcesat image
1 (1.7%)
Topographic Map
1 (1.7%)
WorldView image
1 (1.7%)
3.4 Driving factors of coastal land transformation
This review explored 41 different driving factors for coastal land transformation from
the selected 60 studies. Figure 4 shows a word map of the associated factors of coastal
land transformation. It can be assumed that disasters, population, urbanization,

topography, tourism, planning policies, construction, industrialization, migration,
climate change, distance from the coastline, etc. were the main factors in coastal land
transformation (details are presented in the supplementary Table S1).
Fig. 4. Word map of the driving factors of coastal land transformation included in the
reviewed studies and prepared with the help of word clouds
(https://www.wordclouds.com/).
Figure 5 shows that nine of the driving forces have been found in five or more selected
studies. These are population growth, urbanization, socioeconomic development,
natural disasters, topography, tourism, planning policies, construction, and
industrialization. Amongst them, population growth and urbanization were identified
as the key driving factors of coastal land transformation in about 25% of the studies. In
order to provide shelter to the additional population, people are constantly changing
coastal farm lands, vegetation areas, saltpans, aquaculture areas, etc. and setting up their
settlements (Cetin et al., 2008; Cinar, 2015; Kaliraj et al., 2017; Kankam et al., 2022;
Kolios and Stylios, 2013; Kuleli and Bayazıt, 2022; Liang et al., 2022; Lin and Qiu,
2022; Mousazadeh et al., 2015; Pham et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2017a; Rahman and
Ferdous, 2021; Tran et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2012). It is evident that
most urban people are engaged in secondary and tertiary economic activities. This

process is considered a profound cause of irretrievably decreasing agricultural lands,
water bodies, forest lands, saltpans, etc. (Avelar and Tokarczyk, 2014; Cetin et al., 2008;
Cinar, 2015; J. Huang et al., 2009; Hussein et al., 2020; Kaliraj et al., 2017; Kolios and
Stylios, 2013; Kuleli and Bayazıt, 2022; Kurt, 2013; Liang et al., 2022; Mousazadeh et
al., 2015; Rahman and Esha, 2022; Sönmez et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2021; Zhu et al.,
2012). In addition, real estate development is found to be a contributing factor to coastal
land transformation in India, which may convert cultivated land into urbanized areas
(Kaliraj et al., 2017).
Fig. 5. Percentage of driving forces of coastal land transformation that have been
found in five or more selected studies.
Economic or socio-economic development-related factors of coastal land
transformation were included in about 13% of studies. Further, both natural disasters
and topography (slope and elevation) were included in about 12% of the studies.
Moreover, both tourism and planning policies were included in about 10% of studies,
and construction and industrialization were included in 8% of studies.

3.5 Impacts of coastal land transformation
Out of 60 studies, 37% included impact analysis. A total of 13 main impact areas were
identified from the studies, including agriculture and aquaculture, air temperature,
carbon stock, dryness, ecosystem, flooding, landslides, land surface temperature (LST),
migration, occupation, population, salinity intrusion, and water quality (Fig. 6). Land
transformation frequently entails the degradation of natural ecosystems, which in turn
leads to a loss of biodiversity as well as the extinction or threatened survival of various
species. Destruction of ecosystems (13.3%) was identified as the most significant
consequence of coastal land transformation (Akber et al., 2018; Badamfirooz and
Mousazadeh, 2019; Baśnou et al., 2013; Camacho-Valdez et al., 2014; Hoque et al.,
2022; Kankam et al., 2022; Rahman and Esha, 2022; Xu et al., 2022). In around 8.3
percent of the research, land surface temperature (LST) was also recognized as one of
the impacts of coastal land transformation (Chanu et al., 2021; Ning et al., 2018; Pham
et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2017a; Rahman and Esha, 2022).
Fig. 6. Percentages of impact areas of coastal land transformation identified from the
selected studies.

In addition, migration was investigated as an impact of coastal land transformation in
approximately five percent of the studies (Asante-Yeboah et al., 2022; Rahman and
Esha, 2022; Rahman and Ferdous, 2021). Similarly, about five percent of the studies
looked into the topic and found that the modification of coastal land also had
occupational repercussions (Rahman et al., 2017b; Rahman and Esha, 2022; Rahman
and Ferdous, 2021). In addition, around 3.3% of the studies examined the effects of
changes in coastal land use on water quality (Chen et al., 2020b; Fuentes et al., 2017).
Additionally, several insignificant repercussions of coastal land transformation have
been documented. These include effects on agriculture and aquaculture (Tran et al.,
2019), air temperature (Cinar, 2015), carbon stock (Hernández-Guzmán et al., 2019),
dryness (Pham et al., 2021), flooding (Hussein et al., 2020), landslide susceptibility
(Reichenbach et al., 2014), population (Asante-Yeboah et al., 2022), and salinity
intrusion (Rahman and Esha, 2022).
3.6 Adaptation strategies
Out of 60 studies, a total of 22 focused on the impacts of land transformation. Only four
studied adaptation techniques to cope with the effects of coastal land transformation.
Rahman and Esha (2022), Rahman and Ferdous (2021), and Rahman et al. (2017b)
identified occupational change as the key adaptation strategy for coastal land
transformation. Rahman and Esha (2022) found that people were compelled to alter
their employment due to changes in land usage and an increase in shrimp cultivation
instead of agriculture. According to Rahman and Ferdous (2021), the growing industry
of shrimp and crab farming along the shore has a substantial effect on livelihood, and
consequently, people are switching their employment from rice farming to shrimp
culture. Further, Rahman et al. (2017b) explored that salinity intrusion has impacted
agriculture yields, subsequently reducing economic benefit. Therefore, they observed a
change in occupational pattern, particularly from paddy cultivation to shrimp culture in
coastal salinity-prone areas. Besides, Tran et al. (2019) opined that a drought-related

water shortage can cause bare (unused) land to increase slightly. They identified crop
rotation and vegetative cover as adaptive measures for minimizing the impacts of
drought-induced land transformation.
3.7 Research gaps and possible ways forward in the existing studies
The identification of research gaps and possible ways forward on the basis of the
leading focus areas included in existing studies is presented in Tables 2 and 3. It was
revealed that all the studies included a change detection focus area, as that was the main
inclusion criteria of this review. But the main finding of this focus area was related to
its methods. Most of the studies (86.7%) included Landsat images as the main tools for
detecting coastal land transformation. Therefore, researchers can use the most familiar
tool for further research in terms of its acceptability. However, seasonal monitoring,
using multi-temporal images, introducing retrospective analysis of land transformation
between time periods to minimize errors, prediction of future land transformation, and
usage of high-resolution images for analyzing and predicting coastal land
transformation were also included as recommendations in the existing literature (Table
3).
Table 2
Identification of research gaps based on leading focus areas.
Leading focus areas
Number of studies
Change detection (CD), top three tools
60 (100%)
a) Landsat image
52 (86.7%)
b) Aerial photograph
6 (10.0%)
c) SPOT image
5 (8.3%)
CD + Factor Analysis (FA)
26 (43.3%)
CD + Impact Analysis (IA)
22 (36.7%)
Adaptation strategies (AS)
4 (6.7%)

CD + FA + IA
10 (16.7%)
CD + FA + IA + AS
4 (6.7%)
Table 3
Possible ways forward included in the existing studies.
Leading focus
area
Possible ways forward
Change
detection
1. Seasonal monitoring of land transformation (Kolios and
Stylios, 2013).
2. Multi-temporal analysis of land transformation (Tran et
al., 2019).
3. Retrospective analysis of land transformation between
time periods (Avelar and Tokarczyk, 2014).
4. High resolution images (Datta and Deb, 2012; Kolios and
Stylios, 2013).
5. Predictive studies (Hoque et al., 2022; Idowu et al.,
2020).
Driving factor
analysis
1. Comprehensive factors of land transformation (Kolios and
Stylios, 2013; Tran et al., 2015).
2. Human impacts on land transformation (Tran et al., 2019).
3. Nexus among land transformation, ethnic/minority habits,
and dryness (Pham et al., 2021).
4. People’s perceptions of land transformation (Asante-
Yeboah et al., 2022).
Impact analysis
1. Comprehensive impacts of land transformation (Rahman
et al., 2017a; Tran et al., 2015).
2. Impacts of land transformation on region (Baśnou et al.,
2013), livelihood (Tran et al., 2015), atmospheric

temperature (Cinar, 2015), environment (Chen et al.,
2020a; Tran et al., 2015), bio-diversity conservation
(Baśnou et al., 2013), water quality (Chen et al., 2020b;
Nelson et al., 2002), and social (Chen et al., 2020a).
3. Ecological services mapping (Kankam et al., 2022).
4. Man-land relationship and the quality as well as benefit
of land use (Lin and Qiu, 2022).
Adaptation
strategies
Not included
Land transformation is the alteration, intensification, or modification of existing land
use, which can be done through several factors (Asante-Yeboah et al., 2022; Cetin et
al., 2008; Kaliraj et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2017; Siddik et al., 2018). This critical
review identified that 43.3% of the literature included factors as the leading focus area
(Table 2). In the previous research, some suggestions were made, such as focusing on
comprehensive factor analysis, looking into the effects of human-made pressure,
looking into the connections between land change, ethnic or minority habits, and
dryness, and doing perception studies to find out what causes, impacts, and ways of
adapting to coastal land change (Table 3).
Land transformation produces several socio-economic and environmental impacts
(Badamfirooz and Mousazadeh, 2019; Baśnou et al., 2013; Chanu et al., 2021; Hoque
et al., 2022; Kankam et al., 2022; Pham et al., 2021; Rahman and Esha, 2022; Xu et al.,
2022). This review identified that 36.7% of existing studies incorporated the impacts of
coastal land transformation as one of the leading focus areas. Several researchers further
recommended focusing on comprehensive impacts analyses, analyzing regional
impacts of land transformation, impacts on livelihood, environmental impacts, and so
on (Table 3).

And finally, adaptation strategies can help to cope with the impacts of land
transformation (Rahman et al., 2017b; Rahman and Esha, 2022; Rahman and Ferdous,
2021; Tran et al., 2019). These four areas of research, i.e., change detection, factor
analysis, impact analysis, and adaptation strategies, were identified as the leading focus
areas. Table 2 shows that only 6.7% of studies included all of these focus areas,
indicating huge gaps in existing studies. Still, there is scope to work in the field of
coastal land transformation, addressing comprehensive analysis including change
detection, factor analysis, impact analysis, and adaptation strategy identification.
4. Discussion
4.1 Leading focus areas
Sixty scholarly journal articles have been selected using the PRISMA-2020 guideline.
Many researchers also follow PRISMA for ensuring comprehensive and transparent
reporting of meta-analyses and systematic reviews (Liberati et al., 2009; Page et al.,
2021; Swartz, 2011). This review identified four leading focus areas incorporated in the
selected studies. After analyzing the first focus area (change detection), this review
found Landsat to be the most often used satellite image for assessing coastal land
transformation. Nearly 86.7% of the study used Landsat imagery, with 71.7%
exclusively using it and 15% using other satellite images. Since 1972, Landsat images
have been widely used to determine land transformation (Campbell, 2007). Researchers
typically employ Landsat images for land change detection investigations because of
their vast collection, high spectral resolution, accessibility, simplicity, and free
availability (Gani et al., 2023; Reis, 2008). These images are also widely used because
of their extensive coverage and extractability (Zhan et al., 2021). In addition, Landsat
images are reliable because of atmospheric correction (Liang et al., 2001). Landsat data
are sensitive to plant composition and consistent with stand and patch size, making
them ideal for analyzing changes in field biomass (Avitabile et al., 2012). Even though
Landsat-5 doesn’t cover the whole world and Landsat-7 doesn’t give complete data in

each image (22%–25% data loss due to the Scan-Line Corrector), Landsat images are
still essential for figuring out how tropical forests are changing (Wijedasa et al., 2012).
After analyzing the second focus area (factor analysis), this review identified a total of
41 different driving factors. Amongst them, population growth, urbanization,
socioeconomic development, natural disasters, topography, tourism, planning policies,
construction, and industrialization were found five or more times in the selected studies.
The rapid growth of population has put tremendous pressure on nature and the
environment, especially on the land (Maja and Ayano, 2021). It is predicted to have a
significant impact on the distribution of arable land, vegetative cover, and wetlands
across the world (Garg, 2017). Urbanization is the process of increasing urban areas,
with their population coming from rural areas, other urban hemispheres, built-up areas,
etc. The growth of the population also supports the urbanization process (Elmqvist et
al., 2008). It is one of the key factors in the current land use pattern worldwide.
Typically, non-urban areas are converted to urban. However, urban land use change can
vary depending on population and building density, local legislation, layout, market
pressure, and other aspects (Domingo et al., 2021; Nuissl and Siedentop, 2021). Socio-
economic development is also identified as one of the key driving factors in coastal
land transformation. For example, monetary rationality focuses on economic benefit in
terms of higher income (Asante-Yeboah et al., 2022; Pham et al., 2021; Rahman et al.,
2017a; Rahman et al., 2017b; Sönmez et al., 2009; Tran et al., 2015), gross domestic
product, investment scenario in fixed assets, household consumption, revenue and
expenditure of local government (Lin and Qiu, 2022), and level of economic growth
(Zhao et al., 2021). The expansion of industry is the key to encouraging economic
development in many coastal areas. It is also regarded as the preeminent driving force
of coastal land transformation (Li et al., 2010). Land transformation is also considered
the result of the construction of roads and bridges and the establishment of wetlands
(Siddik and Rahman, 2022). Further, coastal hazards, including floods, cyclones, storm

surges, sea level rise, etc., have short-term and/or long-term effects on land use change
(Hartanto and Rachmawati, 2017; Kaliraj et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2017b; Rahman
and Esha, 2022; Rahman and Ferdous, 2021; Tran et al., 2015, 2019). Additionally, the
topography of that region has an impact on the structure of land use and its spatial
distribution (Bian et al., 2023). The intensification process of land use depends on the
nature of the terrain in floodplains. Not only that, but the gradient and altitude are so
important that they regulate other physical factors such as soil quality and at the same
time affect social factors (Havlíček and Chrudina, 2013; Nabiollahi et al., 2018). The
development of tourist sites and tourism infrastructure usually contributes to changes
in land use and land cover (Wang and Liu, 2013). Besides, Dong et al. (2008) found
that farmers willingly change their occupation from farm to non-farm activities and
subsequently change land use patterns to support tourism development. Furthermore,
government policies or legislation can act as contributing factors to land transformation.
For instance, China's land use regulations prioritize various afforestation programs and
other ecological initiatives to increase ecosystem services (Huang et al., 2020).
After analyzing the third focus area (impact analysis), this review found that about 37%
of the selected studies included at least one of the identified 13 main impact areas. Out
of these impact areas, four were found in five or more studies, e.g., disruption of
ecosystems, changes in LST, migration, and occupational impacts. Tiwari et al. (2019)
explored that human-caused land transformations such as landscape modification,
decreasing forest cover, and farmland expansion are some of the most significant
ecological problems impacting soil, ecological systems, and sustainability. They also
found land transformation may cause various negative subsurface and environmental
changes that influence the subsurface diversity of microorganisms, population size, and
productivity. Besides, land transformation has a major effect on the increasing trends
of land surface temperature (LST). The urban environment, well-being of people, and
ecology were all severely harmed by the rise in LST. The LST was found to be

considerably different amongst the various types of land use, with greater LSTs being
found on developed land (Tan et al., 2020). Kafy et al. (2021) found a highly favorable
relationship between LST and the normalized difference built-up index (NDBI). Imran
et al. (2021) found that urbanization triggers land use transformation through
constructing physical structures for dwellings, transportation, the marketplace, and
other uses. These physical structures further significantly impact LST by disrupting the
surface energy equilibrium. Further, migration, either internal or international,
contributes to changes in transforming land. Bell et al. (2010) explored increased multi-
occupancy and urban density as two main effects of migrants’ settling in the cities of
many European countries, where they often occupy low-rent housing at first. Rahman
and Ferdous (2021) found increasing trends in waterbodies in coastal Bangladesh,
indicating more fish firming. The growth of fisheries often leads to occupational
hazards because of the loss of crop land, which further leads to migration and changes
in employment. Further, Asante-Yeboah et al. (2022) observed that land use change
through industrial development acted as a pull factor for migration and population
increase. Migration may also happen with a line of government development projects,
including settlement schemes, industrial zoning, tourism development, etc. (Lambin et
al., 2001).
After analyzing the final (fourth) focus area, this review explored only three types of
adaptation strategies in four studies. The strategies are occupational change, crop
rotation, and vegetative coverage. Tran et al. (2019) found rotating crop and vegetative
coverage as coping strategies for reducing drought-related water shortage-induced land
use change. Paudel (2002) explored that intensification of land use and introducing new
crops can be adaptive measures to increase both crop production and income in a
shrinking land use environment. Detail mitigation-adaptation strategies for coastal land
transformation are discussed in the following section (Section 4.2).

4.2 Conceptual framework for comprehensive systematic land transformation analysis
Figure 7 presents a conceptual framework for comprehensive land transformation
analysis. The framework is distinctive because of its comprehensiveness. It includes all
of the leading focus areas (i.e., change detection, driving factors analysis, impacts
analysis, and adaptation measures) that are identified in this review. It also illustrates
the relationship among the leading focus areas. For analyzing land transformation, one
first explores whether any changes happen or not during a time period. The change
detection of land use and land cover can effectively represent the key attributes of land
resources (Zhao et al., 2021). There are several data sources for detecting such changes,
including field data, satellite images, topographic maps, databases, etc. According to
this study, image analysis or information retrieval from databases are considered
popular data sources for change detection. Image or database analysis can provide more
accurate information, and they are more accessible and cost-effective (Reis, 2008). On
the other hand, there are limitations with field data when considering geographical and
temporal coverage. Additionally, collecting data in the field has frequently resulted in
redundant efforts or instances when data obtained for one reason was useless for another
(Anderson et al., 1976).

Fig. 7. Proposed framework for comprehensive systematic land transformation
analysis.
There are several driving factors for changing land use and land cover. The study
explored that land transformation is the result of several human-induced (e.g.,
demographic, urbanization, industrialization), natural (e.g., slope, elevation), and
disaster-related driving factors. This transformation further impacted the environment
(e.g., water quality, ecosystem, land surface temperature, soil salinity), land use pattern,
livelihood, migration, disaster (e.g., flooding), etc.
The adaptation strategies can be grouped as land use adjustment, livelihood adjustment,
crop intensification, economic issues, migration, etc. Land use adjustment is the

replacement of one use by another, for example, forestry instead of crop culture or
shrimp culture in saline areas instead of crop or other use (Siddik et al., 2018). The
increase in salinity is a complicated process that involves the meteorological, socio-
economical, and biological processes that are present in coastal environments. The
growing salinity of the land has a detrimental effect on both the quality of life and the
livelihoods that depend on the agricultural system (Habiba et al., 2013; Rabbani et al.,
2018). Coastal agricultural practices are some of the most dynamic in the country.
Monoculture shrimp aquaculture has emerged as a prevalent method of land
management around the world as a means of mitigating the effects of soil salinization
(Akter et al., 2023; Faruque et al., 2017).
Livelihood adjustment is the changing of livelihood strategies in response to changes
in the current environment. We have found only three studies focusing on the economic
capital of livelihood adjustment (Rahman et al., 2017b; Rahman and Esha, 2022;
Rahman and Ferdous, 2021). However, livelihood status can be accessed on the basis
of DFID’s sustainable livelihood approach. There are five capitals in livelihood
resources: human capital, social capital, natural capital, financial capital, and physical
capital (DFID, 1999).
Crop intensification can be a key adaptation strategy for maximizing food production
on a parcel of land in a land transformation context. Sethi et al. (2014) suggested
undertaking intensive agricultural transformation planning to improve food stock and
meet food scarcity challenges. Tran et al. (2019) identified crop rotation and vegetative
cover as adaptive measures for minimizing the impacts of drought-induced land
transformation. Even in the midst of a drought, rotating crops on a piece of land over
the course of several growing and seeding seasons can help mitigate some of the
negative impacts of an intensifying drought. It has the potential to significantly improve
climate resilience and decrease the sensitivity of farming crops (Yu et al., 2022).

Land use adjustment, livelihood adjustment, and crop intensification are highly related
to economic profitability. In some cases, people are supposed to migrate from one
location to another because of land transformation, for example, relocation or migration
due to disaster-induced land transformation, e.g., cyclones or river bank erosion (Siddik
et al., 2017, 2018).
To mitigate the challenges of land transformation, several researchers have proposed
different measures, including policy and strategies, monitoring, local authority
participation, public awareness, social and political interactions, etc. Among them,
Rahman et al. (2017b), Rahman and Esha (2022), Rahman and Ferdous (2021), and
Yılmaz (2010) recommended comprehensive land use planning to promote a stable,
equitable, and diverse use of coastal land. Kurt (2013) and Kara et al. (2013) suggested
a sustainable coastal land management plan ought to be implemented in order to
preserve the coastal areas. According to Akber et al. (2018), Pham et al. (2021), and
Hoque et al. (2022), rules about land use might help change or lower the amount of land
used for farming, raise the amount of land covered by forests, and create ways of
making a living that are more flexible and long-lasting while also making people more
resistant to the effects of climate change. Further, Liang et al. (2022) proposed that an
effective coastal management legislation system be formulated so as to control and
govern the land development activities in the coastal regions. Enaruvbe and Ige-
Olumide (2015) and Badamfirooz and Mousazade (2019) strongly suggested
developing land use zoning in order to safeguard the ecosystems from quick
deterioration and, as a result, to ensure environmental as well as human well-being.
Moreover, Kuleli and Bayazıt (2022) advised formulating policies, including roadmaps
based on worldwide sustainability standards, to minimize issues related to over-
urbanization and excessive tourism.

Local authorities (local governments and municipalities) are the key actors or execution
agencies for implementing land use planning at the local level. Hence, they need to pay
careful attention to the alternation of land use and take necessary measures in response
to the effects of such changes in the built environment (Zhu et al., 2012).
Given that human-induced land transformation hinders the built environment, a public
awareness campaign should take precedence. In addition, interaction among social and
political entities should be enhanced so that coastal land use change can be managed
(Cetin et al., 2008).
According to several researchers (Kesgin and Nurlu, 2009; Muttitanon and Tripathi,
2005; Nosakhare et al., 2012), intensive and regular monitoring of coastal land use is
crucial to address the land transformation and reduce the associated challenges. Among
them, Kesgin and Nurlu (2009) recommended remote sensing to accurately monitor the
status of coastal land transformation. On the other hand, Muttitanon and Tripathi (2005)
suggested that integrating and analyzing the raster images in GIS may be able to
accomplish effective monitoring and management of land utilization in coastal areas.
5. Conclusions
This is the first attempt to present a critical overview of the global coastal land
transformation and its associated primary research areas. Results revealed that most of
the coastal land transformation-related research was carried out in Asian countries,
especially in China, Bangladesh, and India. Therefore, we can name these countries as
Asian coastal land transformation hotspots. However, more research is recommended
in these areas. Four leading focus areas, i.e., change detection, factor analysis, impacts
analysis, and adaptation measures, have been identified considering coastal land
transformation. Existing literatures has mainly focused on identifying the key driving
factors (e.g., population growth, urbanization, etc.) of coastal land transformation.

Future studies can consider factor-based coastal land transformation, e.g., disaster-
induced or human-induced land transformation. The main impact areas of coastal land
transformation were the destruction of ecosystems, changes in LST, migration,
occupational repercussions, and changes in water quality. More studies can be done
addressing the comprehensive impact analysis on livelihood, agriculture, the economy,
etc. Moreover, we found existing studies had given little consideration to mitigation-
adaptation strategies. More studies are needed to address these strategies. Finally,
comprehensive research (change detection, factors, impacts, and adaptation strategies)
on coastal land transformation is strongly recommended, following the proposed
conceptual framework for comprehensive land transformation analysis.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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Graphical Abstract

Declaration of interests
☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this
paper.
☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be
considered as potential competing interests: