Content uploaded by Aradhna Aggarwal
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Aradhna Aggarwal on Jun 02, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
Special Economic Zones in South Asia
Growth‑enhancing structural change—a relocation of labour from low‑ to
high‑productivity sectors—is increasingly perceived as inextricably linked
with the sustainable development agenda. In the pursuit of structural change,
policymakers have pinned their hopes on targeted policy tools such as special
economic zones (SEZs). These geographically demarcated spaces designed
to attract investment with a wide set of advantages have become de rigueur;
however, a systematic evaluation of evidence‑informed policymaking is
scarce due to conceptual and practical challenges. This book fills that gap and
shows that SEZs are no ‘shortcut’ to economic development; their success in
driving economic transformation depends on the complex interplay of socio‑
political, economic and strategic factors.
This book contributes to the burgeoning literature on SEZs by providing
the first systematic evaluation of the SEZ policy. It adopts the ‘policy cycle
approach’ to organise policy evaluation into three hierarchical layers: input
evaluation (agenda building), output evaluation (policy designs) and outcome
evaluation (immediate eects of SEZs on firms’ behaviour and performance)
with special reference to South Asian countries. The strategy is to bring together
the findings of microeconomic evaluations to draw macro inferences on the
contribution of SEZs to the broader objectives of structural transformation
and competitiveness. Part I of the book delves into development challenges
facing the region, lays out theoretical foundations underlying the relevance of
SEZs in addressing them and examines the relevance of SEZs in the context
of South Asia. Part II evaluates the policy first at systemic level to gauge
whether and how the policy is rooted in broader development goals and then
at the design level to examine the fit between the policy goals and designs. Part
III presents a counterfactual evaluation of the impact of SEZs on investment
climate; export competitiveness of firms; technology and innovation; and
knowledge linkages of SEZ firms with the wider economy. The final chapter
concludes by discussing the emerging challenges and the way forward.
This will be a useful reference for academics, researchers, policymakers
and professionals in international trade and business, public policy, industrial
economics and regional integration.
Aradhna Aggarwal is a Full Professor of Economics in the Department of
International Economics, Government and Business, Copenhagen Business
School, Copenhagen, Denmark.
184 State, Market and Society in an Emerging Economy
Development and the Political Economy of Bangladesh
Edited by Quamrul Alam, Rizwan Khair and Asif M Shahan
185 Capital Structure, Equity Ownership and Corporate Performance
Evidence from Indian Manufacturing Firms
Krishna Dayal Pandey and Tarak Nath Sahu
186 SMEs and Economic Development in Africa
Edited by Gift Mugano and Nirmala Dorasamy
187 Economics, Religion and Happiness
God, Mammon and the Search for Spiritual and Financial Wealth
Vani Kant Borooah
188 Economic Growth in Middle‑Income Countries
A Theoretical and Empirical Approach to Development
in Turbulent Times
Manuel Agosin
189 Cuba and the Economic Policies of Peripheral Socialism
Recent Reforms in a Historical Perspective
Vitor Eduardo Schincariol and Joana Salém Vasconcelos
190 Corruption and Economic Growth in Africa
The Impact on Development
David N. Abdulai
191 Special Economic Zones in South Asia
Structural Change, Competitiveness and Growth
Aradhna Aggarwal
Routledge Studies in Development Economics
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge‑Studies‑
in‑Development‑Economics/book‑series/SE0266
Special Economic Zones
in South Asia
Structural Change, Competitiveness
and Growth
Aradhna Aggarwal
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Aradhna Aggarwal
The right of Aradhna Aggarwal to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or
in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing‑in‑Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Aggarwal, Aradhna, author.
Title: Special economic zones in South Asia : structural change,
competitiveness and growth / Aradhna Aggarwal.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge,
Taylor & Francis
Group 2024. | Series: Routledge studies in development economics |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023042186 (print) | LCCN 2023042187
(ebook) | ISBN 9781032587752 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032587769
(paperback) | ISBN 9781003451426 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Free ports and zones—Asia, South. | Economic
development—Asia, South. | Asia, South—Economic conditions.
Classification: LCC HF1418.3.A783 A44 2024 (print) | LCC
HF1418.3.A783 (ebook) | DDC 338.954—dc23/eng/20231207
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023042186
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023042187
ISBN: 978‑1‑032‑58775‑2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978‑1‑032‑58776‑9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978‑1‑003‑45142‑6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003451426
Typeset in Sabon
by codeMantra
Contents
List of figures xi
List of tables xiii
Preface xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 SEZs for Structural Change, Growth and
Competitiveness 1
1.2 SEZs: A Policy in Need of Evaluation 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study 6
1.4 South Asia and the SEZ Policy: A Brief Introduction 9
1.5 Organisation of the Study 11
PART I
Input Assessment 15
2 Economic Growth Accelerations in South Asia 17
2.1 Long‑Term Patterns of the Regional Economic Growth 18
2.1.1 The Colonial Period—An Overview 18
2.1.2 The Post‑Independence Period 19
2.2 Is the Region Catching Up? 25
2.3 How Have Individual Countries Performed? 26
2.4 Concluding Observations 30
3 Growth Acceleration and Patterns and Pace
of Structural Change 32
3.1 Growth and Structural Change: Theoretical Reflections 33
3.2 Structural Change in South Asia: Preliminary
Observations 35
3.3 Decomposition Analysis 40
3.4 To Sum Up 47
vi Contents
4 International Competitiveness: Export Growth,
Diversification and Upgrading 49
4.1 Globalisation and Export Competitiveness:
Theoretical Predictions 50
4.2 Export Growth Patterns 51
4.3 The Composition of Exports Shares at SITC Four‑Digit
Level: Specialised or Diversified? 54
4.4 Exports Upgrading 60
4.4.1 Export Patterns by Technology Content 60
4.4.2 Revealed Comparative Advantages by Technology
Content 63
4.4.3 Export Patterns by Product Complexity 64
4.5 Major Findings 67
5 SEZs as a Development Policy: Revisiting the
Place‑Based Approach 69
5.1 Types of Industrial Hubs and Their Evolution 70
5.1.1 Naturally Grown Industrial Clusters 70
5.1.2 General Economic Zones 72
5.1.3 Special Economic Zones 73
5.2 SEZs: Place‑Based Approach Revisited 74
5.3 The Debate Rages on 78
6 Economic Rationale of SEZs in South Asia:
The Institutional Perspective 81
6.1 Physical Features 82
6.2 Resource Availability and Endowments 84
6.3 Economic Institutions 84
6.3.1 The World Governance Index 85
6.3.2 The World Bank’s EoDB 86
6.3.3 Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) 86
6.3.4 Global Innovation Index (GII) 88
6.4 Why Do Low‑Quality Institutions Persist in the
Region? 89
6.4.1 Social and Cultural Institutions 89
6.4.2 Political Institutions 91
6.4.3 Regional Institutions 92
6.5 Growth Impeding Institutions and SEZs 92
Contents vii
PART II
Output Assessment 95
7 The SEZ Policy in India: A Flip‑Flop Approach 97
7.1 Import‑Substituting Regime (1951–1980) 98
7.1.1 Growth with a Focus on Small Industries
(1950–1951 to 1956–1957) 98
7.1.2 Heavy Industrialisation‑Based Growth, Foreign
Exchange Crisis (1956–1957 to 1967–1968) 100
7.1.3 Growth with Social Justice and Regional
Development (1968–1980) 101
7.2 Cautious Reforms: 1980–1990 101
7.3 Liberalisation and Globalisation 1991– 102
7.3.1 First Phase of Economic Liberalisation
(1991–2000) 103
7.3.2 The Second Phase of Reforms (2000–2014) 104
7.3.3 The Third Phase of Reforms (2014–) 106
7.4 SEZs: The Current Status 108
7.5 SEZs: Victims of the Flip‑Flop Approach 109
8 Evolution of SEZ Policy in Sri Lanka: An Interplay of
Political and Economic Dynamics 111
8.1 The Open Trade Regime (1948–1956) 112
8.2 Import‑Substituting Regime (1957–1977) 112
8.2.1 Socialist Regime (1957–1965) 112
8.2.2 A Liberal Import‑Substituting Regime
(1965–1970) 114
8.2.3 Dirigiste Import‑Substituting Regime
(1970–1977) 114
8.3 Shift from Import to Export‑Oriented Regime
(1977–2005) 115
8.3.1 Initial Phase of Economic Reforms 115
8.3.2 Acceleration of Policy Reforms
(1990–2000) 116
8.3.3 Policy Ad‑Hocism (2000–2005) 118
8.4 Internally Oriented Regime (2005–) 118
8.4.1 Inward‑Looking Approach (2005–) 118
8.4.2 Shift in the Economic Strategy (2015–) 120
viii Contents
8.5 An Overview of the SEZs and Their Performance 120
8.6 The Assessment 122
9 SEZ Policy in Pakistan: A Passive Approach 124
9.1 Pakistan at Independence 124
9.2 Import‑Substituting Regime (1947–1988) 124
9.2.1 The First Phase (1947–1959) 124
9.2.2 Well Targeted Industrialisation Drive
(1958–1970) 127
9.2.3 Dirigiste Regime (1970–1977) 128
9.3 Cautious Liberalisation (1977–1988) 129
9.4 Increasingly Liberalised Policy Regime (1988–) 131
9.4.1 Shift from Import‑Substituting to Export‑Oriented
Regime (1988–2000) 131
9.4.2 Military Rule and Second Phase of Economic
Reforms: 2000–2008 131
9.4.3 Democratic Transition and Industrialisation Drive
2008– 132
9.5 SEZs: Performance and the Current SEZ Activism 134
9.6 Late Awakening 135
10 Bangladesh: Driving SEZ Centric Industrialisation 137
10.1 The East Pakistan Economic Stagnation Regime:
1947–1971 137
10.2 Import‑Substituting Regime: 1971–1991 139
10.3 Shift to Export‑Oriented Regime : 1991– 141
10.4 The Changing Landscape of SEZs in Bangladesh 145
10.5 Bangladesh SEZ Policy: Experiential But Overly
Ambitious 147
10.6 The Overall Assessment of the Policy in South Asia 148
11 Assessing the SEZ Policy Design Fit with Its
Evolutionary Dynamics 152
11.1 Fit Between Policy Goals and Design: The Criteria 153
11.2 Assessment of the Structural Features 154
11.3 Legal and Institutional Frameworks 157
11.3.1 Legal Framework 157
11.3.2 The Institutional Structure 158
11.4 Incentive Structure 163
11.5 The Assessment 169
Contents ix
PART III
Outcome Assessment 173
12 Evaluating the Impact of SEZs on Investment Climate 175
12.1 The Context 175
12.2 The Hypothesis 176
12.3 Data 177
12.4 Methodology 178
12.5 Empirical Results 180
12.5.1 Institutions 180
12.5.2 Proximate Factors 183
12.6 Discussion and Implications 190
13 SEZs, Investment Climate and Competitiveness 192
13.1 Background 192
13.2 SEZs, Investment Climate and Export Competitiveness:
Theoretical Reflections and Hypotheses 193
13.3 Export Competitiveness of SEZ Firms 194
13.3.1 Measures, Methodology and Data Sample 194
13.3.2 Are SEZs Firms More Competitive?: Empirical
Results 195
13.4 Competitiveness and Investment Climate 197
13.4.1 Measures, Methodology and Data 198
13.4.2 Investment Climate and Export Competitiveness:
Empirical Results 201
13.5 Investment Climate and Export Competitiveness:
The Mediating Role of SEZs 208
13.6 Conclusion 209
14 Building Technological Capabilities Through SEZs 211
14.1 Background 211
14.2 SEZ Technology and Industrial Diversification:
The Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses 213
14.2.1 SEZ Firms and Technology Acquisition 213
14.2.2 Assimilation of Foreign Technology 214
14.2.3 Innovation Capabilities 215
14.2.4 Novelty of Innovations 215
14.3 Data and Methodology 216
14.4 Empirical Results 218
14.4.1 Technology Acquisition (H1a and H1b ) 218
x Contents
14.4.2 Technology Assimilation (H2a and H2b ) 218
14.4.3 Innovations (H3a and H3b ) 220
14.4.4 Novelty (H4 and H5) 222
14.5 Conclusion 226
15 Linkages for Knowledge Spillovers 228
15.1 Literature Review 228
15.2 Conceptual Framework 229
15.3 Methodological Strategy 234
15.4 Empirical Results 234
15.4.1 Backward Linkages 234
15.4.2 Knowledge Networks’ Linkages 235
15.4.3 Labour Mobility Linkage 238
15.5 Discussion 240
16 Sustainability Standards in SEZs: Is It Race to the Bottom? 241
16.1 Background 241
16.2 Labour and Environment Standards in SEZs:
Research Questions 242
16.2.1 Employment Generation 242
16.2.2 Productive and Decent Employment 243
16.2.3 Inclusive Employment from Gender
Perspective 245
16.2.4 Environment 248
16.3 Labour and Environment Standards in South Asian SEZs:
The Legal Perspective 249
16.3.1 Labour Standards 249
16.3.2 Environment Standards 251
16.4 Labour and Environment Standards: Empirical
Analysis 252
16.4.1 Data and Methodology 252
16.4.2 Empirical Results 253
16.5 Conclusion 260
17 The Concluding Remarks 263
17.1 Summary of Findings 263
17.2 Lessons Learned 271
17.3 Challenges and Future Directions 274
References 277
Index 315
Figures
1.1 Objectives of the study 7
2.1 Global and South Asian GDP per capita and GDP per
capita growth (%): 1960–2020 21
2.2 KoF De jure Index of globalisation in South Asia by country 23
2.3 Average decadal rate of GDP per capita growth and GDP
per capita by region: 1980–2019 24
2.4 Regional trends in catching up 25
2.5 Patterns in GDP per capita growth in South Asian
economies: 1960–2019 28
3.1 Sectoral Employment and GDP shares: Bangladesh, India
and Sri Lanka 36
3.2 Sectoral Employment and GDP shares: Bhutan and Nepal 38
3.3 Sectoral employment and GDP shares: Afghanistan,
Maldives and Pakistan 39
3.4 Decomposition of GDP per capita growth (%) in countries
that experienced growth acceleration: 1990–2018 42
3.5 Decomposition of GDP per capita growth (%) in countries
that experienced deceleration: Maldives, Pakistan and
Afghanistan 43
3.6 Decomposition of productivity growth by country: 1990–2018 44
4.1 Long‑term trends in export growth rate by country: 1960–2020 54
4.2 Long‑term trends in entropy measure of export
diversification by country: 1960–2020 55
4.3 Long‑term trends in four product concentration
ratios in exports by country: 1960–2022 57
4.4 Decomposition of entropy measure of economic
diversification by country: 1960–2020 60
4.5 Export shares by technology content in each regional
economy: 1960–2020 62
4.6 The number of three‑digit exports and high RCA exports
by country: 1960–2020 65
xii Figures
5.1 Taxonomy of industrial hubs 71
5.2 SEZs and economic development: The underlying channels 78
6.1 Governance index average percentile ranks: 2014–2019 85
13.1 Graphical representation of the PLS‑SEM model 201
14.1 Building technological capability at firm‑level: The
analytical framework 217
Tables
1.1 Demographic, social and economic characteristics:
South Asia vs. other regions 10
2.1 Average annual growth rates by growth phase in
South Asian economies (%) 27
4.1 Summary statistics of export performance of the regional
economies: 1971–2021 52
4.2 Export shares and RCA of top ten products in India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka 58
4.3 Export shares and RCA of top ten products in Nepal,
Bhutan, Maldives and Afghanistan 59
4.4 Number of complex products in export basket by country:
2016–2018 66
6.1 Economic and demographic characteristics of South Asian
countries 83
6.2 Ease of doing Business: 2019 rankings of South Asian economies 87
6.3 Rankings of South Asian countries in selected indicators of
competitiveness: 2019 88
6.4 Rankings of South Asian countries in Global Innovation
Index: 2020 89
7.1 Evolution of the economic zone policy with broader
development goals in India 99
7.2 Growth of India’s SEZs 2000–2022 107
8.1 Evolution of SEZ policy and broader development goals in
Sri Lanka 113
8.2 EPZs in Sri Lanka as of the end 2020 122
9.1 Evolution in the economic zones policy and broader
development goals of Pakistan 125
9.2 The number of economic zones in Pakistan by province 134
9.3 The newly notified SEZs in Pakistan: area, and jobs
creation as of October 2022 136
10.1 Evolution in the EZs policy in Bangladesh 138
10.2 Spatial distribution of EZs in Bangladesh as of October 2022 146
10.3 The profile and performance of EPZs in Bangladesh 148
10.4 Summary of the Author’s assessment of SEZ policy in South
Asian countries 150
xiv Tables
11.1 Critical success features of SEZ policy designs by major goals 154
11.2 The legal and institutional frameworks of EPZs and SEZs 161
11.3 Direct and indirect tax benefits in EPZs and SEZs 165
12.1 Impact of SEZs on governance: counterfactual evaluation
results 181
12.2 Impact of SEZs on tax facilitation: counterfactual
evaluation results 184
12.3 Impact of SEZs on onsite infrastructure: Counterfactual
evaluation results 185
12.4 Locational advantages of SEZs: counterfactual evaluation
results 188
13.1 Export competitiveness of SEZ firms vis‑a‑vis non‑SEZ
firms: Empirical results 196
13.2 Indicators of investment climate 199
13.3 Export performance of firms and investment climate:
Bootstrap Regression results 202
13.4 Various assessment aspects and criterion for reflective
measurement model assessment 205
13.5 Factor loadings 205
13.6 Robustness checks 207
13.7 Investment climate and export competitiveness: the
structural model results for SEZ vs. non‑SEZ firms 208
14.1 Distribution of sample firms 217
14.2 Impact of SEZs on technology acquisition and assimilation:
Counterfactual evaluation results 219
14.3 SEZs and product and process innovation: Counterfactual
evaluation results 221
14.4 Impact of SEZs on organisational and marketing
innovation: Counterfactual evaluation results 223
14.5 Impact of SEZs on the novelty of main innovation:
Counterfactual evaluation results 224
14.6 Impact of SEZs on patents, trademarks, copyrights and
industrial design: Counterfactual evaluation results 225
15.1 Backward linkages between the SEZs and domestic
economy: Counterfactual evaluation results 235
15.2 Knowledge networks linkages and SEZs: Counterfactual
evaluation results 236
15.3 SEZs and Labour mobility linkages: Counterfactual
evaluation results 239
16.1 Employment eects of SEZs: Firm‑level counterfactual
evaluation results 254
16.2 Impact of SEZs on skills and training at the firm level:
Counterfactual evaluation results 256
16.3 Female employment and SEZs: Counterfactual evaluation
results 259
16.4 Impact of SEZs on firms’ environmentally responsible
practices: Counterfactual evaluation results 261
This book is the outcome of my research on SEZs for almost two decades.
In 2004, when I was awarded a project by the South Asian Network of
Economic Institutes (SANEI) to conduct my first study on SEZs, little did I
know that I was embarking on a long exploratory and amazing journey of
research on these zones. Over these years, I have seen a remarkable transfor‑
mation in the attitude towards SEZs, approaches and practices in SEZ policy
making, and academic and advocacy research on SEZs. My academic and
more importantly consultancy research projects funded by various interna‑
tional agencies including the World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB),
UNDP, UNCTAD, UNIDO and UNESCAP oered me opportunities to visit
the SEZs of several countries, including India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, South
Korea, China PRC, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, The Philippines, Turkey,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Dubai and Ethiopia, and
conduct comprehensive interviews with bureaucrats, developers, entrepre‑
neurs and in some cases workers also. My experience was further enriched
by presentations in academic conferences and seminars, on the one hand,
and invited talks in various policy forums as well as training workshops con‑
ducted by international agencies and attended by bureaucrats, academicians,
researchers, journalists and students, on the other hand. I produced a series of
research articles, newspaper articles, reports, blogs as well as a monograph.
A growing number of countries are increasingly focusing upon SEZs as
engines of industrialisation. Several countries are upgrading their SEZs into
mega‑industrial zones with generous incentives to take advantage of the po‑
tential that these zones have. Even though success is mixed, the global mush‑
rooming of SEZs reflects the unfailing confidence of governments in their
usefulness. Indeed, over the years, the literature has also spawned a signifi‑
cant amount of academic research which continues to grow at a rapid rate to
guide policymakers on various dimensions of these zones. International agen‑
cies such as the World Bank, ADB, African Development Bank (AfDB) and
UNCTAD have also produced lengthy reports carrying recommendations on
how to create successful SEZs. Yet, there are important gaps that persist. The
micro‑foundations of SEZs are still not well explored. How they aect the
Preface
xvi Preface
firm’s perceptions, behaviour and performance is not known. The counter‑
factual analysis at the firm level is scarce due to the non‑availability of data.
This volume contributes to the burgeoning literature by providing
thefirstsystematic evaluation ofthe SEZ policy. It adopts the ‘policy cycle
approach’ to organise policy evaluation into three hierarchical layers: input
evaluation, output evaluation and outcome evaluation with special reference
to South Asian countries. The strategy is to bring together the findings of
these evaluations to draw macro inferences on the contribution of SEZs to
the macro‑level objectives of structural transformation and competitiveness
and the way forward.
Ideal for students, researchers or professionals, government ocials,
scholars, analysts and media experts, this book will provide a new perspec‑
tive to assess the SEZs and show them how to identify problems and develop
constructive questions. This study is a part of the project titled ‘Special eco‑
nomic zones: A force for good to reduce inequality?’ funded by Riksbankens
Jubileumsfond. My most sincere appreciation goes to Riksbanken Jubileums‑
fond for funding, Professor Holger Görg from the Institut für Weltwirtschaft
an der Universität Kiel, Germany, the project team leader, and the rest of the
project team consisting of researchers from Ghana, Vietnam and India for
their continued support through workshops and discussions. I express my
sincere gratitude to all those bureaucrats and investors who gave me useful
insights and also additional data in recent rounds of interactions. Finally,
Iwould be remiss in not mentioningmy husband who patiently bore me with
my long working hours and frequent absences from home. I dedicate this
volume to him.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003451426-1
1.1 SEZs for Structural Change, Growth and Competitiveness
Over the past few decades, the notion of ‘structural change’ has attracted
tremendous scholarly attention in the global quest for growth and sustain‑
able development. Based on the premise that labour markets in developing
countries are segmented between ‘more productive’ and ‘less productive’ jobs
(Hull 2009: 69), the emerging economic thinking under the rubric of new
structural economics emphasises that economic growth that is accompanied
by increased employment opportunities in ‘more productive’ sectors is more
likely to be economically sustained, socially inclusive and environmentally
benign (Alcorta et al. 2021, Herrendorf et al. 2014, Lin et al. 2011, Sen
2019, Silva and Teixeira 2008). More specifically, a distinction has been
made between the primary (agriculture), secondary (industry) and tertiary
(services) sectors of the economy, and the reallocation of economic activity
and resources (labour) away from the technologically backward and stagnant
primary sector to non‑primary high‑productivity sectors is broadly defined as
‘productivity‑enhancing structural change’. It is seen as the key to raising
productivity and competitiveness and in turn to fostering economic growth,
decent earnings and sustainable production and consumption patterns.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted at the United Na‑
tions Summit in 2015 dedicates Goal #8 to full and productive employment
and decent work for all by upgrading the economy through productivity‑
enhancing structural transformation. However, there is a growing realisation
that structural change is associated not only with productive employment but
also with all other SDGs including better health, poverty reduction, greater
equality and upgraded human and environmental capital. Thus, meeting the
2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is inextricably
linked with the process of structural change (UNIDO 2020).
Implicit in the notion of productivity‑enhancing structural change is an
increase in the relative share of industry and manufacturing in particular, in
aggregate macroeconomic indicators, i.e., GDP, employment and trade. Man‑
ufacturing oers a larger scope of capital accumulation, economies of scale,
inter‑sectoral linkages, embodied and disembodied technological progress
1 Introduction
2 Introduction
and exporting in the world markets than do other sectors, stimulating de‑
mand and the generation of externalities in technology development, skill
creation and learning. Services, on the other hand, are typically believed to
be intangible, less standardised and more prone to information asymmetries
between suppliers and consumers. They can involve personal interaction in
their delivery and are less benefitted by capital accumulation, economies of
scale and innovations. These intrinsic characteristics dampen their tradability
and reduce productivity. However, over the past few decades, the premium
on services has also increased due to the increasing servicification of manufac‑
turing which is propelled by digital technologies. Servicification refers tothe
increasing reliance of manufacturing on the utilisation of services as inputs,
as activities within firms or as output sold bundled with goods (National
Board of Trade 2016).1 Manufacturing is increasingly becoming a complex
mix of knowledge‑intensive high‑productivity tradable services all along the
value chain of a product. The upstream segment at the beginning of the man‑
ufacturing value chain relies on engineering services, designs, software de‑
velopment and innovation. The midstream segment is based on information
technology services (such as big data, cloud computing, internet of things,
artificial intelligence and digital platforms); financial services and business
and professional services while the downstream at the end of the global value
chains (GVC) requires logistics, network orchestration and after‑sales ser‑
vices. Manufacturing has come to be defined as ‘the full cycle of activities
from research and development, through design, production, logistics and
services, to end of life management’ (Livesey 2006: 6). These organisational
changes in manufacturing drive not only productive eciency and value crea‑
tion in this sector but also propel the growth of the high knowledge‑intensive
and tradable services (WEF 2018, Zhang 2022).
A critical development challenge facing policymakers in emerging and
developing countries is how to drive industrialisation and manufactur‑
ing in particular (UNECA 2016). Industrialisation is an arduous process.
It requires economic, institutional and technological transformation. It is
even more challenging for latecomer developing countries to industrialise
because the advanced countries have accumulated massive innovative and
productive capacities that give their firms an edge in continuously pushing
out the technological frontier through research and innovation. To leapfrog
thegapin knowledge and practice that separates them from the advancedna‑
tions, the late industrialising countries have been experimenting with dier‑
ent tools of economic development and have met with varying degrees of
success (Gerschenkron 1962, Smith 2002). In the contemporary world, the
role of GVCs in driving industrialisation and shaping structural transforma‑
tion has gained enormous attention from scholars and policymakers (Bald‑
win 2014). Although the GVCs emerged in the 1960s and led the process
of industrial transformation in some of the early industrialising developing
countries including South Korea, Chinese Taipei and Malaysia in Asia, since
the 2000s there has been an enormous leap in their geographical breadth,
Introduction 3
length and depth that has brought about revolutionary changes in the way
global production, investment and trade are organised across dierent geo‑
graphical spatiality, making them central to the discourse on industrialisa‑
tion and structural change.
The GVCs arise when multinational firms slice their production processes
into various stages and locate them in dierent localities across the globe
through oshoring and outsourcing, wherever necessary skills and materials
are available at competitive prices, linking the local economies across dif‑
ferent geographical regions through trade and investment to form the nexus
of functions, operations and transactions in which goods and services are
globally produced and distributed (Coe etal. 2004). Oshoring involves the
international relocation of parts/whole of production processes or service
activities abroad that companies previously performed in their home coun‑
try, through FDI while outsourcing is associated with subcontracting to an
external party within or outside the country. Outsourcing to vendors located
in a foreign country is termed ‘international‑ or oshore‑outsourcing’. Or‑
chestrated by MNCs these value chains have not only accelerated investment
and trade but also reshaped the way they are organised amongst geographic
locations across countries. Since 2000, there have been dramatic shifts in
the geography of manufacturing production, increasing the share of develop‑
ing countries in world manufacturing output from 19.5% to almost 51%
(Nayyar 2020). A significant part of the manufacturing GVCs is geared to‑
wards services which according to Miroudot and Cadestin (2017) contrib‑
ute 37% of the value of manufacturing exportsin value chains. If service
activities within manufacturing firms are also added, this share increases to
53% (see also, OECD 2014). Thus, the phenomenon of servicification of
manufacturing is intrinsically related to the servicification of GVCs and has
broadened the value‑added space for developing countries to integrate and
upgrade within the GVCs.
A preoccupation of most governments in developing countries is how to
integrate into these value chains and acquire as big a part of international
value‑added as possible. However, the degree of GVC participation varies
greatly across countries. There is a tendency to explain the success of develop‑
ing countries in GVCs’ participation in terms of their national competitiveness
which is driven by economic factors (such as policy reforms, improvements
in logistics and customs, factor endowment, intellectual property protec‑
tion and infrastructure development), social and political institutions and
geographical factors (including landlocked borders, climate, proximity to a
large economy and size) (OECD 2015, UNIDO 2018). This stream of lit‑
erature anchored in the mainstream growth theories advocates development
intervention at the national level through horizontal (people‑based) policies.
However, there is an emerging body of literature that focuses on place‑based
competencies as critical drivers of GVCs (Ascani etal. 2012). This literature
argues that the GVC‑dominated investment and trade development processes
unfold at the local level and are underpinned by local competitive advantages,
4 Introduction
spatial clustering and specialisation (Krugman 1995a, 1995b, Lagendijk
1995, Martin and Sunley 1996, Porter 1994, Rodríguez‑Pose 2011, Stor‑
per 1997), placing the phenomenon of localisation or agglomeration at the
centre of the GVC‑driven development process (Ascani etal. 2012, Barca
etal. 2012, Pike etal. 2006, Rodríguez‑Pose 2011, Smoke 2003). Motivated
by the endogenous growth theories, new trade theories and new economic
geography all of which are rooted in externalities, knowledge and increasing
returns to scale, this view stems from the recognition that highly dynamic
regional economies of industrial hubs draw extensively upon localised assets
for their competitiveness locked into a trinity of agglomeration economies:
(i) a local pool of skilled labour, local supplier linkages and local knowledge
spillovers along with reduced transaction costs, (ii) technological and skill
advantages associated with specialisation and (iii) the provisions of facilita‑
tive states (Bagnasco 1977, Piore and Sabel 1984, Scott and Storper 2003).
This perspective has brought the local development competencies embedded
essentially in industrial concentrations or hubs at the centre of globalisation
processes. Integration into GVCs is not only influenced by geographical in‑
dustrial hubs in the region but also in turn reinforces them through oshor‑
ing and/or oshore outsourcing and connects the region with foreign markets
and resources (Krugman 1991a, McCann and Acs 2011, Porter 1998).
Since emerging economies often lack ecient institutional apparatus, cap‑
ital, economic actors and extended infrastructure for the industrial hubs to
flourish in an organic way (Porter 1998: 86) state‑sponsored economic zones
are promoted by policymakers as geographically delineated territorial ar‑
eas designed to oer well‑developed industrial spaces (Rodrik 2004, Stiglitz
1998). However, it is increasingly recognised that infrastructure, utilities and
other business services are only the proximate factors of industrial growth;
it is the presence of strong institutions that is a fundamental cause of growth
(Rodrik 2003, Rodrik etal. 2004). An increasing number of countries have
therefore opted to set up special economic zone (SEZs) as attractive sites for
GVC‑linked investment. These are specialised economic zones which oer in‑
vestors a bundle of business‑friendly institutions and streamlined procedures
as a special feature, in addition to good infrastructure, utilities, tax incentives
and a dedicated administrative body (Aggarwal 2017, FIAS 2008).
Riding on the success of their SEZs, several countries have succeeded
in driving FDI, exports, production and employment through GVC par‑
ticipation. However, it is the phenomenal success of Chinese SEZs that
has demonstrated the potential of SEZs in achieving far‑reaching struc‑
tural transformation in emerging economies. China has increased its share
in world manufacturing value‑added output from 6% to 28.7% between
2000 and 2019 and achieved historically unparalleled economic growth in
the world economic history, crossing two income thresholds to enter the
upper middle‑income category in a short period of 30 years (Zheng and
Aggarwal 2020). The SEZs have also become a central force underlying the
emergence of the Chinses metropolises and their transformation into global
Introduction 5
cities. Inspired by the success of Chinese SEZs, policymakers across the globe
are increasingly relying on SEZs for industrial transformation in their coun‑
tries. Over the past two decades, the SEZs have seen a meteoric rise in their
popularity as a development policy tool. Their objective is not merely to
attract FDI, promote trade and foreign exchange earnings and generate em‑
ployment; they are increasingly being used for promoting industrial diver‑
sification, structural change, spatial rejuvenation and urbanisation, border
development, regional integration and economic diplomacy in international
relations. Their number has grown from a mere 845 across 93 countries in
1997 (ILO 1998) to 5,383 SEZs across 147 countries in 2019. This rise of
SEZs is a major institutional feature of the modern era of globalisation.
1.2 SEZs: A Policy in Need of Evaluation
The proliferation of SEZs has attracted growing scholarly attention to their
relevance and ecacy, making it a popular research area in the academic
circles. A scrutiny of over 600 publications in various forms by the author
shows that this literature can be grouped under four broad headings: (i)
philosophies underlying SEZs, (ii) success factors underlying the SEZs in‑
cluding structural features, institutional designs and administrative and regu‑
latory regimes; (iii) economic impacts, both static and dynamic2; and (iv)
social and environmental eects. A wide range of qualitative and quantita‑
tive approaches have been adopted for the analysis: theoretical modelling,
cost‑benefit analysis, case studies, descriptive, analytical and empirical to
produce peer‑reviewed articles, discussion/working papers, review articles,
monographs, edited books, book reviews, blogs, mimeos, etc. The data are
sourced from both, the primary sources (interviews with various stakehold‑
ers, field‑based surveys, anecdotal observations, ethnography, legal docu‑
ments, and press releases) and secondary sources (data published by SEZ
authorities and international organisations, government reports and other
documents, night light data, blogs and other published works).
Notwithstanding, the literature is overwhelmingly dominated by descrip‑
tive case studies supported by patchy evidence from interviews, anecdotal
evidence or field surveys based on a small number of observations due to
non‑availability of adequate data (Aggarwal 2012, Cirera and Lakshman
2017, Engman etal. 2007, FIAS 2008, Kusago and Tzannatos 1998, Madani
1999, Milberg and Amengual 2008, UNCTAD2019, 2022). While the legal
documents such as SEZ Acts and regulations are accessible for most countries,
there is a general lack of good cross‑section or time series data even on basic
performance indicators such as exports, investment, FDI or employment gen‑
erated in the SEZs. Most of the impacts are dicult to quantify and so is the
investment climate in the SEZs. Recent years have seen a growing tendency to
use microdata (household surveys, firm‑level surveys, employment surveys or
night light data at the smallest administrative unit possible)and conduct a com‑
parative analysis of the regions with and without SEZs to draw inferences on
6 Introduction
their development outcomes based on quantitative tools such as regression,
dierence‑ in‑dierence, matching and weighting method. This has led to a spate
of studies that focus on cluster‑induced economic and social spillover eects
of SEZs in the region where they are located covering employment (Ciżkowicz
et al. 2017, Jensen 2018), economic growth (Frick and Rodríguez‑Pose
2019, Frick etal. 2018, Lu etal. 2019,Wang 2013), socio‑economic impacts
(Aggarwal and Kokko 2021, Brussevich 2020, Picarelli 2016), infrastructure
spillover (Alkon 2018), regional industrial growth (Alder etal. 2016, Hyun
and Ravi 2018, Wang 2013), productivity growth (Dubinina 2023, Görg and
Mulyukova 2022, Zheng etal. 2017) and human capital spillovers (Haus‑
mann etal. 2016, Lu 2022). The possibility of selection bias, flawed data and
poor matching between SEZ and non‑SEZ areas cannot be ruled out in these
studies.
With an increasing emphasis on impact evaluation of all policies, pro‑
grammes and projects in the contemporary world, there is a need of com‑
prehensive theory‑based systematic impact evaluations of SEZs which cover
both policy processes and outcomes. Rigorous impact evaluation designs
require an understanding of the context, mapping of the causal chain from
inputs to impacts, rigorous factual analysis and evaluation of impact using
credible counterfactuals (White 2009). To my knowledge, there is no such
analysis available in the literature. Further, the firm‑level studies are very
few and mostly limited to China due to a lack of data to measure the direct
impact of SEZs at the firm level (Zeng 2019). Typically, the SEZ companies
are subsidiaries of multi‑plant and/or multinational firms which are entirely
controlled by the remotely located parent firms while their financial state‑
ments are consolidated with those of the parent companies. It is therefore
dicult to get access to the data of the enterprises operating in the SEZs.
There is a possibility that the few studies that exist at the firm level are
subject to aggregate bias. This study addresses some of these gaps in the
literature.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The central objective of this volume is to present a systematic theory‑based
impact assessment of the SEZ intervention on structural transformation, in‑
dustrial diversification and competitiveness with special reference to South
Asia. The study uses micro‑level analysis of the impact of SEZs on firms’ be‑
haviour and performance to draw inferences on the contribution of SEZs to
the macro‑level objectives of structural transformation and competitiveness.
One of the highlights of the study is the use of a counterfactual approach for
the evaluation of SEZs’ impacts on investment climate, firms’ competitive‑
ness, their technological activities and social and environment eects based
on the firm‑level data.
While anchoring the SEZs into the public policy literature, this study
uses the policy cycle approach and maps out the causal chain from inputs
Introduction 7
(agenda building) to output (policy designs) and to outcomes of SEZs
(intermediary eects) and their impact on the wider economy (ultimate
eects). It focuses on the first three stages of policy evaluation and develops a
theory‑based three‑stage evaluation process: (i) input assessment, (ii) output
assessment and (iii) outcome assessment (Figure1.1).
Input assessment. The policy cycle starts out with ‘agenda setting’ which
identifies the problems that need addressing. Policy evaluation at this stage
will
• Identify the key development challenges facing the regional economies.
• Assess the opportunities and challenges associated with the SEZ policy.
• Analyse the relevance of the SEZ policy in the region through a discussion
on the prevailing economic, social and political institutions.
Input
assessment
Diagnosis of
development
challenges
Assessing the role of
the policy in
addressing
development
challenges
Assessing the
rationale of choosing
SEZs as the policy
option
Output
assessment
Fit between the SEZ
policy goals and
overall development
strategy
Fit between the goals
and policy design
Outcome
assessment
Investment climate
Export
competitiveness
Technology and
innovation
Knowledge Linkages
Labour and
environmental effects
Figure1.1 Objectives of the study.
8 Introduction
Output assessment. The second stage of the policy cycle is ‘strategy building’
where the government decides what it wants to achieve and how. SEZs are
essentially a place‑based policy which operates through dierent structural
models, institutional and legal frameworks and incentive structures to achieve
dierent goals. A successful SEZ policy has synergies with the broader de‑
velopment strategy to ensure long‑term political support and resource com‑
mitments to zone development. The synergies between the SEZs and national
development strategy create a mutually reinforcing and self‑supporting sys‑
tem wherein the benefits of zones flow forward, backward and vertically, ex‑
panding capacity and improving the competitiveness of the wider economy.
Not only that but also the SEZ policy designs, i.e. the structural character‑
istics, legal and institutional frameworks and incentive structures should be
aligned with the policy objectives and strategies. As development takes place,
domestic conditions change and new challenges and opportunities emerge
in the economy. At the same time, there are shifts in policies, perceptions,
goals and positioning of the existing actors. The changing goals pose new de‑
mands, new goals and new institutional challenges. In line with these dynam‑
ics, policymakers must assign new roles, objectives and preferential policy
packages to SEZs or continuously upgrade the existing ones. In view of the
above, the output evaluation assesses the
• Evolution of the SEZs in South Asia through various phases of economic
development.
• Fit between policy designs and objectives.
Outcome assessment. The third stage in the policy cycle is the implementa‑
tion and monitoring of immediate outcomes. It is generally expected that the
primary objectives of the SEZs are to overcome the weaknesses of the local
investment climate to facilitate the host country’s insertion into GVCs and
drive trade, FDI inflows and technology transfers, which in turn generate
knowledge spillover eects in the wider economy and catalyse the process of
structural transformation and sustainable development. Following this line
of reasoning, the study identifies micro‑level outcome indicators for evalua‑
tion. The strategy is to evaluate the impact of SEZs on the investment climate
and firms’ behaviour and performance based on a counterfactual of what
the outcomes would have been in the absence of the SEZ intervention by ad‑
dressing five questions (Figure1.1).
• How eectively do the SEZs address the investment climate constraints?
• How eective have the SEZs been in driving the export competitiveness
of firms?
• What has been the contribution of SEZs to the innovative and technologi‑
cal capabilities of firms?
• Are SEZs firms more likely to have technological linkages with domestic
economies than their domestic counterparts?
Introduction 9
• How has the firms’ location in SEZs aected their contribution to human
and environmental capital?
The micro‑level outcomes are used to explain the macro‑level consequences
of SEZs viz. industrial diversification, growth and competitiveness in South
Asia. The input and output evaluations conducted in the volume employ
descriptive statistics and qualitative methods based on a wide array of data
sources. On the other hand, outcome evaluations use quasi‑experimental de‑
signs based on matching and weighting methods and are facilitated by the
World Bank Enterprise Surveys of 2013–2014 which incorporated a ques‑
tion on the firm location in EPZ/SEZ. The findings of the analysis are further
informed by a recent round of interactions that the author conducted with
policymakers and/or bureaucrats across all countries for which the analysis
is conducted.
1.4 South Asia and the SEZ Policy: A Brief Introduction
South Asia is a group of eight countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Pakistan,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Afghanistan. It is the most densely populated
region of the world sharing 24% of the world population with 3.5% of the
world’s landarea and has unique features that are not necessarily shared
by other geographical regions of the world. Economically, the region is be‑
lieved to be faced with a development paradox (Ghani and Kharas 2010).
Since1991, it has been one of the fastest growing of the seven geographic
regions in which the World Bank classifies 189 member countries plus 28
other economies with populations of more than 30,000 each.3 Yet, it is still
home to one‑third of the world’s extreme poor4 (Table1.1) (the Poverty and
Shared Prosperity Report 2018). Not only that but also the region remains
next to Sub‑Saharan Africa in almost all indicators of development and has
been experiencing rapid debt build‑ups over the period since the financial
crisis of 2008. The present value of the external debt‑to‑total exports ra‑
tio5 which is an indicator of sustainability was above 100 in all the South
Asian countries except India in 2020. Bhutan with a ratio of 320; Sri Lanka,
279; Pakistan, 280; and Nepal, 276 remained the worst performers. In Sri
Lanka and Pakistan, the short‑term debt‑to‑reserve ratio also rose to 148%
and 81%, respectively. While Sri Lanka faced an economic meltdown of an
unprecedented scale in 2022, Pakistan faced its worst‑ever economic crisis
since independence and sought a massive bailout package from the IMF in
2023. Bangladesh also came under stress and received economic relief from
the Fund in the same year. These external vulnerabilities are likely to further
exacerbate poverty and inequality in the region. The World Bank sets a target
of reducing global extreme poverty toless than 3% by 2030 in which South
Asia is a critical stakeholder. Further, with almost one‑fourth of the world’s
population, South Asia has a critical role in the global achievement of the
SDGs (UNESCAP 2014).
10 Introduction
Table1.1 Demographic, social and economic characteristics: South Asia vs. other regions
Contribution
to world
population
(2019) (%)
Population
density
(2019)
Human
Development
Index
(2019)
Contribution
to GDP
(2019) (%)
Contribution to
trade of goods
and services
(2018) (%)
Average GDP
per capita
(USD 2010)
Contribution to
global poverty
at $1.90 a day
(2014) (%)
North America 4.77 20.09 0.878 23.86 13.38 55,331.4 0.94
Europe and
Central Asia 12.00 33.44 0.791 28.93 41.66 26,645.2 1.12
East Asia and
Pacific 30.50 95.02 0.747 29.39 28.58 10,652.5 6.95
Latin America
and Caribbean 8.42 31.96 0.766 7.31 5.80 9,590.2 3.06
MENA 5.95 39.99 0.705 4.12 5.81 7,660.3 1.17
South Asia 23.92 380.31 0.641 4.18 2.92 1,932.5 33.86
Sub‑Saharan 14.43 45.21 0.547 2.16 2.03 1,656.7 52.90
Source: Based on WDI Database.
Introduction 11
The key challenge that the region is facing is the lack of structural trans‑
formation. According to the World Development Indicators, 42% of the pop‑
ulation in the region is still trapped in agriculture which is contributing just
18% of GDP, pulling down total productivity and growth potential in the re‑
gion. Historically, the approach towards the use of SEZs as a key policy tool
of structural transformation remained cautious in the region. Of the eight
countries, four major economies (India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh)
adopted the SEZs (ocially named export processing zones or EPZs) during
the first global wave, which prevailed between the late 1960s and mid‑1980s.
The EPZs set up in this early phase of development were few in number,
small in size and isolated in terms of location and targeted processing activ‑
ity for exports. The second wave of SEZs that started in the mid‑1980s was
missed by the region. However, riding the third and explosive wave of SEZs
in the post‑2000 period, these economies also upgraded their EPZs: India (in
2005), Bangladesh (2010), Pakistan (2012) and Sri Lanka (2014). The four
smaller economies—Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Afghanistan—have also
initiated their SEZ programmes in the 2010s. Of them, Nepal and Maldives
introduced their respective SEZ Acts in 2013 and 2014 while Bhutan added
clauses providing for the creation of SEZs to its Business Infrastructure Pol‑
icy in 2010. But, the SEZs are yet to be operational except in Nepal where
only one SEZ (Bhairawaha) is operational and Bhutan where two (Pasakha
and Bjemina) are in operation. Maldives and Afghanistan have not been ac‑
tive in the establishment of economic zones. Despite the favourable change
in the policy approach, not much is known about the context, merits of the
content, economic contribution of the zones and their impacts on the re‑
gion. The lessons drawn from this analysis will have significant implications
for policymakers not only in South Asia but also across the world in their
endeavour to leverage the SEZs as a tool of industrial diversification and
structural transformation.
1.5 Organisation of the Study
The rest of the study is organised into three parts.
Part I comprises Chapters 2–6 which deal with ‘input assessment’ of the
SEZ policy. Chapters 2–4 identify and diagnose the key development chal‑
lenges facing the region whereas Chapters 5 and 6lay out theoretical foun‑
dations for the relevance of the SEZs in addressing them. While identifying
the key development challenges of South Asia, Chapter 2 revisits the South
Asian growth experience by reviewing the long‑term economic growth pat‑
terns of the region as a whole as well as each of the regional economies indi‑
vidually from 1960 to 2020 in a comparative framework using GDP growth
per capita at constant price as the indicator of growth, extracted from the
World Development Indicators. The objective is to explore the patterns of
growth acceleration that occurred in these economies and analyse whether
they have been rapid and sustained for a certain period of time. The analysis
12 Introduction
shows that growth accelerations did occur in the post‑1990 period in five
out of eight regional economies but they were episodic and could not initiate
a steady and sustained catch‑up growth process in the region. None of the
regional economies in South Asia could maintain high‑speed growth over
time. Chapter 3 draws on the basic tenets of the New Structural Econom‑
ics to explore whether growth has been accompanied by structural change
in South Asia with a focus on the post‑liberalisation period. It describes the
stylised facts underlying the growth‑structural transformation relationship
in developed countries and presents new insights on how these mechanisms
may be distorted under globalisation with dierent outcomes in dierent
countries. It then reviews the patterns of structural change over time in each
of the eight regional economies and explains country‑specific idiosyncra‑
sies in these patterns. Finally, it systematically unbundles the relationship
between economic growth and structural change at the aggregate level and
by sector using the World Bank’s Jobs and Structural Change Stata (JSCS)
Tool of decomposition developed by the World Bank and concludes that
despite being productivity‑enhancing, structural change is not conducive to
sustained growth. The relevant data for the analysis in Chapters 2 and 3 are
sourced from a number of databases including, the National Accounts data
of the UNSTAT, Structural Transformation data of UNU‑Wider, employment
data of (ILO) and GDP per capita data from World Development Indicators.
Chapter 4moves beyond the macroeconomic, economywide explanations of
structural transformation (as in the previous chapter) to sector‑ level struc‑
tures and systems to explore whether there has been structural upgrading
within the industrial sector. The focus is on the long‑term patterns of export
competitiveness. The chapter oers a systematic analysis of growth patterns
and secular trends in exports that span over 60 years from 1960 to 2020.
The main objective is to explore if economic liberalisation has been associ‑
ated with export acceleration, diversification and upgrading. The analysis
is conducted at the four‑digit SITC products level for all eight South Asian
countries with the support of relevant descriptive statistical tools, using the
data extracted from the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) database.
The regional economies are found to have shown rather weak export perfor‑
mance which this chapter argues is intricately related to moderate growth
accompanied by slow structural change in a mutually reinforcing system.
Chapter 5 assesses the relevance of the SEZs in addressing the vicious trin‑
ity of moderate growth‑slow‑paced structural change‑weak competitiveness
in South Asia. The critical questions are, (i) how are the SEZs distinct from
other industrial hubs? (ii) what are the various underlying channels through
which they can catalyse the growth and structural transformation? and (iii)
how eective can be the SEZs in driving growth and economic transforma‑
tion? The chapter builds a two‑layered taxonomy of industrial hubs, traces
their evolution, explores the context in which these hubs arose and acquired
dierent characteristics and pulls various theoretical perspectives together to
describe how SEZs can contribute to growth and structural transformation
Introduction 13
beyond what other hubs or zones normally would do. Finally, Chapter 6 as‑
sesses the rationale of SEZs in South Asia It traces the dynamics of economic,
social and political institutions of South Asia by tracking the historical evo‑
lution of the region and shows how the historical factors have influenced
these institutions and how these are locked in an equilibrium which is growth
impeding and self‑perpetuating. It delves into international rankings of the
regional economies in various indices of business climate and competitive‑
ness and argues that there is a strong rationale for setting up eective SEZs
in these countries for smart institutional reforms.
Part II. Following the conceptual framework presented in Figure1.1 that
serves as the connective tissue for structuring this study, Part II evaluates the
policy design at two levels. The first is the evaluation at the systemic level
to gauge if the policy is rooted in the development challenges, the broader
policy goals and the macroeconomic realities of the economy; responds to the
changing macroeconomic realities; and is characterised by strong political
support. The second is at the design level where the focus is on design ele‑
ments, and the key objective is to assess the alignment between policy goals
and policy designs The former is the focus of Chapters 7–10 and the latter
is assessed in Chapter 11. Chapters 7–10 assess the alignment between the
broader development goals and SEZs in four countries which have a long
experience in SEZs: Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, by dedicat‑
ing each country a separate chapter. The objective is to dig into the historical
evolution of economic zones and SEZs in particular and assess how their
structural, spatial, functional and administrative dimensions evolved over
time with the changing political and macroeconomic contexts in which they
are situated. For each country, the economic development phases are identi‑
fied on the basis of the changes in the government‑led development regime,
and the evolution of SEZs is seen through the prism of broader economic
strategies and development goals. Chapter 11 investigates the alignment be‑
tween the policy objectives and policy design in a comparative framework.
While assessing the policy design the analysis covers all three elements of
the policy: (i) the structural designs of SEZs, (ii) the institutional and legal
frameworks surrounding them and (iii) the incentive structure. The analysis
in this part is based on an enormous range of sources, including nationally
and internationally published data and studies; development plan documents
of the regional countries since the 1960s; texts of the relevant acts, decrees
and regulations; government reports and press releases; academic and news
articles; blogs and books; and websites of investment promotion agencies. It
is further enriched by observations made in formal interactions with govern‑
ment ocials.
Part III is devoted to the outcome assessment of SEZs in three of the four
major economies for which data are available: Bangladesh, India and Paki‑
stan, using counterfactual analysis. While Chapter 12 assesses how successful
the SEZs have been in oering a better investment climate than what is avail‑
able to firms outside of them in the selected countries, Chapter 13 explores
14 Introduction
the export competitiveness of firms within and outside SEZs in a comparative
framework using a counterfactual. Chapters 14 and 15 focus on the dier‑
ential role of SEZ firms in investing in innovations, R&D and skill develop‑
ment activities and their technological linkages with the rest of the economy.
Chapter 16 then investigates the labour and environment standards in the
zones. While doing this, it also reviews the legal regimes for labour and envi‑
ronment in the zones. The analyses are based on quasi‑experimental designs,
both weighting and matching methods and draw on the World Bank Enter‑
prise Survey data for 2013–2014 for South Asia which provide information
on whether a firm is located in the SEZs or outside. The micro‑level evalu‑
ations are set out to draw macro‑level inferences on the impact of SEZs on
structural change competitiveness and growth.
Finally, Chapter 17 brings together the findings of all three stages of policy
evaluation and discusses whether, why and how the policy has the potential
to succeed in driving economic transformation in the host economies.
Notes
1 More specifically, the use of services as inputs (financial, information technology,
labour, etc.) and support (R&D, design, logistics, marketing and sales) is referred
to as servicification, while the sales of services which are bundled with goods are
servitization of manufacturing (Vandermerwe and Rada 1988).
2 Economic eects cover both static and dynamic eects. The former comprises the
SEZ eects on exports, FDI, employment and trade balance. Dynamic eects may
include promoting technology, skill transfers and backward linkages with the host
economy.
3 America, Europe and Central Asia, North Africa and Middle East, Latin America,
east Asia and Pacific, South Asia and Sub‑Saharan Africa.
4 The number of extreme poor in South Asia dropped to 216million people in 2015,
compared to half a billion in 1990.
5 Present value of debt is the sum of short‑term external debt plus the discounted
sum of total debt service payments due on public, publicly guaranteed and private
nonguaranteed long‑term external debt over the life of existing loans. This calcu‑
lation assumes that the PV of loans with a negative grant element is equal to the
nominal value of the loan. The exports’ denominator is a three‑year average.
References
Abeywardene, J. , De Alwis, R. , Jayasena, A. , & Jayaweera S. 1994. “Export Processing
Zones in Sri Lanka: Economic Impact and Social Issues.” ILO Working Papers
993051693402676, Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Abraham, F. , Konings, J. , & Slootmaekers, V. 2010. “FDI Spillovers in the Chinese
Manufacturing Sector: Evidence of Firm Heterogeneity.” Economics of Transition, 18 (1):
143–182.
Abu-Hummour, A. M. & Athamneh, S. 2018. “The Role of Committees in Enhancing Decision-
Making Process: The Case of Jordanian Municipalities.” Dynamics of Public Administration,
35(1): 149–162.
ACD 2021 A Survey Report on the Garment Workers of Bangladesh, Asian Center for
Development, Dhaka: Bangladesh.
Acemoglu, D. , Johnson, S. , & Robinson, J.A. 2001. “The Colonial Origins of Comparative
Development: An Empirical Investigation.” American Economic Review, 91 (5): 1369–1401.
Acemoglu, D. , Johnson, S. , & Robinson J.A. 2005. “Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of
Long-Run Growth.” In P. Aghion , & Steven N. Durlauf (Eds.), Handbook of Economic Growth,
Volume IA. North Holland: Elsevier B.V., pp. 385–471.
Acemoglu, D. , & Robinson, J.A. 2008. “The Persistence and Change of Institutions in the
Americas.” Southern Economic Journal, 75 (2): 282–299.
Acemoglu, D. , & Robinson, J.A. 2017. “The Economic Impact of Colonialism.” In S.
Michalopoulos & E. Papaioannou (Eds.), In the Long Economic and Political Shadow of History,
vol. 1. London: Vox.EU, pp. 81–89.
Acemoglu, D. , & Zilibotti, F. 1997. “Was Prometheus Unbound by Chance? Risk,
Diversification, and Growth.” Journal of Political Economy, 105 (4): 709–751.
Achabou, M.A. , Dekhili, S. , & Hamdoun, M. 2017. “Environmental Upgrading of Developing
Country Firms in Global Value Chains.” Business Strategy and the Environment, 26 (2):
224–238.
ADB . 2018a. “Strategic Framework for Special Economic Zones and Industrial Zones in
Kazakhstan.” Central Asian Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC), Manila: Asian
Development Bank.
ADB . 2018b. Strategic Framework for Free Economic Zones and Industrial Parks in the Kyrgyz
Republic. Central Asian Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC), Manila: Asian Development
Bank.
Adewale, A.R. 2017. “Import Substitution Industrialisation and Economic Growth – Evidence
from the Group of BRICS Countries.” Future Business Journal, 3 (2): 138–158.
Aggarwal, A. 2001. “Technology Policies and Technological Capabilities in Industry: A
Comparative Analysis of India and Korea.” ICRIER, Working Paper, 68. New Delhi.
Aggarwal, A. 2004. “Export Processing Zones in India: Analysis of the Export Performance.”
ICRIER, Working Paper No. 148. New Delhi.
Aggarwal, A. 2005. “Performance of Export Processing Zones: A Comparative Analysis of India,
Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.” Working Paper 155. New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on
International Economic Relations.
Aggarwal A. 2006. “Special Economic Zones: Revisiting the Policy Debate.” Economic and
Political Weekly 41 (43/44) (2006): 4533–4536.
Aggarwal, A. 2007. “Impact of SEZs on Employment, Human Development and Poverty.”
ICRIER Working Papers. No. 194. Delhi: ICRIER.
Aggarwal, A. 2010a. “Economic Impacts of SEZs: Theoretical Approaches and Analysis of
Newly Notified SEZs in India.” MPRA Paper, 20902. Germany: University Library of Munich.
Aggarwal, A. 2010b. “Regional Economic Integration and FDI in South-Asia: Prospects and
Problems.” The IUP Journal of International Business Law, 9 (1 & 2): 8–41.
Aggarwal, A. 2011. “Promoting Agglomeration Economies and Industrial Clustering Through
SEZs: Evidence from India.” Journal of International Commerce, Economics and Policy, 2 (2):
201–227.
Aggarwal, A. 2012. Social and Economic Impact of SEZs in India. Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
Aggarwal, A. 2017. “Towards an Integrated Framework for Special Economic Zones: A Dynamic
Institutional Approach.” Copenhagen Discussion Paper. No. 64. Copenhagen: Asia Research
Centre, Copenhagen Business School.
Aggarwal, A. 2018a. “Economic Growth, Structural Change and Productive Employment
Linkages in India: Did Market Transition Matter?” South Asia Economic Journal, 19 (1): 64–85.
Aggarwal, A. 2018b. “The Impact of Foreign Ownership on Research and Development
Intensity and Technology Acquisition in Indian Industries: Pre and Post Global Financial Crisis.”
Asian Development Review, 35 (1): 1–26.
Aggarwal, A. 2019a. “SEZs and Economic Transformation: Towards a Developmental
Approach.” Transnational Corporations, 26 (2), 27–47.
Aggarwal, A. 2019b. “Leveraging SEZs for Regional Integration in ASEAN: A Synergistic
Approach.” Asian Survey, 59 (5): 795–821.
Aggarwal, A. 2021. “How Has Globalisation Affected the Economic Growth, Structural Change
and Poverty Reduction Linkages?” In L. Alcorta , N. Foster-Mcgregor , B. Verspagen & A.
Szirmai (Eds.), New Perspectives on Structural Change: Causes and Consequences of
Structural Change in The Global Economy. London: Oxford University Press, pp. 551–576.
Aggarwal, A. 2022a. “Export Performance and India’s Tryst with Self-Reliance in the Globalised
World.” Economic and Political Weekly, 57 (4): 55–62.
Aggarwal, A. 2022b. “India’s Export Growth Euphoria for FY22 Is Much Ado About Little.” India
Outlook, 27 June 2022 .
Aggarwal, A. 2022c. Special Economic Zones in the Indonesia–Malaysia– Thailand Growth
Triangle Opportunities for Collaboration. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Aggarwal, A. 2022d. Special Economic Zones for Shared Prosperity: Brunei
Darussalam–Indonesia–Malaysia–Philippines East ASEAN Growth Area. Manila: Asian
Development Bank.
Aggarwal, A. 2023. “How Special are Special Economic Zones: Evidence from South Asia.” The
World Economy, 46 (8): 2361–2382.
Aggarwal, A. , & Archa, P.S. 2013. “Regional Development Policies in India.” In T. Farole (Eds.),
The Internal Geography of Trade: Lagging Regions and Global Markets. Washington D.C.:
World Bank Publications. pp. 229–255.
Aggarwal, A. , Hoppe, M. , & Walkenhorst, P. 2009 “Special Economic Zones in South Asia:
Industrial Islands or Vehicles for Diversification?” In R. Newfarmer , W. Shaw & P. Walkenhorst
(Eds.), Breaking into New Markets: Emerging Lessons or Export Diversification pp. 223–236.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Aggarwal, A. , & Kokko, A. , 2021. “SEZs and Poverty Reduction: Evidence from Andhra
Pradesh, India.” International Journal of Emerging Markets, 178: 1793–1814.
Aggarwal, A. , & Kumar, N. 2012. “Structural Change, Industrialization and Poverty Reduction:
The Case of India.” Development Papers 1206, United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific ESCAP South and South-West Asia Office.
Ahamed, S. , & Sharif A.M. 2017. “Economic Condition of South Asia: A Comparative Analysis.”
International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 4 (7): 60–70.
Ahmad, A.Y. , & Lee, K. 2016. “Embodied Technology Transfer and Learning by Exporting in
the Ethiopian Manufacturing Sector.” Innovation and Development, 6 (2): 281–303.
Ahmad, E. , & Mohammed, A. 2017. “Pakistan, the United States and the IMF: Great Game or a
Curious Case of Dutch Disease without the Oil?” Asia Research Centre Working Paper 57,
London School of Economics.
Ahmad, I. , & Taidong, Z. 2020. Special Economic Zones in Pakistan: Promises and Perils.
Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Research Report series. Islamabad.
Ahmad, N. 1950. “Industrial Development in East Bengal East Pakistan.” Economic Geography,
26 (3): 183–195.
Ahmed, A. 2011. “Contribution of Services Sector in the Economy of Pakistan, Pakistan Institute
of Development Economics.” Working Paper, 2011: 79, Islamabad.
Aitken, B. , Hanson, G.H. , & Harrison, A.E. 1997. “Spillovers, Foreign Investment, and Export
Behavior.” Journal of International Economics, 43 (1–2): 103–132.
Ajmair, M. , Gilal, M. , & Hussain, K. 2016. “Determinants of Services Sector Growth in
Pakistan.” European Scientific Journal, 12 (34): 297–306.
Akamatsu, K. (1962). “A Historical Pattern of Economic Growth in Developing Countries”. The
Developing Economies, 1 (1): 3–25.
Akhtar, M.H. 2003. “An Evaluation of Karachi Export Processing Zone: A Preliminary
Investigation.” The Pakistan Development Review, 42 (2): 927–940.
Akinci, G. , & Crittle, J. 2008. “Special Economic Zone: Performance, Lessons Learned, and
Implication for Zone Development.” (No. 45869, pp. 1–83). The World Bank.
Albers, S. (2010). PLS and Success Factor Studies in Marketing. In: Esposito Vinzi, V. , Chin,
W. , Henseler, J. , Wang, H. (Eds.), Handbook of Partial Least Squares. Springer Handbooks of
Computational Statistics pp. 409–426. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
Alcorta, L. , Foster-Mcgregor, N. , Verspagen B. & Szirmai A. (Eds.) 2021. New Perspectives on
Structural Change: Causes and Consequences of Structural Change in the Global Economy.
London: Oxford University Press, pp. 551–576.
Alder, S. , Shao, L. , & Zilibotti, F. 2016. “Economic Reforms and Industrial Policy in a Panel of
Chinese Cities.” Journal of Economic Growth, 21 (4): 305–349.
Aldieri, L. , & Cincera, M. 2009. “Geographic and Technological R&D Spillovers within the Triad:
Micro Evidence from US Patents.” The Journal of Technology Transfer, 34 (2): 196–211.
Alesina, A. , Devleeschauwer, A. , Easterly, W. , Kurlat, S. , & Wacziarg, R. 2003.
“Fractionalization.” Journal of Economic Growth, 8 (2): 155–194.
Alesina, A. , & Ferrara, E.L. 2005. “Ethnic Diversity and Economic Performance.” Journal of
Economic Literature, XLIII (September 2005): 762–800.
Alhendi, O. , Toth, J. , Lengyel, P. , Balogh, P. 2021. “Tolerance, Cultural Diversity and
Economic Growth: Evidence from Dynamic Panel Data Analysis.” Economies, 9 (1): 20.
https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9010020
Alkon, M. 2018. “Do Special Economic Zones Induce Developmental Spillovers? Evidence from
India’s States.” World Development, 107: 396–409.
Alvarez-Cuadrado, F. , & Poschke, M. 2011. “Structural Change Out of Agriculture: Labor Push
Versus Labor Pull.” American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 3 (3): 127–158.
Alvarez-Cuadrado, F. , Van Long, N. , & Poschke, M. 2017. “Capital–Labor Substitution,
Structural Change, and Growth.” Theoretical Economics, 12 (3): 1229–1266.
Amable, B. 2004. The Diversity of Modern Capitalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ambroziak, A.A. , & Hartwell, C.A. 2018. “The Impact of Investments in Special Economic
Zones on Regional Development: The Case of Poland.” Regional Studies, 52 (10): 1322–1331.
Amirapu, A. , & Subramanian, A. 2015. “Manufacturing or Services? An Indian Illustration of a
Development Dilemma ( June 10, 2015 ).” Center for Global Development Working Paper, 408,
Available at SSRN.
Amiti, M. & Freund, C. , 2008. “The anatomy of China’s export growth,” Policy Research
Working Paper Series 4628, The World Bank.
Amiti, M. , & Javorcik, B.S. 2008. “Trade Costs and Location of Foreign Firms in China.” Journal
of Development Economics, 85 (1–2): 129–149.
Amjad, R. , 1974. Industrial Concentration and Economic Power in Pakistan. Lahore: South
Asian Institute, Punjab University.
Anand, R. , Kochhar, M.K. , & Mishra, M.S. 2015. “Make in India: Which Exports Can Drive the
Next Wave of Growth?” Working Paper, 15–119. International Monetary Fund.
Andersson, F. , Burgess, S. , & Lane, J.I. 2007. “Cities, Matching and the Productivity Gains of
Agglomeration.” Journal of Urban Economics, 61 (1): 112–128.
Andrews D.W.K. (1993). “Tests for Parameter Instability and Structural Change With Unknown
Change Point.” Econometrica, 61(4), 821–856.
Archibugi, D. , & Planta, M. 1996. “Measuring Technological Change through Patents and
Innovation Surveys.” Technovation, 16 (9): 451–519.
Aritenang, A.F. , & Chandramidi, A.N. 2020. “The Impact of Special Economic Zones and
Government Intervention on Firm Productivity: The Case of Batam, Indonesia.” Bulletin of
Indonesian Economic Studies, 56(2), 225–249.
Aron, J. 2000. “Growth and Institutions: A Review of the Evidence.” The World Bank Research
Observer, 15 (1): 99–135.
Ascani, A. , Crescenzi, R. , & Iammarino, S. 2012. “Regional Economic Development: A
Review.” SEARCH Working Paper. WP01/03, European Commission, European Research
Area.
Athukorala, P. 2012. “Sri Lanka’s Trade Policy: Reverting To Dirigisme?” The World Economy,
35 (12): 1662–1686.
Athukorala, P & Ekanayake, R. 2014. Repositioning in the Global Apparel Value Chain in the
Post-MFA Era: Strategic Issues and Evidence from Sri Lanka.” Working Paper, 2014/17.
Crawford School of Public Policy ANU College of Asia and the Pacific.
Athukorala, P. , Ginting, E. , Hill, H. , & Kumar, U. 2017. “The Sri Lankan Economy:
Achievements, Prospects, and Policy Issues.” In P.C. Athukorala , E. Ginting , H. Hill , and U.
Kumar (Eds.), The Sri Lankan Economy: Charting a New Course. Chapter 1, Manila: Asian
Development Bank, pp. 1–50.
Athukorala, P. , & Jayasuriya, S. 1994. Macroeconomic Policies, Crises, and Growth in Sri
Lanka, 1969–90. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
Attanapola, C.T. 2004. “Changing Gender Roles and Health Impacts among Female Workers in
Export-Processing Industries in Sri Lanka.” Social Science & Medicine, 58 (11): 2301–2312.
Azad, M.A.K. 2014. “The Korean EPZ (in Bangladesh) in Trouble: Govt Plans to Take Back Part
of Land Allotted to It.” The Daily Star, Sep 21, 2014 .
Azar, G. & Ciabuschi, F. , 2017. “Organizational Innovation, Technological Innovation, and
Export Performance: The Effects of Innovation Radicalness and Extensiveness,” International
Business Review, 26(2): 324–336.
Bagnasco, A. 1977. Tre Italie, La Problematica Territoriale Dello Sviluppo Italiano, Il Mulino.
Bologna: Il mulino.
Bahar, D. 2016. “Diversification or Specialization: What Is the Path to Growth and
Development?” Policy Brief Report: Brookings.
Baissac, C. 2003: “Maximizing the Developmental Impact of EPZs: A Comparative Perspective
in the African Context of Needed Accelerated Growth.” A Presentation at the Johannesburg
EPZ Symposium, Oct 15–16, 2003 .
Baissac, C. 2011. “Brief History of SEZs and Overview of Policy Debates.” In T. Farole (Ed.),
Special Economic Zones in Africa: Comparing Performance and Learning from Global
Experiences. Washington, DC: The World Bank, pp. 23–60.
Baldwin, R. 2013. “Global Supply Chains: Why They Emerged, Why They Matter, and Where
They Are Going.” In World Trade Organization and Temasek Foundation Centre for Trade &
Negotiations (TFCTN)” (Eds.), Global Value Chains in a Changing World. WTO Publications,
Geneva, pp. 13–59.
Baldwin, R. 2014. “WTO 2.0: Governance of Global Supply-Chain Trade.” In R. Baldwin , M.
Kawai , & G. Wignaraja (Eds.), A World Trade Organization for the 21st Century, Chapter 2.
Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 12–47.
Ballot, G. , Fakhfakh, F. , Galia, F. , & Salter, A. 2015. “The Fateful Triangle: Complementarities
in Performance between Product, Process and Organizational Innovation in France and the
UK.” Research Policy, 44 (1): 217–232.
Banerjee, P. 2022. “Nature of Financial Constraints and R&D Intensity.” Finance Research
Letters, Elsevier, 50C.
Banglapedia , 2021. Industrialisation National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. The National
Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
Bank of Ceylon , 1975. “A Review of the Sri Lankan Economy 1950–1975.” Government of Sri
Lanka.
https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/publications/otherpub/25th_anniv
ersary_review_of_the_economy_of_sri_lanka.pdf
Barca, F. 2009. “An Agenda for a Reformed Cohesion Policy: A Place-Based Approach to
Meeting European Union Challenges and Expectations.” Independent Report, Prepared at the
Request of The European Commissioner For Regional Policy, Danuta H¨ Ubner, European
Commission, Brussels.
Barca, F. 2019. “Place-Based Policy and Politics.” Renewal: A Journal of Social Democracy, 27
(1): 84–95.
Barca, F. , Mccann, P. , & Rodríguez-Pose, A. 2012. “The Case for Regional Development
Intervention: Place-Based Versus Place-Neutral Approaches.” Journal of Regional Science,
521: 134–152.
Bartlett, W. , Krasniqi, B. , & Ahmetbašić, J. 2019. “Attracting FDI to the Western Balkans:
Special Economic Zones and Smart Specialisation Strategies.” Croatian Economic Survey, 21
(2): 5–35.
Basant, R. , & Mishra, P. 2014. “Determinants of Inter-Industry Variations in Research and
Development Efforts in Indian Manufacturing Sector: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis.”
Innovation and Development, 4 (1): 91–109.
Battisti, G. , & Stoneman, P. 2010. “How Innovative Are UK Firms? Evidence from the Fourth
UK Community Innovation Survey on Synergies between Technological and Organizational
Innovations.” British Journal of Management, 21 (1): 187–206.
Becattini, G. 2017. “The Marshallian Industrial District as a Socio-Economic Notion.” Revue
D’économie Industrielle, 157 (1): 13–32.
Bellani, L. , Fabella, V.M. , Scervini, F. 2023. “Strategic compromise, policy bundling and
interest group power: Theory and evidence on education policy,” European Journal of Political
Economy, 77: 102283.
Belussi, F. , & Caldari, K. 2009. “At the Origin of the Industrial District: Alfred Marshall and the
Cambridge School.” Cambridge Journal of Economics, 33 (2): 335–355.
BEPZA . 2019. Annual Report 2019. Dhaka: Bangladesh Export Processing Zones Authority.
BEPZA . 2021. Annual Report 2021. Dhaka: Bangladesh Export Processing Zones Authority.
Bergman, E.M. 2010. Knowledge Links between European Universities and Firms: A Review.
Regional Science, 89 (2): 311–333.
Bétila, R.R. 2021. “The Impact of Ease of Doing Business on Economic Growth: A Dynamic
Panel Analysis for African Countries.” SN Business & Economics, 1 (10): 1–34.
Berchicci, L. 2013. “Towards an Open R&D System: Internal R&D Investment, External
Knowledge Acquisition and Innovative Performance,” Research Policy, 42 (1): 117–127.
Bhalla, S.S. 2003. Recounting the Poor: Poverty in India, 1983–99.” Economic and Political
Weekly, 38 (4): 338–349.
Bharathi, D. 2007. Tears of the Emerald Isle: Women Garment Workers in EPZs of Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka: Committee for Asian Women.
Bhattacharya, D. 1998. “Export Processing Zones in Bangladesh: Economic Impact and Social
Issues.” Multinational Enterprises Programme, Working Paper, 80. Geneva: International
Labour Organization.
Bi, K. , Huang, P. , & Wang, X. 2016. “Innovation Performance and Influencing Factors of Low-
Carbon Technological Innovation Under the Global Value Chain: A Case of Chinese
Manufacturing Industry.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 111: 275–284.
Birkinshaw, J. , & Hood, N. 1998. “Multinational Subsidiary Evolution: Capability and Charter
Change in Foreign-Owned Subsidiary Companies.” Academy of Management Review, 234:
773–795.
Biyanwila, J. 2009. “Women Workers Organizing in the Free Trade Zones: Collective Action and
Community.” In M. Gillan , B. Pokrant (Eds.), Trade, Labour and Transformation of Community
in Asia. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 182–208.
BoI . 2017. Annual Report 2017. Colombo: Board of Investment.
BoI . 2019. Annual Report 2019. Colombo: Board of Investment.
Bolea, L. , Duarte, R. , Hewings, G.J.D. , Jiménez, S. , & Sánchez-Chóliz, J. 2022. “The Role of
Regions in Global Value Chains: An Analysis for the European Union,” Papers in Regional
Science, 101 (4): 771–794.
Bonnes, M. , & Bonaiuto , M. (2002). Environmental psychology: From spatial-physical
Environment to sustainable development. In R. B. Bechtel , & A. Churchman (Eds.), Handbook
of environmental psychology: pp. 28–54. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Borén, T. , & Schmitt, P. 2022. “Knowledge and Place-Based Development – Towards
Networks of Deep Learning.” European Planning Studies, 30 (5): 825–842.
Bortolazzi, O. , & Khan, N. 2023. “From ‘Brain Drain’ to ‘Capital Gain’: Indian Skilled Migration to
the UAE.” In M.M. Rahman & A. Al-Azm (Eds.), Social Change in the Gulf Region. Gulf Studies,
Vol. 8. Singapore: Springer, pp. 223–248.
Boschma, R. , Coenen, L. , Frenken, K. , & Truffer, B. 2017. “Towards a Theory of Regional
Diversification: Combining Insights from Evolutionary Economic Geography and Transition
Studies.” Regional Studies, 51 (1): 31–45.
Boughton, J.M. 2000. The IMF and the Silent Revolution Global Finance and Development in
the 1980s. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund.
Briggs, K. , & Park, W.G. 2014. “There Will Be Exports and Licensing: The Effects of Patent
Rights and Innovation on Firm Sales.” The Journal of International Trade & Economic
Development, 23 (8): 1112–1144.
Brunel, C. & Zylkin, T. , 2019. “Do Cross-border Patents Promote Trade?,” MPRA Paper 92514,
University Library of Munich, Germany.
Brussevich, M. 2020. “The Socio-Economic Impact of Special Economic Zones: Evidence from
Cambodia.” IMF Working Papers, WP/20/170.
Business Times . 2010. “Investments: With or Without the BOI.” 26 September, 2010 .
https://www.sundaytimes.lk/100926/BusinessTimes/bt07.html
Byrd, W. 2016. “What Can Be Done to Revive Afghanistan’s Economy?” Special Report 387,
United States Institute of Peace.
Byrne, J.P. , & Perman, R. 2006. “Unit Roots and Structural Breaks: A Survey of the Literature.”
Working Papers 2006-10, Business School – Economics, University of Glasgow.
CAG 2014. “Performance of Special Economic Zones,” Report of the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India For the year 2012-13, No. 21, Union Government, Department of Revenue,
Delhi.
Cairney, P. 2021. “The Politics of Policy Design.” Euro Journal on Decision Processes, 9: Article
no. 100002.
Campello, M. , Graham, J.R. , & Harvey, C.R. 2010. “The Real Effects of Financial Constraints:
Evidence from a Financial Crisis.” Journal of Financial Economics, 97 (3): 470–487.
Capano, G. , & Howlett, M. 2020. “The Knowns and Unknowns of Policy Instrument Analysis:
Policy Tools and the Current Research Agenda on Policy Mixes.” Sage Open, 10 (1):
2158244019900568.
Castilho, M. , Menéndez, M. , & Sztulman, A.A. 2015. “Poverty and Inequality Dynamics in
Manaus: Legacy of a Free Trade Zone?” Anais do XLIV Encontro Nacional de Economia
[Proceedings of the 44th Brazilian Economics Meeting] 212. Brazilian Association of Graduate
Programs in Economics.
Central Bank of Ceylon . 1975. “A Review of the Economy of Sri Lanka, 1950 – 1975,” Central
Bank of Ceylon, 1950-1975 Commemorative Volume, Chapter 2, pp. 47–72.
https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/en/publications/other-publications/central-bank-of-sri-lanka-
commemorative-volumes/1950-1975-commemorative-volume
Chakroun, M. , Chrid, N. , & Saafi, S. 2021. “Does Export Upgrading Really Matter to Economic
Growth? Evidence from Panel Data for High-, Middle- and Low-Income Countries.” International
Journal of Finance & Economics, 26 (4): 5584–5609.
Chand, R. , & Singh, J. 2022. “Workforce Changes and Employment: Some Findings from PLFS
Data Series.” NITI Aayog Discussion Paper, 1/2022: New Delhi.
Chapkis, W. , & Enloe, C.H. (Eds.). 1983. Of Common Cloth: Women in the Global Textile
Industry. Amsterdam/Washington, D.C.: Transnational Institute.
Cheah, J.H. , Thurasamy, R. , Memon, M.A. , Chuah, F. , & Ting, H. 2020. Multigroup Analysis
Using Smartpls: Step-by-Step Guidelines for Business Research. Asian Journal of Business
Research, 10 (3): I–XIX.
Chen, B. 2021. “Industrial Agglomeration and the Pollution Haven Hypothesis: Evidence from
Chinese Prefectures.” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 28 (2): 1–28.
Chen, Y. , Zhang, Z. , Du, S. , Shi, P. , Tao, F. , & Doyle, M. 2011. “Water Quality Changes in
the World’s First Special Economic Zone, Shenzhen, China.” Water Resources Research, 47
(11): 11515.
Chenery, H.B. , Robinson, S. , Syrquin, M. , & Feder, S. 1986. Industrialization and Growth.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Cheong, I. , Bark, T. , & Jeong, H.Y. 2015. A Framework of Trade Policy for Bhutan: Compatible
with the Gross National Happiness.” South Asia Working Papers, WPS157638-2, ADB Manila.
Chesbrough, H.W. 2003. Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from
Technology. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
Chinguno, C. 2011. “South Africa’s Experience with Special Economic Zones.” A Report
Commissioned by Centre for Development and Enterprise, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Cirera, X. , & Lakshman, R.W. 2017. “The Impact of Export Processing Zones on Employment,
Wages and Labour Conditions in Developing Countries: Systematic Review.” Journal of
Development Effectiveness, 9 (3): 344–360.
Cirera, X. , & Muzi, S. 2016. “Measuring Firm-Level Innovation Using Short Questionnaires:
Evidence from an Experiment.” Policy Research Working Paper, 7696. Washington, DC: World
Bank.
Ciżkowicz, P. , Ciżkowicz-Pękała, M. , Pękała, P. , & Rzońca, A. 2017. “The Effects of Special
Economic Zones on Employment and Investment: A Spatial Panel Modeling Perspective.”
Journal of Economic Geography, 17 (3): 571–605.
Cling, J.P. , Razafindrakoto, M. , & Roubaud, F. 2007. “Export Processing Zones in
Madagascar: The Impact of the Dismantling of Clothing Quotas on Employment and Labour
Standards.” Working Papers, DT/2007/06, DIAL (Développement, Institutions et Mondialisation).
Coe, N.M. , Hess, M. , Yeung, H.W.-C. , Dicken, P. , & Henderson, J. 2004. “Globalizing’
Regional Development: A Global Production Networks Perspective.” Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers, 29 (4): 468–484.
Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. 2nd Edition. Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Colombo, M.G. , Laursen, K. , Magnusson, M. , & Rossi-Lamastra, C. 2011. “Organizing Inter-
and Intra-Firm Networks: What Is the Impact on Innovation Performance?” Industry and
Innovation, 18 (6): 531–538.
Coltman, T. , Devinney, T.M. , Midgley, D.F. , & Venaik, S. 2008. “Formative Versus Reflective
Measurement Models: Two Applications of Formative Measurement.” Journal of Business
Research, 61 (12): 1250–1262.
COMCEC . 2017. Special Economic Zones in the OIC Region: Learning from Experience.
Ankara: Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organisation for
Islamic Cooperation.
Considine, M. , Alexander, D. , & Lewis, J. 2014. “Policy Design as Craft: Teasing Out Policy
Design Expertise Using a Semi-Experimental Approach.” Policy Sciences, 47 (3): 209–225.
Constantine, C. 2017. “Economic Structures, Institutions and Economic Performance.”
Economic Structures, 6 (2): 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40008-017-0063-1
Cotula, L. , & Mouan, L. 2021. “Labour Rights in Special Economic Zones: Between
Unilateralism and Transnational Law Diffusion.” Journal of International Economic Law, 24 (2):
341–360.
Crane, B. , Albrecht, C. , Duffin, K.M. , & Albrecht, C. 2018. “China’s Special Economic Zones:
An Analysis of Policy to Reduce Regional Disparities.” Regional Studies, Regional Science, 51
(1): 98–107.
Crescenzi, R. , Pietrobelli, C. , & Rabellotti, R. 2016. “Regional Strategic Assets and the
Location Strategies of Emerging Countries’ Multinationals in Europe.” European Planning
Studies, 24(4): 645–667.
Dahlman, C.J. , & Nelson, R. 1995. “Social Absorption Capability, National Innovation Systems
and Economic Development.” In Bon Ho Koo and Dwight H. Perkins (Eds.), Social Capability
and Long-Term Economic Growth. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 82–122.
Dalrymple, W. 2015. “The Great Divide: The Violent Legacy of Indian Partition.” The New
Yorker: 29 June 2015 . https://Www.Newyorker.Com/Magazine/2015/06/29/The-Great-Divide-
Books-Dalrymple
Damanpour, F. , & Aravind, D. 2012. “Managerial Innovation: Conceptions, Processes and
Antecedents.” Management and Organization Review, 8 (2): 423–454.
Dannecker, P. 2005. “Transnational Migration and the Transformation of Gender Relations: The
Case of Bangladeshi Labour Migrants.” Current Sociology, 53 (4): 655–674.
Davidov, G. 2021. “Compliance with and Enforcement of Labour Laws: An Overview and Some
Timely Challenges,” Soziales Recht 3 (2021): 111–127.
Davies, R.B. , & Mazhikeyev, A. 2019. “The Impact of Special Economic Zones on Exporting
Behavior.” Review of Economic Analysis, 11: 145–174.
Dawn , 2002. Provinces Asked to Set Up 2 Model Industrial Estates. February 28, 2002 .
Newspaper OpED, Karachi.
De Armas, E.B. , & Jallab, M.S. 2002. “A Review of the Role and Impact of Export Processing
Zones in World Trade: The Case of Mexico.” GATE Working Paper, 02–07, Cenre de la
Recherche Scienetifique Post-Print halshs-00178444, HAL.
Debaere, P. D. , Lee, J. & Paik, M. 2010. “Agglomeration, Backward and Forward Linkages:
Evidence from South Korean Investment in China.” Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue
Canadienne D’économique, 43 (2): 520–546.
De Marchi, V. , & Alford, M. 2022. “State Policies and Upgrading in Global Value Chains: A
Systematic Literature Review.” Journal of International Business Policy, 51: 88–111.
De Marchi, V. , Giuliani, E. , & Rabellotti, R. 2017. “Do Global Value Chains Offer Developing
Countries Learning and Innovation Opportunities?” The European Journal of Development
Research, 30 (3): 389407.
De Rassenfosse, G. , Grazzi, M. , Moschella, D. , & Pellegrino, G. 2022. “International Patent
Protection and Trade: Transaction-Level Evidence.” European Economic Review, 147 ©August
2022, 104160.
De Vries, G. , Timmer, M. , & De Vries, K. 2015. “Structural Transformation in Africa: Static
Gains, Dynamic Losses.” The Journal of Development Studies, 51 (6): 674–688.
Delgado, M. , Porter, M.E. and Stern, S. 2014. “Clusters, Convergence, and Economic
Performance.” Research Policy, 43 (10), 1785–1799.
Demena, B.A. , & Murshed, S.M. 2018. “Transmission Channels Matter: Identifying Spillovers
from FDI.” The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 27 (7): 701–728.
Desrochers, P. 1998. “On the Abuse of Patents as Economic Indicators.” The Quarterly Journal
of Austrian Economics, 14 (1): 51–74.
Deyshappriya, N.R. Ravindra . 2018. “Examining Poverty Trends in South Asian Countries:
Where Is Sri Lanka among Its South Asian Counterparts?” Blog, South Asia, London School of
Economics. http://Eprints.Lse.Ac.Uk/91038/1/Deyshappriya_Examining-Poverty-
Trends_Author.Pdf
Dos Santos, T. 1970. “The Structure of Dependence.” The American Economic Review, 60 (2):
231–236.
Dosi, G. 1992. “Industrial Organization, Competitiveness and Growth.” Revue D’économie
Industrielle, 59 (1): 27–45.
Dossani, R. 2005. “Origins and Growth of the Software Industry in India.” www.iis-
db.stanford.edu/pubs/20973/dossani_india_it_2005.pdf
Dowla, A. 1997. “Export Processing Zones in Bangladesh: The Economic Impact.” Asian
Survey, 37 (6): 561–574.
Dubinina, E. 2023. “Impact of Special Economic Zones on Domestic Market: Evidence from
Russia.” Post-Communist Economies, 35 (1): 82–99.
Dunham, D. , & Kelegama, S. 1997. “Stabilization and Adjustment: A Second Look at the Sri
Lankan Experience, 1977–93.” The Developing Economies, 352: 166–184.
Dunn, L. 1994. “Education of Women Workers in Caribbean Export Processing Zones:
Challenges and Opportunities.” Labor Economics 96, Bulletin of International Labor Office,
Workers’ Education Branch, Geneva.
Dunn, L. 1999. “Export Processing Zones: A Caribbean Development Dilemma.” Development
in Practice, 9 (5): 601–605.
Duranton, G. , & Puga, D. 2004. “Micro-Foundations of Urban Agglomeration Economies.” In
J.V. Henderson & J.F. Thisse (Eds.), Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics. Edition 1,
Volume 4, Ch.48, North Holland: Elsevier, pp. 2063–2117.
Dutta, D.K. 2000. Economic Liberalisation and Institutional Reforms in South Asia: Recent
Experiences and Future Prospects. Delhi: Atlantic Press.
Eddison, J.C. 1961. “Industrial Location and Physical Planning in Pakistan.” The Pakistan
Development Review, 1 (1): 1–21.
Edquist, C. (Eds.). 1997. Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions, and Organizations.
New York and London: Routledge.
Elson, D. , & Pearson, R. 1981. “Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of
Women’s Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing.” Feminist Review, 7 (1): 87–107.
Engman, M. , Onodera, O. , & Pinali, E. 2007. “Export Processing Zones: Past and Future Role
in Trade and Development.” OECD Trade Policy Papers, 53, OECD Publishing.
Enright, M.J. 2003. “Regional Clusters: What We Know and What We Should Know.” Advances
in Spatial Science. In J. Bröcker , D. Dohse , & R. Soltwedel (Eds.), Innovation Clusters and
Interregional Competition, ch. 6. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 99–129.
EU . 2017. Labour Rights in Export Processing Zones with a Focus on GSP+ Beneficiary
Countries EP/EXPO/B/DROI/FWC/2013-08/Lot8/13 EN June2017-PE 603.839 Policy
Department, Directorate-General for External Policies.
Fagerberg, J. 1994. “Technology and International Differences in Growth Rates.” Journal of
Economic Literature, 32 (3): 1147–1175.
Fakir, A. A. , Miah, S. M. & Hossain, S. M. 2013. “Export Diversification and Role of Export
Processing Zones (EPZ) in Bangladesh.” ASA University Review, 7 (1): 89–105.
Fan, C.S. , & Hu, Y. 2007. “Foreign Direct Investment and Indigenous Technological Efforts:
Evidence from China.” Economics Letters, 96 (2): 253–258.
Fan, Z. 2019. “In the Dark: How Much Do Power Sector Distortions Cost South Asia?” Report
World Bank.
Farole, T. 2011, Special Economic Zones in Africa: Comparing Performance and Learning from
Global Experiences. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Farole, T. , & Akinci, G. (Eds.). 2011. Special Economic Zones: Progress, Emerging
Challenges, and Future Directions. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Fearon, J.D. 2003. “Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country.” Journal of Economic Growth, 8
(2): 195–222.
Felipe, J. 2007. A Note on Competitiveness and Structural Transformation in Pakistan. ERD
Working Paper Series No. 110. Manila: Economics and Research Department, ADB.
Felipe, J. , Kumar, U. , & Abdon, A. 2013. “Exports, Capabilities, and Industrial Policy in India.”
Journal of Comparative Economics, 41 (3): 939–956.
Feng, Y. 2006. “Sources of Political Capacity: A Case Study of China.” International Studies.
Review, 8 (4): 597–606.
Fernandez-Kelly, P. , & Wolf, D. 2001. A Dialogue on Globalization. Signs: Journal of Women in
Culture and Society, 26 (4): 1243–1249.
Fernando, H.N. 2022. “Impact of the Status of Forces Agreements on Host States in the Indo-
Pacific: How Will Sri Lanka Tame the Dragon and Uncle Sam?” South Asian Survey, 29 (1):
7–22.
Fernando, K. , Arambepola, C. , Niles, N. , & Ranawana, A. 2021. “The Opportunities and Risks
for Achieving Sustainable Labour in a Global Value Chain: A Case Study from Sri Lanka’s
Apparel Sector.” Occasional Paper Series No. 65, Southern Voice.
FIAS , 2008. “Special Economic Zones: Performance, Lessons Learned and Implications for
Zone Development.” Report, 45869 April, Facility for Investment Climate Advisory Services.
Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Filatotchev, I. , Stephan, J. , & Jindra, B. 2008. “Ownership Structure, Strategic Controls and
Export Intensity of Foreign-Invested Firms in Transition Economies.” Journal of International
Business Studies, 39 (7): 1133–1148.
Florida, R. , & Kenney, M. 1994. “The Globalization of Japanese R&D: The Economic
Geography of Japanese R&D Investment in the United States.” Economic Geography, 70 (4):
344–369.
Fornell, C. , & Larcker, D.F. 1981. “Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable
Variables and Measurement Error.” Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (1): 39–50.
Freeman, C. 1987. “Technical Innovation, Diffusion, and Long Cycles of Economic
Development.” In T. Vasko (Ed.), The Long-Wave Debate. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer, pp.
295–309.
Frick, S.A. , & Rodríguez-Pose, A. 2022. “Special Economic Zones and Sourcing Linkages with
the Local Economy: Reality or Pipedream?” The European Journal of Development Research,
34 (2): 655–676.
Frick, S.A. , Rodríguez-Pose, A. , & Wong, M.D. 2019. “Toward Economically Dynamic Special
Economic Zones in Emerging Countries.” Economic Geography, 95 (1): 30–64.
Friis, C. , Karlsson, C. , Paulsson, T. (2006). Relating Entrepreneurship to Economic Growth. In:
Johansson, B. , Karlsson, C. , Stough, R. (Eds.), The Emerging Digital Economy. Advances in
Spatial Science. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 83–111.
Frölich, M. 2007. “Nonparametric IV Estimation of Local Average Treatment Effects with
Covariates.” Journal of Econometrics, 139 (1): 35–75.
Furby, M. 2005. “Evaluating the Malaysian Export Processing Zones: With Special Focus on the
Electronic Industry.” International Trade 0510004, University Library of Munich, Germany.
Galor, O. , Özak, Ö. , & Sarid, A. 2020. Linguistic Traits and Human Capital Formation. AEA
Papers and Proceedings, 110: 309–313.
Garofoli, G. 2020. “Industrial Districts in Europe: Lessons for Industrial Hubs and
Industrialization.” In A. Oqubay & J.Y. Lin (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Industrial Hubs and
Development, Chapter 10. London: Oxford University Press, pp. 162–189.
Gerschenkron, A. 1962. Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Gershenberg, I. 1987. “The Training and Spread of Managerial Know-How, a Comparative
Analysis of Multinational and Other Firms in Kenya.” World Development, 15 (7): 931–939.
Ghani, E. (Ed.). 2010. The Poor Half Billion in South Asia. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Ghani, E. & Kharas, H. 2010. The Service Revolution. Economic Premise; No. 14. ©
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Ghiasy, R. , Zhou J. , & Hallgren H. 2015. Afghanistan’s Private Sector: Status and Way
Forward. A Report by SIPRI and NIR, Stockholm.
Ghosh, M. , & Roy, R.P. 2018. “FDI, Technology Imports and R&D in Indian Manufacturing:
Revisited.” In N.S. Siddharthan & K. Narayanan (Ed.), Globalisation of Technology. Springer:
Singapore, pp. 127–149.
Ghoshal, S. , & Bartlett, C.A. 1990. “The Multinational Corporation as an Interorganizational
Network.” Academy of Management Review, 15 (4): 603–626.
Gibbon, P. , Jones, S. , & Thomsen, L. 2008. “An Assessment of the Impact of Export
Processing Zones and an Identification of Appropriate Measures to Support Their
Development.” A Report for Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, April 2008, Copenhagen:
Danish Institute for International Studies.
Gill, F.L. , Viswanathan K.K. , & Abdul Karim M.Z. 2018. “The Critical Review of the Pollution
Haven Hypothesis (PHH).” International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 8 (1):
167–174.
Glaeser, E. , & Gottlieb, J. 2008. “The Economics of Place-Making Policies.” Brookings Papers
on Economic Activity, 2008, 155–239.
Glick, P. , & Roubaud, F. 2006. “Export Processing Zone Expansion in Madagascar: What Are
the Labour Market and Gender Impacts?” Journal of African Economies, 15 (4): 722–756.
GoBD . 1973a. “Industrial Investment Policy 1972–73.” Dhaka: The Bangladesh Gazette
Extraordinary, 12 January 1973 , Ministry of Industries, Government of Bangladesh.
GoBD . 1973b. The First Five Year Plan 1973–78. Dhaka: Planning Commission, Government
of Bangladesh.
GoBD . 1991. Fourth Five Year Plan 1990–1995. Dhaka: Planning Commission, Government of
Bangladesh.
GoBD . 1997. Fifth Five Year Plan 1997–2002. Dhaka: Planning Commission, Government of
Bangladesh.
GoBD . 2011. Sixth Five Year Plan 2011–2015. Dhaka: Planning Commission, Government of
Bangladesh.
GoBD . 2020. Eighth Five Year Plan 1920–2024. Dhaka: Planning Commission, Dhaka,
Government of Bangladesh.
GoBD . 2021. Annual Report 2021. Dhaka: Bangladesh Economic Zone Authority Government
of Bangladesh.
GoI . 1951. The First Five Year Plan 1951–1956. New Delhi: Planning Commission,
Government of India.
GoI . 1952. Report of The Fiscal Commission 1949–1950. New Delhi: Government of India
Press.
GoI . 1969. Third Five Year Plan 1969–1974. New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of
India.
GoI . 1980. Sixth Five Year Plan 1980–1985. New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of
India.
GoI . 2002. Tenth Five Year Plan 2002–2007. New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of
India.
Golini, R. , De Marchi, V. , Boffelli, A. , & Kalchschmidt, M. 2018. “Which Governance Structures
Drive Economic, Environmental, and Social Upgrading? A Quantitative Analysis in the
Assembly Industries.” International Journal of Production Economics, 203: 13–23.
GoP . 1957. The First Five Year Plan 1955–1960. Karachi: National Planning Board,
Government of Pakistan.
GoP . 1978. The Fifth Five Year Plan, 1978–1983. Islamabad: Planning Commission,
Government of Pakistan.
GoP . 2014. Pakistan 2025: One Nation One Vision. Islamabad: Planning Commission, Ministry
of Planning, Development and Reform, Government of Pakistan.
GoP . 2021. Pakistan Economic Survey 2021–2022. Islamabad: Ministry of Finance,
Government of Pakistan.
GoSL 2020 “Annual Labour Statistics Report Sri Lanka,” Department of Labour: Ministry of
Labour: Colombo
Gopalakrisan, R. 2007. “Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining in Export Processing
Zones: Role of ILO Supervisory Mechanisms.” ILO International Labour Standards Department
Working Paper 1, Geneva.
Görg, H. , & Greenaway, D. 2004. “Much Ado about Nothing? Do Domestic Firms Really Benefit
from Foreign Direct Investment?” The World Bank Research Observer, 19 (2): 171–197.
Görg, H. , & Mulyukova, A. 2022. “Place-Based Policies and Agglomeration Economies: Firm-
Level Evidence from Special Economic Zones in India.” Kiel Working Paper, No. 2209, Kiel: Kiel
Institute for the World Economy.
Görg, H. , & Strobl, E. 2005. “Spillovers from Foreign Firms through Worker Mobility: An
Empirical Investigation.” The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 107 (4): 693–709.
Görg, H. , Strobl, E. , & Walsh, F. 2002. “Why Do Foreign Firms Pay More? The Role of On-the-
Job Training.” IZA Discussion Papers, 590.
GoSL . 2010. Sri Lanka, the Emerging Wonder of Asia Mahinda Chintana Vision for the Future-
The Development Policy Framework. Columbo: Government of Sri Lanka.
GoSL . 2019. National Policy Framework – Vistas of Prosperity and Splendour. Columbo:
Government of Sri Lanka.
GoSL . 2021. Annual Report 2021. Sri Lanka: Ministry of Finance, Economic Stabilization &
National Policies.
GoSL . 2022. Progress Report 2022. Columbo: Ministry of Industries, Government of Sri Lanka.
GoB . 2018. Twlfth Five Year Plan 2018, Gross National Happiness Commission. Royal
Government of Bhutan.
GoM . 2016. Trade Policy Review, Submitted to the WTO. Maldives: Government of Maldives.
GoUk 2023. “Overseas business risk: Pakistan.” Government of the UK. Last accessed on 17
November 2023 , https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-report-
pakistan
Grossman, R. 1980. “Bitter Wages: Women in East Asia’s Semiconductor Plants.” Multinational
Monitor, 12: 8–11.
Guisinger, S. , & Irfan, M. 1980. “Pakistan’s Informal Sector.” The Journal of Development
Studies, 16 (4): 412–426.
Gull, A. 2015. “Development of Underdevelopment: The Case of East Pakistan 1947–1971.”
Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society, 28 (1): 1–12.
Gygli, S. , Haelg, F. , Potrafke, N. , & Sturm, J.-E. 2019. “The KOF Globalisation Index –
Revisited.” The Review of International Organizations, 14 (3): 543–574.
Hair Jr, J.F. , Matthews, L.M. , Matthews, R.L. , & Sarstedt, M. 2017. “PLS-SEM Or CB-SEM:
Updated Guidelines on Which Method to Use.” International Journal of Multivariate Data
Analysis, 1 (2): 107–123.
Hair, J.F. , Sarstedt, M. , Ringle, C.M. & Gudergan, S.P. 2018. Advanced Issues in Partial Least
Squares Structural Equations Modeling PLS-SEM. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hair, J. F. , Hult, G. T. M. , Ringle, C. M. , & Sarstedt, M. 2022. A Primer on Partial Least
Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hall, B.H. , & Lerner, J. 2010. “The Financing of R&D and Innovation.” In B.H. Hall & N.
Rosenberg (Ed.), Handbook of the Economics of Innovation. Vol. 1, Ch. 0, Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 609–639.
Hamada, K. 1974. “An Economic Analysis of the Duty-Free Zone.” Journal of International
Economics, 43 (3): 225–241.
Hammar, N. & Belarbi, Y. 2021 “R&D, innovation and productivity relationships: Evidence from
threshold panel model.” International Journal of Innovation Studies, 5 (3): 113–126.
Hancock, P.J. , Carastathis, G. , Georgiou, J. , & Oliveira, M. 2015. “Female Workers in Textile
and Garment Sectors in Sri Lankan Export Processing Zones: Gender Dimensions and Working
Conditions.” Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences, 38 (1): 63–77.
Hancock, P.J. , Middleton, S. , & Moore J. 2012. “Gender, Globalisation and Empowerment: A
Study of Women Who Work in Sri Lanka’s Export Processing Zones.” Work Organisation,
Labour & Globalisation 6 (1): 131–146.
Hancock, P.J. , Moore, J.C. , & Middleton, S.L. 2011. “A Quantitative Study of Women in Sri
Lanka’s Export Processing Zones: Capital Accumulation and Social Investment.” Labour and
Management in Development, 12 (1): 1–17.
Hasan, P. 1997. “Learning from the Past: A Fifty-Year Perspective on Pakistan’s Development.”
The Pakistan Development Review, 36 (4): 355–402.
Hausmann, R. , Hidalgo, C.A. , Bustos, S. , Coscia, M. , Chung, S. , Jimenez, J. , Simoes, A. , &
Yildirim, M. 2011. The Atlas of Economic Complexity. Cambridge: Puritan Press.
Hausmann, R. , Hwang, J. , & Rodrik, D. 2007. “What You Export Matters.” Journal of Economic
Growth, 12 (1): 1–25.
Hausmann, R. , & Klinger, B. 2006. “Structural Transformation and Patterns of Comparative
Advantage in the Product Space.” Working Paper Series, Rwp06-041, Harvard University, John
F. Kennedy School of Government.
Hausmann, R. , Obach, J. , & Santos M.A. 2016. “Special Economic Zones in Panama:
Technology Spillovers from a Labor Market Perspective.” CID Working Papers, 326, Center For
International Development at Harvard University.
Hausmann, R. , Pritchett, L. , & Rodrik, D. 2005. “Growth Accelerations.” Journal of Economic
Growth, 104: 303–329.
Hausmann, R. , Santos, M.A. , & Obach, J. 2017. “Appraising the Economic Potential of
Panama: Policy Recommendations for Sustainable and Inclusive Growth.” CID Faculty Working
Paper No. 334, Harvard University.
Havranek, T. , & Irsova, Z. 2011. “Estimating Vertical Spillovers from FDI: Why Results Vary
and What the True Effect Is.” Journal of International Economics, 85 (2): 234–244.
Heckscher, E. , & Ohlin, B. 1933. International and Inter-Regional Trade. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Helmke, G. , & Levitsky, S. 2004. “Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research
Agenda.” Perspectives on Politics 2 (4): 725–740.
Helpman, E. , Melitz, M.J. , & Yeaple, S.R. 2004. “Export Versus FDI with Heterogeneous
Firms.” American Economic Review, 94 (1): 300–316.
Heron, T. , 2004. “Export Processing Zones and Policy Competition for Foreign Direct
Investment: The Offshore Caribbean Development Model.” In G. Harrison (Ed.), Global
Encounters: International Political Economy, Development Theory and Governance. London:
Palgrave, pp. 213–228.
Herrendorf, B. , Rogerson, R. , & Valentinyi , Á. 2014. “Growth and Structural Transformation,”
In P. Aghion , & S. Durlauf (Ed.), Handbook of Economic Growth. Ed 1, Vol. 2, Chapter 6: North
Holland: Elsevier, pp. 855–941.
Hidalgo, C.A. , & Hausmann, R. 2009. “The Building Blocks of Economic Complexity.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (26): 10570–10575.
Hidalgo, C.A. , Klinger, B. , Barabási, A.L. , & Hausmann, R. 2007. “The Product Space
Conditions the Development of Nations.” Science, 317 (5837): 482–487.
Holden, C. 2017. “Graduated Sovereignty and Global Governance Gaps: Special Economic
Zones and the Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products.” Political Geography, 59 (2017): 72–81.
Hossain, M. 2015. “Improving Land Administration and Management in Bangladesh.”
Background Paper for Preparing 7th Five Year Plan 2016–2020. Dhaka: Bangladesh Institute of
Development Studies.
Hovhannisyan, N. , & Keller, W. 2015. “International Business Travel: An Engine of Innovation?”
Journal of Economic Growth, 20 (1), 75–104.
Howlett, M. 2018. “The Criteria for Effective Policy Design: Character and Context in Policy
Instrument Choice.” Journal of Asian Public Policy, 11 (3): 245–266.
Howlett, M. , & Rayner, J. 2013. “Patching Vs Packaging in Policy Formulation: Assessing
Policy Portfolio Design.” Politics and Governance, 1 (2): 170–182.
Hu, A. , & Jefferson, G. 2002. “FDI Impact and Spillover: Evidence from China’s Electronic and
Textile Industries.” The World Economy, 25 (8): 1063–1076.
Hull, K. (2009). ‘Understanding the Relationship between Economic Growth, Employment and
Poverty Reduction’. In OECD Publication Promoting Pro-Poor Growth: Employment. Paris:
OECD.
Huňady, J. , & Orviská, M. 2014. “The Impact of Research and Development Expenditures on
Innovation Performance and Economic Growth of the Country—The Empirical Evidence.” CBU
International Conference Proceedings, ISE Research Institute, Vol. 2, pp. 119–125.
Hung, N.M. , Bui, T.Q. , & Nguyen , T.H.N. 2010. “Earnings and Quality of Female Labor in the
Border Areas of Vietnam and the Implications for GMS Cooperation.” Journal of GMS
Development Studies, 5: 55–80. © Asian Development Bank. http://Hdl.Handle.Net/11540/1724.
License: CC BY 3.0 IGO
Hussain, I. 2010. “The Role of Politics in Pakistan’s Economy.” Journal of International Affairs,
63 (1): 1–18. New York: SIPA Columbia University.
Hussain, S.S. , & Ahmed, V. 2012. “Experiments with Industrial Policy: The Case of Pakistan
Sustainable Development Policy Institute.” Working Paper No 124, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Huynh, P. 2016. “Gender Pay Gaps Persist in Asia’s Garment and Footwear Sector.” ILO Asia-
Pacific Garment and Footwear Sector Research Note 4, Bangkok: ILO, pp. 1–4.
Hyun, Y. , & Ravi, S. 2018. “Place-Based Development: Evidence from Special Economic
Zones in India.” Institute for Economic Development Working Paper Series, DP 306. Boston,
MA: Boston University.
IGC . 2010. “Economic Growth and Structural Change in South Asia: Miracle or Mirage?”
Working Paper 10/0859, London School of Economics and Political Science.
Ignatenko, A. , Raei, F. , & Mircheva, B. 2019. “Global Value Chains: What are the Benefits and
Why Do Countries Participate.” Working paper WP/19/18, International Monetary Fund.
ILO . 1998. Labour and Social Issues Relating to Export Processing Zones. Geneva:
International Labour Organization.
ILO . 2002. “Creating a Conducive Policy Environment for Micro, Small and Medium-Sized
Enterprises in Pakistan.” SEED Working Paper No. 29. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO . 2006. Realizing Decent Work in Asia International Labour Organisation. Vienna.
https://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/rgmeet/14asrm/dgrealizing.pdf
ILO . 2007. “ILO Database on Export Processing Zones Revised.” ILO Working Paper 251.
Boyenge, J.P.S. Geneva: ILO.
ILO . 2008. “Report of the in Focus Initiative on Export Processing Zones: Latest Trends and
Policy Developments in EPZs.” GB.301/ESP/5 301st Session Committee on Employment and
Social Policy Governing Body. International Labour Office.
ILO . 2009. Labour and Social Trends in Sri Lanka 2009. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO . 2015a. “Export-Led Development, Employment and Gender in the Era of Globalization.”
Employment Policy Department Employment Working Paper No. 197. Geneva: International
Labour Office.
ILO . 2015b. World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2015. Geneva: International
Labour Office.
ILO . 2015c. Education and labour markets: Analysing global patterns with the KILM. Geneva:
International Labour Office.
ILO . 2016a. Assessment of Labour Provisions in Trade and Investment Arrangements.
Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO . 2016b. Women at Work Trends 2016. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO . 2016c. Factors Affecting Female Labour Force Participation in Sri Lanka. Geneva:
International Labour Office.
ILO . 2017. Promoting Decent Work and Protecting Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work
in Export Processing Zones. MEWEPZ/2017. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO . 2019. “Observation CEACR – Adopted 2018.” Published 108th ILC Session 2019 Right to
Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 No. 98 – Pakistan Ratification: 1952.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=normlexpub:13100:0::no::p13100_comment_id:3965931
ILO . 2022a. Observation (CEACR) - adopted 2021, published 110th ILC session (2022). Right
to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98) - Pakistan (Ratification: 1952).
Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO . 2022b. World Employment and Social Outlook Trends 2022. Geneva: International Labour
Office.
Imai, K. , & Ratkovic, M. 2014. “Covariate Balancing Propensity Score.” Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology), 76 (1): 243–263.
IMF . 1997. “Pakistan-Recent Developments.” IMF Staff Country Report no. 1997/120,
December 1997.
IMF . 2019. Is South Asia Ready for Take Off? A Sustainable and Inclusive Growth Agenda.
Prepared By an IMF Team Led By M. Goretti , D. Kihara , and R. Salgado , Under the
Supervision of Anne-Marie Gulde-Wolf.
International Commission of Jurists . 2017. “Special Economic Zones in Myanmar and the State
Duty to Protect Human Rights.” International Court of Justice 2017. https://www.icj.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/02/myanmar-sez-assessment-publications-reports-thematic-reports-2017-
eng.pdf
International Commission of Jurists . 2020. “The Human Rights Consequences of the Eastern
Economic Corridor and Special Economic Zones in Thailand.” International Court of Justice,
2020, Last accessed on 1 March 2021 , https://www.icj.org/wp-
content/uploads/2020/08/thailand-sezs-publication-2020-eng.pdf
International Monetary Fund . 2003. “Growth and Institutions.” Chapter 3 in World Economic
Outlook: Growth and Institutions. Washington, DC: IMF.
Irwin, D.A. 2019. “Does Trade Reform Promote Economic Growth? A Review of Recent
Evidence. NBER Working Paper 25927, National Bureau of Economic Research.
Islam, A.M. , & Rodriguez Meza, J. 2021. “A Cautionary Tale: An Experiment on the Stability of
Business Environment Perceptions in a Firm Survey.” Policy Research Working Paper no.
9610. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Islam, T. M. T. , Newhouse, D. , & Yanez-Pagans, M. 2021. “International Comparisons of
Poverty in South Asia.” Asian Development Review, 38 (1): 142–175.
Jalal, A. 1994. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Javorcik, B.S. 2004. “Does Foreign Direct Investment Increase the Productivity of Domestic.
Firms? In Search of Spillovers through Backward Linkages.” The American Economic Review,
94 (3): 605–627.
Jayanthakumaran, K. & Weiss, J. 1997. “Export Processing Zones in Sri Lanka: A Cost-Benefit
Appraisal.” Journal of International Development, 9 (5): 727–737.
Jayasuriya, S. , & Weerakoon, D. 2001. “FDI and Economic Integration in the SAARC Region.”
In T.N. Srinivasan (Ed.), Trade, Finance and Investment in South Asia. New Delhi: Social
Sciences Press, pp. 1–27.
Jenkins, M. , & Arce, R. 2016. “Do Backward Linkages in Export Processing Zones Increase
Dynamically? Firm-Level Evidence from Costa Rica.” Journal of Business Research, 69 (2):
400–409.
Jenkins, M. , Esquivel, G. , & Felipe Larraín, B. 1998. “Export Processing Zones in Central
Development.” Discussion Paper No. 646, August 1998, Harvard Institute of International
Development, Harvard University.
Jenkins, M. , Larrain, F. , & Esquivel, G. 1998. “Export Processing Zones in Central America.”
Harvard Institute for International Development Working Paper, 646. Harvard University.
Jensen, C. 2018. The Employment Impact of Poland’s Special Economic Zones Policy.”
Regional Studies, 52 (7): 877–889.
Jensen, P.H. , Thomson, R. , & Yong, J. 2011. “Estimating the Patent Premium: Evidence from
the Australian Inventor Survey.” Strategic Management Journal, 32 (10): 1128–1138.
Johanson, J. , & Vahlne, J.E. 1977. “The Internationalization Process of the Firm—A Model of
Knowledge Development And Increasing Foreign Market Commitments.” Journal of
International Business Studies, 8 (1): 23–32.
Johansson, H. 1994. “The Economics of Export Processing Zones Revisited.” Development
Policy Review, 12 (4): 387–402.
Johansson, H. , & Nilsson, L. 1997. “Export Processing Zones as Catalysts.” World
Development, 25 (12): 2115–2128.
Jovanovic, B. , & Jovanovic, B. 2018. “Ease of Doing Business and FDI in the Ex-Socialist
Countries.” International Economics and Economic Policy, 15 (3): 587–627.
Jule, A. , & Elizabeth, L. “La Situación Económico-Laboral De La Maquila En El Salvador: Un
Análisis De Género: Síntesis.” En: Hacia La Institucionalización Del Enfoque De Género En Las
Políticas Económico-Laborales En América Latina: Informe Del Seminario Regional-LC/L. 1667-
P-2001-P. 57-60 2001.
Jule, A. , & Ligia, E. 2001. “La Situación Económico-Laboral De La Maquila En El Salvador.” Un
Análisis De Género/Ligia Elizabeth Alvarenga Jule.
Juma, C. , et al. 2001. “Global Governance of Technology: Meeting the Needs of Developing
Countries.” International Journal of Technology Management, 22 (7–8): 629–655.
Jun, S.P. , Yoo, H.S. , & Hwang, J. 2021. “A Hybrid Recommendation Model for Successful
R&D Collaboration: Mixing Machine Learning and Discriminant Analysis.” Technological
Forecasting and Social Change, 170: 120871.
Kabeer, N. 2008. “Paid Work, Women’s Empowerment and Gender Justice: Critical Pathways
of Social Change.” Pathways of Empowerment Working Papers (3). England: Institute of
Development Studies Brighton.
Kabeer, N. , & Mahmud, S. 2004. “Globalization, Gender and Poverty: Bangladeshi Women
Workers in Export and Local Markets.” Journal of International Development, 16 (1): 93–109.
Kabeer, N. , Mahmud, S. , & Tasneem, S. 2011. “Does Paid Work Provide a Pathway to
Women’s Empowerment? Empirical Findings from Bangladesh.” IDS Working Paper (375).
Institute of Development Studies (Brighton, England), Brighton, UK.
Kaldor, N. 1961. “Capital Accumulation and Economic Growth.” In D. C. Hague (Ed.), The
Theory of Capital: Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International Economic
Association. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 177–222.
Kaldor, N. 1966. “Marginal Productivity and the Macro-Economic Theories of Distribution:
Comment on Samuelson and Modigliani.” The Review of Economic Studies, 33 (4), 309–319.
Kamien, M.I. , & Schwartz, N.L. 1978. “Self-Financing of an R and D Project.” American
Economic Review, 68 (3): 252–261.
Kaminski, B. , & Ng, F. 2013. Increase in Protectionism and Its Impact on Sri Lanka’s
Performance in Global Markets. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, 6512.
Washington DC: World Bank.
Kang, N. 2006. “A Critique of the “Varieties of Capitalism.” ICCSR Research Paper Series
Approach No. 45-2006, Nottingham University Business School.
Kasahara, S. 2013. “The Asian Developmental State and the Flying Geese Model.” UNCTAD
Discussion Paper No. 213. Geneva: United Nations.
Kathuria, R. , & Kedia, M. 2015. “HVM and Employment Creation: Friends or Foes?” Review of
Development and Change, 20 (2): 15–34.
Kathuria, S. 2018 (Eds). A Glass Half Full: The Promise of Regional Trade in South Asia. South
Asia Development Forum; Washington, DC: World Bank.
Kaufmann, D. , Kraay, A. , & Mastruzzi. M. 2007. “Governance Matters VI: Governance
Indicators for 1996–2006.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4149. Washington,
DC: World Bank.
Kaviraj, S. 2014. A Strange Love of the Land: Identity, Poetry and Politics in the Un Making of
South Asia. South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal {Online}10.
Keesing, D.B. 1966. “Labour Skills and Comparative Advantage.” American Economic Review,
56: 249–258.
Kelegama, S. 2000. “Development in Independent Sri Lanka: What Went Wrong?” Economic
and Political Weekly, 35 (17): 1477–1490.
Keller, W. , & Shiue, C.H. 2013. “The Link Between Fundamentals and Proximate Factors.”
Development. Massachusetts Ave Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research
paper no. W18808.
Kenen, P.B. 1970. “Skills, Human Capital, and Comparative Advantage,” In W. Lee Hansen
(Eds.), Education, Income and Human Capital. Massachusetts Ave Cambridge, MA: National
Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., pp. 195–240.
Khan, A. , Ullah, S. , Azam, K. , & Khan, S. 2010. “Individual Differences and Mental Health
Disorders Among Industrial Workers: A Cross Sectional Survey of Hayatabad Industrial Estate
Peshawar, Pakistan.” International Review of Business Research Papers, 6 (1): 30–39.
Khan, A.H. , & Kim, Y.H. 1999. “Foreign Direct Investment in Pakistan: Policy Issues and
Operational Implications.” EDRC Report Series Number 66, Asian Development Bank.
Khan, M.A. , & Ahmed, A. 2007. “Foreign Aid—Blessing or Curse: Evidence from Pakistan.” The
Pakistan Development Review, 46 (3): 215–240.
Khan, M.H. 2001. The Political Economy of Industrial Policy in Pakistan 1947–1971. Working
Papers from Department of Economics, Number 98, SOAS University of London, UK.
Khan, S.A.R. , Yu, Z. , Belhadi, A. , & Mardani, A. 2020. “Investigating the Effects of Renewable
Energy on International Trade and Environmental Quality.” Journal of Environmental
Management, 27 (2): 111089.
Khan, S.R. , et.al. 2009. “The Readymade Garments Sector in Sri Lanka.” In S.R. Khan et al.
(Eds.), Export Success and Industrial Linkages. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 119–133.
Khanal, D.R. , Rajkarnikar, P.R. , Acharya, K.P. , & Upreti, D.R. 2005. Understanding Reforms
in Nepal: Political Economy and Institutional Perspective. Kathmandu: Institute for Policy
Research and Development.
Khanna, T. , Palepu, K. , & Sinha, J. 2005. “Strategies That Fit Emerging Markets.” Harvard
Business Review, 83 (6): 4–19.
Khattak, A. , Stringer, C. , Benson-Rea, M. , & Haworth, N. 2015. “Environmental Upgrading of
Apparel Firms in Global Value Chains: Evidence from Sri Lanka.” Competition & Change, 19
(4): 317–335.
King, G. , & Nielsen, R. 2019. “Why Propensity Scores Should Not Be Used for Matching.”
Political Analysis, 27 (4): 435–454.
Kinyondo, A. , Newman, C. , & Tarp, F. 2016. “The Role and Effectiveness of Special Economic
Zones in Tanzania.” WIDER Working Paper No. 2016/122, United Nations University.
Kline, S.J. & Rosenberg, N. 1986. “An Overview of Innovation.” In: Landau, R. & Rosenberg, N.
(Eds.), The Positive Sum Strategy: Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth. Washington
DC: National Academy Press, pp. 275–307.
Kneller, R. , Morgan, C.W. , & Kanchanahatakij, S. 2008. Trade Liberalisation and Economic
Growth. World Economy, 31 (6): 701–719.
Kock, U. , & Sun, Y. 2011. Remittances in Pakistan: Why They Have Gone Up and Why They
Are Not Coming Down. The Pakistan Development Review, 50 (3): 189–208.
Kojima, K. 2000. “The “Flying Geese” Model of Asian Economic Development: Origin,
Theoretical Extensions, and Regional Policy Implications.” Journal of Asian Economics, 11 (4):
375–401.
Kranakis, E. 2008. “Moving Companies: How US Engineering Consulting Firms Created the
Global Assembly Line, 1949–1969.” Unpublished Working Draft, INES Workshop, Lisbon
Portugal (14–15 October).
Krüger, J.J. 2008. “Productivity and Structural Change: A Review of the Literature.” Journal of
Economic Surveys, 22 (2): 330–363.
Krugman, P. 1979. “Increasing Returns, Monopolistic Competition, and International Trade.”
Journal of International Economics, 9 (4): 469–479.
Krugman, P. 1991a. Geography and Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Krugman, P. 1991b. “Increasing Returns and Economic Geography.” Journal of Political
Economy, 99(3): 483–499.
Krugman, P. 1995a. “Increasing Returns, Imperfect Competition and the Positive Theory of
International Trade.” In R.W. John & G.M. Grossman (Eds.), Handbook of International
Economics, Vol 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1243–1277.
Krugman, P. 1995b. Development, Geography and Economic Theory. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Kumar, N. , & Aggarwal, A. 2005. “Liberalization, Outward Orientation and In-House R&D
Activity of Multinational and Local Firms: A Quantitative Exploration for Indian Manufacturing.”
Research Policy, 34 (4): 441–460.
Kumar, N. , & Siddharthan, N.S. 1997. Technology. Market Structure and Internationalization.
New York and London: Routledge.
Kundra, A. 2000. The Performance of India’s Export Zones: A Comparison with the Chinese
Approach. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Kusago, T. , & Tzannatos, Z. 1998. “Export Processing Zones: A Review in Need of Update.”
Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 9802, World Bank, Jan. 1998.
Kuznets, S. 1971. Modern Economic Growth: Findings and Reflections, Nobel Prize in
Economics Documents 1971–1972. Nobel Prize Committee. Stockholm, Last accessed on 14
November 2023 , https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1971/kuznets/lecture/
Kuznets, S. 1973. Modern Economic Growth: Findings and Reflections. The American
Economic Review, 63 (3): 247–258.
Kuznetsov, A.V. , & Kuznetsova, O.V. 2019. “The Success and Failure of Russian SEZs: Some
Policy Lessons.” Transnational Corporations Journal, 26 (2): 63–87.
Lagendijk, A. 1995. “The Foreign Takeover of the Spanish Automobile Industry: A Growth
Analysis of Internationalization.” Regional Studies, 29 (4): 381–393.
Lall, S. 2000. “The Technological Structure and Performance of Developing Country
Manufactured Exports, 1985–98.” Oxford Development Studies, 28 (3): 337–369.
Lall, S. , Weiss, J. , & Zhang, J. 2006. “The ‘Sophistication’ of Exports: A New Trade Measure.”
World Development, 34 (2): 222–237.
Lema, R. , & Rabellotti, R. 2023. The Green and Digital Transition in Manufacturing Global
Value Chains in Latecomer Countries. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development.
Leontief, W. 1953. “Domestic Production and Foreign Trade; the American Capital Position Re-
Examined.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 97 (4): 332–349.
Leung, H.M. , Tan, S.L. , & Yang, Z.L. 2004. “What Has Luck Got to Do with Economic
Development? An Interpretation of Resurgent Asia’s Growth Experience.” Journal of Policy
Model, 26 (3): 373–378.
Levien, M. 2011. “Special Economic Zones and Accumulation by Dispossession in India.”
Journal of Agrarian Change, 11 (4): 454–483.
Lewis, W.A. 1954. “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour.” The Manchester
School of Economic and Social Studies, 22 (2): 139–191.
Li, X. , Wu, X. , & Tan, Y. 2021. “Impact of Special Economic Zones on Firm Performance,”
Research in International Business and Finance, 58. 919600,
https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.919600
Lim, K. , Falk, M. R. 2018. Absorptive Capacity in M. Augier and D.J. Teece (Eds.), The
Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management. London: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers Ltd,
pp. 1–6.
Lin, J.Y. , Krueger, A. , & Rodrik, D. 2011. “New Structural Economics: A Framework for
Rethinking Development [With Comments].” The World Bank Research Observer, 262:
193–229.
Lin, P. , Liu, Z. , & Zhang, Y. 2009. “Do Chinese Domestic Firms Benefit from FDI Inflow?
Evidence of Horizontal and Vertical Spillovers.” China Economic Review, 20 (4): 677–691.
Lin, S.A.Y. 1987. “US Multinationl’s Intra—Firm Trades and Technology Transfers on
LDCS’Growth.” Journal of International Economic Integration, 2 (1): 37–53.
Linder, S. 1961. An Essay on Trade and Transformation. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Lipsey, R.E. , & Sjöholm, F. 2005. “The Impact of Inward FDI on Host Countries: Why Such
Different Answers?” In T.H. Moran , E.M. Graham , & M. Blomström (Eds.) Does Foreign Direct
Investment Promote Development. Washington, DC: Institute of International Economics,
23–43.
Liu, Y. , & Jin, Y. 2022. “Special Economic Zones, Export Status, and Firms’ Productivity:
Theory and Evidence from China.” Review of Development Economics, 26 (3): 1338–1360.
Liu, D. , Li, Z. , He, H. , Hou, W. 2021. The Determinants of R&D Smoothing with Asset Sales:
Evidence from R&D-Intensive Firms in China.” International Review of Economics and Finance,
75 (1): 76–93.
Liu, X. , Zhang, J. , Liu, T. , & Zhang, X. 2022. “Can the Special Economic Zones Promote the
Green Technology Innovation of Enterprises? An Evidence from China.” Frontiers in
Environmental Science, 10, Article 870019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.870019
Livesey, F. 2006. Defining High Value Manufacturing Finbarr Livesey Institute for
Manufacturing. January 2006, Cambridge: University of Cambridge.
Li-Ying, J. , & Wang, Y. 2015. “Find Them Home or Abroad? The Relative Contribution of
International Technology In-Licensing to Indigenous Innovation in China.” Long Range
Planning, 48 (3): 123–134.
Looney, R. 2008. “The Musharraf Paradox: The Failure of an Economic Success Story.” The
Open Area Studies Journal, 1 (1): 1–15.
Lowe, E.A. 2001. “Eco-Industrial Park Handbook for Asian Developing Countries.” A Report to
the Asian Development Bank, Environment Department, Indigo Development, Oakland, CA.
Lu, J.L. 2011. “Occupational Health and Safety of Women Workers: Viewed in the Light of
Labor Regulations.” Journal of International Women’s Studies, 12 (1): 68–78.
Lu, J.L. 2012. “Occupational Health and Safety in Small Scale Mining: Focus on Women
Workers in the Philippines.” Journal of International Women’s Studies, 13 (3): 103–113.
Lu, Y. , Wang, J. , & Zhu, L. 2019. “Place-Based Policies, Creation, and Agglomeration
Economies: Evidence from China’s Economic Zone Program.” American Economic Journal, 11
(3): 325–360.
Lu, Z. , 2022. “Human Capital Spillovers from Special Economic Zones: Evidence from Yangtze
Delta in China.” Economies, MDPI, 105: 1–15.
Lucas, R.E. 1988. “On the Mechanics of Economic Development,” Journal of Monetary
Economics, 22 (1): 3–42.
Lundvall, B.A. 1992. National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and
Interactive Learning. London: Pinter Publishers.
Lundvall, B.Å. 2002. Innovation, Growth, and Social Cohesion: The Danish Model. London:
Edward Elgar Publishing.
Luo, Y. , & Peng, M.W. 1999. “Learning to Compete in a Transition Economy: Experience,
Environment, and Performance.” Journal of International Business Studies, 30 (2): 269–295.
Lv, L. , Yin, Y. , & Wang, Y. 2020. “The Impact of R&D Input on Technological Innovation:
Evidence From South Asian and Southeast Asian Countries.” Discrete Dynamics in Nature and
Society, Open Access, Article ID 6408654.
Lynn, L.E. 1986. “The Behavioral Foundations of Public Policy-Making.” The Journal of
Business 59 (4): S379–S384.
Madani, D. 1999. A Review of the Role and Impact of Export Processing Zones. World Bank
Research Publication 2238. World Bank Publications.
Maddison, A. 1987. “Growth and Slowdown in Advanced Capitalist Economies: Techniques of
Quantitative Assessment.” Journal of Economic Literature, 25 (2): 649–698.
Maddison, A. 2006. The World Economy. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Maddison, A. 2008. “The West and the Rest in the World Economy: 1000–2030.” World
Economics, 9(4): 75–100.
Majid, N. 2019. Structural Change and Employment in India. Working Paper no. 1. Geneva:
International Labour Office.
Makhlouf, Y. , Kellard, N.M. , & Vinogradov, D. 2015. “Trade Openness, Export Diversification,
and Political Regimes.” Economics Letters, 136: 25–27.
Malerba, F. (Ed.). 2010. “Knowledge Intensive Entrepreneurship and Innovation Systems:
Evidence from Europe.” London & New York: Routledge.
Mangrio, W. , Bhutto, A. & Naqvi, I.B. 2013. “Contributions of Science and Technology Parks
Towards Firms’ Performance in Pakistan.” Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering
& Technology, 32 (3): 391–400.
Mani, S. 2012. “High Skilled Migration and Remittances: India’s Experience Since Economic
Liberalization.” In K. Pushpangadan & V.N. Balasubramanyam (Eds.), Growth, Development,
and Diversity: India’s Record Since Liberalization. Delhi: Oxford Academic (Online Edn).
Mansingh, P. , Eluri, S. , Sreejesh, N.P. 2012. India trade unions and special economic zones in
India. Report for the Centre for Education and Communication (CEC) for the ILO Bureau for
Workers’ Activities (ACTRAV), New Delhi: International Labour Office.
Manwa, F. , & Wijeweera, A. 2016. “Trade Liberalisation and Economic Growth Link: The Case
of Southern African Custom Union Countries.” Economic Analysis and Policy, 5 (1): 12–21.
Maor, M. 2020. “Policy Over- and Under-Design: An Information Quality Perspective.” Policy
Sciences, 53: 395–411.
Markusen, J.R. , & Trofimenko, N. 2009. “Teaching Locals New Tricks: Foreign Experts as a
Channel of Knowledge Transfers.” Journal of Development Economics, 88 (1): 120–131.
Marshall, A. 1879. “The Pure Theory of Domestic Values.” In McMaster University Archive for
the History of Economic Thought. McMaster University Archive for the History of Economic
Thought, Last accessed on 14 November 2023 ,
https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/marshall/domesticvalues.pdf
Marshall, A. 1920. Principles of Economics. 8th Edition. London: Macmillan.
Martin, R. & Sunley, P. 1996. “Paul Krugman’s Geographical Economics and Its Implications for
Regional Development Theory: A Critical Assessment.” Economic Geography, 72 (3): 259–292.
Matsuyama, K. 1992. “Agricultural Productivity, Comparative Advantage, and Economic
Growth.” Journal of Economic Theory, 58 (2): 317–334.
McCallum, J.K. 2011. “Export Processing Zones: Comparative Data from China, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and South Africa.” Geneva: ILO.
McCann , & Acs, Z. 2011. “Globalization: Countries, Cities and Multinationals.” Regional
Studies, 451: 17–32.
McCartney, M. 2011. Pakistan-The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State,
1951–2009. London: Routledge.
McMillan, M. , Rodrik, D. , & Sepulveda, C.P. 2017. “Structural Change, Fundamentals, and
Growth: A Framework and Case Studies.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 8041, The
World Bank.
McMillan, M. , Rodrik, D. , & Verduzco-Gallo, I. 2014. “Globalization, Structural Change, and
Productivity Growth, with an Update on Africa.” World Development, 63 (C): 11–32.
Melitz, M.J. 2003. “The Impact of Trade on Intra-Industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry
Productivity.” Econometrica, 71 (6): 1695–1725.
Metz, J.J. 1995. “Development in Nepal: Investment in the Status Quo.” Geo Journal, 35 (2):
175–184.
Meyer, K.E. , Estrin, S. , Bhaumik, S.K. , & Peng, M.W. 2009. “Institutions, Resources, and
Entry Strategies in Emerging Economies.” Strategic Management Journal, 30 (1): 61–80.
Milberg, W. , & Amengual, M. 2008. “Economic Development and Working Conditions in Export
Processing Zones: A Survey of Trends.” Working Paper 3. Geneva: International Labour Office.
Milberg, W. , Jiang, X. , & Gereffi, G. 2014. “Industrial Policy in the Era of Vertically Specialized
Industrialization.” In J. Salazar-Xirinachs , I. Nübler , & R. Kozul-Wright (Eds.), Transforming
Economies: Making Industrial Policy Work for Growth, Jobs and Development. Geneva:
International Labour Organization and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
pp 151–178.
Miller, R. , & Cote, M. 1985 “Growing the Next Silicon Valley.” Harvard Business Review,
July/August: 114–123.
Minhas, B.S. 1970. “Rural Poverty, Land Redistribution and Development Strategy: Facts and
Policy.” Indian Economic Review, 5 (1): 97–128.
Miroudot, S. , & Cadestin C. 15.03.2017 . “Services in Global Value Chains: From Inputs to
Value-Creating Activities.” OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 197. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Misra, K. 2021. “Political Domination and Economic Dispossession of Farmers: The Case of
Land Acquisition for Special Economic Zones in India.” Journal of Globalization and
Development, 12 (2): 181–219.
Mitra, A. 2011. “Trade in Services: Impact on Employment in India.” The Social Science Journal,
48 (1): 72–93.
Moberg, L. 2018. The Political Economy of Special Economic Zones: Concentrating Economic
Development. Routledge: London.
Mohanty, C. 1988. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.”
Feminist Review, 30: 61–85.
Mondal, A.H. 2003. “Role of the Export Processing Zones in the Industrialization Process of
Bangladesh: Lessons for the Future.” In R.I. Rahman (Ed.), Performance of the Bangladesh
Economy: Selected Issues, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. Dhaka, pp. 93–122.
Monge-González, R. , and Rivera, L. (2021). Exploring knowledge spillover through labour
mobility from multinationals to domestic firms in the information technology sector in Costa Rica.
Project Documents (LC/TS.2021/3). Santiago: Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean.
Morgan, S.L. , & Todd, J.J. 2008. “A Diagnostic Routine for the Detection of Consequential
Heterogeneity of Causal Effects.” Sociological Methodology, 38(1): 231–282.
Moretti, E. 2010. “Local Labor Markets.” In D. Card , & O. Ashenfelter (Eds.), Handbook of
Labor Economics, Volume 4B. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1237–1313.
Mukherjee, I. , Coban, M.K. , & Bali, A.S. 2021. “Policy Capacities and Effective Policy Design:
A Review.” Policy Science, 54 (2): 243–268.
Mukhopadhyay, P. , & Pradhan, K.C. 2009. “Location of SEZs and Policy Benefits: What Does
the Data Say?” CPR Occasional Paper Series, Occasional paper 18, New Delhi.
Mukhtar U. , Ain-Ud-Din S. Islam Z, Ranza S. 2013. “Identification of Impediments in Export
Promotion Zones of Pakistan.” JISR-MSSE, 11 (2): 101–114.
Murayama, M. , & Yokota, N. 2009. “Revisiting Labour and Gender Issues in Export Processing
Zones: Cases of South Korea, Bangladesh and India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 4422:
73–83.
Myrdal, G. 1957. Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions. London: University
Paperbacks, Methuen.
Nachum, L. , & Keeble, D. 2000. “Foreign and Indigenous Firms in the Media Cluster of Central
London.” Working Paper 154. London: ESRC Centre for Business Research.
Nadeem, M.A. , Liu, Z. , Ali, H.S. , Younis, A. , Bilal, M. , & Xu, Y. 2020. “Innovation and
Sustainable Development: Does Aid and Political Instability Impede Innovation?” SAGE Open,
10 (4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020973021
Narasimhan, V.M. , et al. 2019. “The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia. Science.
Sep 6, 365 (6457): eaat7487.
Narula, R. , & Zhan, J. 2019. “Using Special Economic Zones to Facilitate Development: Policy
Implications.” Transnational Corporation, 26 (2): 1–26.
Nasreen, S. , & Manzoor, A. 2016. “A Study of Economic Globalization and Its Impact on
Women Workers of Industrial Sector and Export Processing Zone of Karachi.” Journal of
Gender and Social Issues, 15 (2), 39–54.
Nath, P. , & Basole, A. 2021. “Did Employment Rise or Fall in India Between 2011 and 2017?
Estimating Absolute Changes in the Workforce.” Economic and Political Weekly, 56 (34):
42–52.
Nayyar, D. 2020. “Industrialization, Hubs, and Catch-Up: The World Economy in Historical
Perspective.” In A. Oqubay & J. Lin (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook Of Industrial Hubs and
Economic Development, Chapter 9, pp. 147–161.
Naz, A. , Khan, W. , Hussain, M. , & Daraz, U. 2011. “The Crises of Identity: Globalization and
Its Impacts on Socio-Cultural and Psychological Identity Among Pakhtuns of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan,” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences, 11 (1): 1–11.
Nazarczuk, J.M. , & Umiński, S. 2018. “The Geography of Openness to Foreign Trade in
Poland: The Role of Special Economic Zones and Foreign-Owned Entities.” Bulletin of
Geography. Socio-Economic Series, 39: 97–111.
Nelson, R.H. 2014. “Bringing Religion into Economic Policy Analysis.” Regulation, 37 (1):
52–57.
Nelson, R.R. (Eds). 1993. National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Nesrine, H. , & Yacine, B. 2022. “R&D, Innovation and Productivity Relationships: Evidence
from Threshold Panel Model.” International Journal of Innovation Studies, 53 (3): 113–126.
Neveling, P. 2017. “Capital over Labor: Health and Safety in Export Processing Zones Garment
Production Since 1947.” In R. Prentice , & G. de Neve (Eds.), Unmaking the Global Sweatshop:
Health and Safety of the World’s Garment Workers. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press. pp. 123–146.
Ng, L.F.Y. , & Tuan, C. 2006. “Spatial Agglomeration, FDI, and Regional Growth in China:
Locality of Local and Foreign Manufacturing Investments.” Journal of Asian Economics, 17 (4):
691–713.
Ngai, L.R. , & Pissarides, C.A. 2007. “Structural Change in a Multisector Model of Growth.”
American Economic Review, 97 (1): 429–443.
Nketiah-Amponsah, E. , & Sarpong, B. 2020. “Ease of Doing Business and Foreign Direct
Investment: Case of Sub-Saharan Africa.” International Advances in Economic Research, 26
(3): 209–223.
North, D.C. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Neumark, D. & Simpson, H. 2015. “Place-Based Policies.” In Gilles Duranton , J. Vernon
Henderson , & William C. Strange (Eds.), Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, Volume
5, Chapter 18, Elsevier, North-Holland, Amsterdam. pp. 1197–1287.
Nurkse, R. 1953. “Notas Sobre O Trabalho Do Sr. Furtado Relativo A” Formação De Capitais E
Desenvolvimento Econômico”.” Revista Brasileira De Economia, 71: 67–87.
Obeng, F.A. , Wrigley-Asante, C. , & Teye, J.K. 2015. “Working Conditions in Ghana’s Export
Processing Zone and Women’s Empowerment.” Work Organisation, Labour and Globalisation,
9 (2): 64–78.
OECD . 2009a. How Regions Grow. Paris: Organisation for Economic Growth and
Development.
OECD . 2009b. Towards Best Practice Guidelines for the Development of Economic Zones. A
contribution to the Ministerial Conference by Working Group 1 Marrakech 23 November 2009
OECD-MENA Investment Plan.
OECD . 2014. “Global Value Chains: Challenges, Opportunities, and Implications for Policy.”
Report Prepared for Submission to the G20 Trade Ministers Meeting Sydney, Australia, 19 July
2014 : OECD, WTO, and The World Bank.
OECD . 2015. “The Participation of Developing Countries in Global Value Chains: Implications
for Trade and Trade-Related Policies,” OECD Trade Policy Paper, No. 179. OECD Publishing.
OECD . 2017. Tracking Special Economic Zones in the Western Balkans: Objectives, Features
and Key Challenges. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
OECD/Eurostat 2005. Oslo Manual, Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data.
Third Edition, OECD Publications Paris.
Olayinka, J.A. , & Loykulnanta, S. 2019. “How Domestic Firms Benefit from the Presence of
Multinational Enterprises: Evidence from Indonesia and Philippines.” Economies, 7 (3): 1–14.
Oqubay, A. , & Lin, J.Y. 2020. The Oxford Handbook of Industrial Hubs and Economic
Development. London: Oxford University Press.
Orlic, E. , Hashi, I. , & Hisarciklilar, M. 2018. “Cross Sectoral FDI Spillovers and Their Impact on
Manufacturing Productivity.” International Business Review, 27 (4): 777–796.
Osakwe, P.N. , Santos-Paulino, A.U. , & Dogan, B. 2018. “Trade Dependence, Liberalisation,
and Exports Diversification in Developing Countries.” Journal of African Trade, 51 (2): 19–34.
Overman, H.G. , & Puga, D. 2010. “Labor Pooling as a Source of Agglomeration: An Empirical
Investigation.” In E.L. Glaeser (Ed.), Agglomeration Economics. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press, pp. 133–150.
Pack, H. 1993. “Productivity and Industrial Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” World
Development, 21 (1): 1–16.
Panagariya, A. 2008. India: The Emerging Giant. New York: Oxford University Press.
Panchali, R.A.P. , & Gunawardana, A. 2021. “Sri Lanka’s Port City Economic Commission Act:
A Social-Legal Insight.” ISAS Working Paper. Singapore.
Ramesh, C. Paudel & Chakra Pani Acharya , 2020. “Financial Development and Economic
Growth: Evidence from Nepal.” NRB Economic Review, Nepal Rastra Bank, Economic
Research Department, 32 (1), 15–36.
Papanek, G.F. 1959. “Framing a Development Program.” International Conciliation, 52 (66):
350.
Papanek, G.F. 1962. “The Development of Entrepreneurship.” The American Economic Review,
52 (2): 46–58.
Papanek, G.F. 1967. Pakistan’s Development, Social Goals and Private Incentives. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Parwez, S. 2016. “Labour and Labour Welfare in Special Economic Zones in India with Special
Reference to Gujarat.” South Asian Survey, 23 (2): 135–157.
Peltier, J.W. , & Naidu, G.M. 2012. “Social Networks Across the SME Organizational Lifecycle.”
Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 19 (1): 56–73.
Pepper, A. 2012. “Sexual Divisions of Labor in Export-Oriented Manufacturing Sectors: The
Reconstruction of Gender and the Urbanization of Production in the Global South.” Consilience,
8: 142–152.
Perman, S. , et al. 2004. “Working Conditions and Labour Rights in Export Processing Zones.”
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.
https://biblioteca.cejamericas.org/bitstream/handle/2015/4882/Behind_the_brand_names.pdf?s
equence=1&isAllowed=y.
Perroux, F. 1955. “Note sur la notion de pole de croissance?” Economic Appliqee, 307–320.
(Translated as: Perroux, F. 1970. “Note on the Concept of Growth Poles.” In: D. McKee , R.
Dean , & W. Leahy (Eds.), Regional Economics: Theory and Practice. New York: The Free
Press, pp. 93–104.)
Peruzzi, M. , & Terzi, A. 2021. “Accelerating Economic Growth: The Science Beneath the Art.”
Economic Modelling, 103: 105593.
Pew Research Centre . 2010. “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan
Africa,” https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2010/04/15/executive-summary-islam-and-
christianity-in-sub-saharan-africa/
Picarelli, N. 2016. “Who Really Benefits from Export Processing Zones? Evidence from
Nicaraguan Municipalities.” Labour Economics, 41: 318–332.
Pike, A. , Rodríguez-Pose, A. , & Tomaney, J. 2006. Local and Regional Development. London:
Routledge.
Piore, M.J. , & Sabel, C.F. 1983. “Italian Small Business Development: Lessons for U.S.
Industrial Policy.” In J. Zysman & L. Tyson (Eds.), American Industry in International
Competition – Government Policies and Corporate Strategies. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, pp. 391–421.
Poole, J.P. 2013. “Knowledge Transfers from Multinational to Domestic Firms: Evidence from
Worker Mobility.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 95 (2): 393–406.
Port City Act . 2021. “The Colombo Port City Economic Commission Act, No. 11 of 2021.”
Government of Sri Lanka.
Porter, E. 1998. “Clusters and Competition New Agendas for Companies, Governments, and
Institutions.” In M. Porter (Ed.) On Competition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press,
pp. 197–287.
Porter, M.E. 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: The Free Press.
Porter, M.E. 1994. “The Role of Location in Competition.” Journal of the Economics of Business,
11: 35–39.
Porter, M.E. 1998. “Clusters and the New Economics of Competition.” In M. Porter (Ed.), On
Competition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.
Posner, M.V. 1961. “International Trade and Technical Change.” Oxford Economic Papers, 13
(3): 323–341.
Potter, A. , & Watts, H.D. 2011. “Evolutionary Agglomeration Theory: Increasing Returns,
Diminishing Returns, and the Industry Life Cycle.” Journal of Economic Geography, 11 (3):
417–455.
Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report . 2018. Piecing Together the Poverty Puzzle.
Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Powell, W.W. , & Grodal, S. 2005. “Networks of Innovators.” In J. Fagerberg , D. Mowery , R.R.
Nelson (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Innovation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 56–85.
Prebisch, R. 1950. The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems.
New York: United Nations.
Prebisch, R. 1959. “Commercial Policy in the Underdeveloped Countries.” American Economic
Review, 49: 251–273.
Pritchett, L. , Kunal, S. , & Eric, W. 2017. “Searching for a ‘Recipe’ for Episodic Development.”
In L. Pritchett , S. Kunal , and W. Eric (Eds.), Deals and Development: The Political Dynamics of
Growth Episodes. PP. 339–354 Publisher: Oxford University Press Oxford Academic Books.
Prodan, I. 2005. “Influence of Research and Development Expenditures on Number of Patent
Aplications: Selected Case Studies in OECD Countries and Central Europe, 1981–2001.”
Applied Econometrics and International Development, 5–4: 5–22.
Punj, A. 2018. “Special Economic Zones: Operational Adjustment of Labour Law.” Journal of
National Law University Delhi, 5 (1): 78–98.
Putnam, R. 1993. Making Democracy Work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Pyke, F. , & Lund-Thomsen, P. 2016. “Social Upgrading in Developing Country Industrial
Clusters: A Reflection on the Literature.” Competition & Change, 20 (1): 53–68.
Rahman, A. , Ali, M. , & Kahn, S. 2018. “The British Art of Colonialism in India: Subjugation and
Division.” Peace and Conflict Studies, 25 (1): Article 5.
https://nsuworks.nova.edu/pcs/vol25/iss1/5
Ramadani, V. , Abazi-Alili, H. , Dana, L.P. , Rexhepi, G. , Ibraimi, S. 2017. “The Impact of
Knowledge Spillovers and Innovation on Firm-Performance: Findings from the Balkans
Countries.” International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 13 (1): 299–325.
Rathnasekara, S.U. 2022. “External Trade and Foreign Investment Policy Reforms in Economic
Growth of Sri Lanka.” Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences, 45 (1): 5–18.
Rawat, V.B. , Bhushan, M.B. , & Sujata, S. 2011. “The Impact of Special Economic Zones in
India: A Case Study of Polepally SEZ.” SDF contribution to International Land Coalition
Collaborative Research Project on Commercial Pressures on Land, Rome.
Rayner, J. , Howlett, M. , & Wellstead, A. 2017. “Policy Mixes and Their Alignment Over Time:
Patching and Stretching in the Oil Sands Reclamation Regime in Alberta, Canada.”
Environmental Policy and Governance, 27 (5): 472–483.
Rehman, N.U. 2016. “Does Internal and External Research and Development Affect Innovation
of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises? Evidence from India and Pakistan.” ADBI Working
Paper 577. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute.
Renier, T. 2019. Jamaican Development Strategies: Are The Free Trade Zones Contributing to
Decent Work? Master’s Thesis. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Saint Mary’s University.
Rhee, Y.W. , & Belot, T. 1990. “Export Catalysts in Low Income Countries: A Review of Eleven
Success Stories.” World Bank Discussion Papers No. 72, The World Bank.
Rhee, Y.W. , Katterback, K. , & White, J. 1990. Free Trade Zones in Export Strategies.
Washington, DC: The World Bank Industry Development Division. Industry Series Papers No.
36.
Ricardo, D. 1817. “On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation.” Available Online at the
Library of Economics and Liberty. http://www.econlib.org/library/ricardo/ricp.html
Rigdon, E.E. 2012. “Rethinking Partial Least Squares Path Modeling: In Praise of Simple
Methods”. Long Range Planning, 45 (5–6): 341–358.
Rigo, D. 2021. “Global Value Chains and Technology Transfer: New Evidence from Developing
Countries.” Review of World Economy, 157 (2): 271–294.
Ring, P.S. , & Van De Ven, A.H. 1994. “Developmental Processes of Cooperative
Interorganizational Relationships.” Academy of Management Review, 19 (1): 90–118.
RIS . 2004. South Asia Development and Cooperation Report 2004. New Delhi: Research and
Information Systems.
Robins, J.M. 2000. “Marginal Structural Models Versus Structural Nested Models as Tools for
Causal Inference.” In M.E. Halloran , & D. Berry (Eds.), Statistical Models in Epidemiology, the
Environment, and Clinical Trials. New York: Springer, pp. 95–133.
Rodriguez, F. , & Rodrik, D. 2000. “Trade Policy and Economic Growth: A Skeptic’s Guide to
the Cross-National Evidence.” NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 15 (1): 261–325.
Rodríguez-Pose, A. 2011. “Economists as Geographers and Geographers as Something Else:
On the Changing Conception of Distance in Geography and Economics.” Journal Of Economic
Geography, 11 (2): 347–356.
Rodríguez-Pose, A. , & Crescenzi, R. 2008. “Research and Development, Spillovers, Innovation
Systems, and the Genesis of Regional Growth in Europe.” Regional Studies, 42 (1): 51–67.
Rodrik, D. 1991. “Policy Uncertainty and Private Investment in Developing Countries.” Journal
of Development Economics, 36 (2): 229–242.
Rodrik, D. 1992. “The Limits of Trade Policy Reform in Developing Countries.” Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 61 (1): 87–105.
Rodrik, D. 2003. “Institutions, Integration, and Geography: In Search of the Deep Determinants
of Economic Growth.” An Introduction to D. Rodrik (Ed.), Search of Prosperity: Analytic Country
Studies on Growth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 1–22.
Rodrik, D. 2004. “Industrial Policy for the Twenty-First Century.” CEPR Discussion Paper. 4767.
London: Centre for Economic Policy Research.
Rodrik, D. 2005. “Growth Strategies.” In P. Aghion , & S. Durlauf (Eds.), Handbook of Economic
Growth. North Holland: Elsevier Academic Press, pp. 967–1014.
Rodrik, D. 2006. “What’s So Special about China’s Exports?” China & World Economy, 14 (5):
1–19.
Rodrik, D. 2013. “The Past, Present, and Future of Economic Growth.” Global Citizen
Foundation, Working Paper, 1, 2013.
Rodrik, D. , Subramanian, A. , & Trebbi, F. 2004. “Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions
over Geography and Integration in Economic Development.” Journal of Economic Growth, 9 (2):
131–165.
Romer, P.M. 1986. “Increasing Returns and Long-Run Growth,” Journal of Political Economy,
94 (5): 1002–1037.
Romer, P.M. 1994. “The Origins of Endogenous Growth.” The Journal of Economic
Perspectives, 8 (1): 3–22.
Romero, A.T. 1995. “Labour Standards and Export Processing Zones: Situation and Pressures
for Change.” Development Policy Review, 13 (3): 247–276.
Rose, E.L. , Koed Madsen, T. , & Sadeghi, A. (2021). “Perceived Export Performance: A
Contingent Measurement Approach.” Journal of International Marketing, 29 (3): 63–84.
Rostow, W.W. 1960. “The United States in the World Arena.” Naval War College Review, 13
(6): Article 7.
Roth, I.J. 1971. “Government and the Development of Industry in Pakistan-- 1947–1967.” Asian
Survey, 11 (6): 570–581.
Russell-Brown, S.L. 2003. “Labor Rights as Human Rights: The Situation of Women Workers in
Jamaica’s Export Free Zones.” Berkeley Journal of Employment & Labor, 24 (1): 179–201.
Sabatier, P.A. 1988. “An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of
Policy-Oriented Learning Therein.” Policy Sciences, 21 (2–3): 129–168.
Sachs, J.D. 2003. “Institutions Matter, But Not for Everything.” Finance & Development, 40
(002): 38–41.
Sachs, J.D. , & Warner, A.M. 2001. “The Curse of Natural Resources.” European Economic
Review, 45 (4–6): 827–838.
Safa, H.I. “Runaway Shops and Female Employment: The Search for Cheap Labor.” Signs, 7
(2): 418–433.
Sahoo, P. 2006. “Foreign Direct Investment in South Asia: Policy, Trends, Impact and
Determinants.” ADB Institute Discussion Paper No. 56, Tokyo.
Saleh, A.A. , Hashim, H. , Awang, M. , Zawawi, Z.A. , Aswad, M.K. , & Sudirman, M.D. 2020. “A
Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling PLS-SEM of Energy Management Critical
Success Factors to Sustainable University in Malaysia.” Journal of Critical Reviews, 78:
1330–1338.
Samarasinghe, S.W.R. de A. 1990. “The Bhutanese Economy in Transition.” Asian Survey, 30
(6): 560–575.
Sannassee, R. V. 2007. “Employment Creation and Skill Diffusion by Multinationals and Foreign
Joint Ventures in the Mauritian Export Processing Zone.” Journal of the Textile Institute, 98 (2):
99–108.
Santacreu-Vasut, E. , & Teshima, K. 2016. “Foreign Employees as Channel for Technology
Transfer: Evidence from MNC’s Subsidiaries in Mexico.” Journal of Development Economics,
122: 92–112.
Sasidharan, S. , & Kathuria, V. 2011. “Foreign Direct Investment and R&D: Substitutes or
Complements—A Case of Indian Manufacturing after 1991 Reforms.” World Development, 39
(7): 1226–1239.
Schminke, B. , & Biesebroeck, J.V. 2013. “Using Export Market Performance to Evaluate
Regional Preferential Policies in China.” Review of World Economics, 149 (2): 343–367.
Schneider, A.L. , and Ingram, H. 1990. “Behavioural Assumptions of Policy Tools.” Journal of
Politics, 52 (2): 511–529.
Schneider, A.L. , & Ingram, H. 1988. “Systematically Pinching Ideas: A Comparative Approach
to Policy Design.” Journal of Public Policy, 8 (1): 61–80.
Schrader, S. 1991. “Barter in Networks: A Revived Form of Inter-Firm Exchange.” Working
paper no. 3369-91. Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Schrempf, B. , Kaplan, D. , & Schroeder, D. 2013. “National, Regional, and Sectoral Systems of
Innovation–An Overview.” Report for FP7 Project Progress. European Commission.
Scott, A. , & Storper, M. 2003. “Regions, Globalization, Development.” Regional Studies, 37
(6–7): 579–593.
Scott, A.J. 1988. “Flexible Production Systems and Regional Development.” International
Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 12 (2): 171–186.
Sen, K. 2019. “Structural Transformation Around the World: Patterns and Drivers.” Asian
Development Review, 36 (2): 1–31.
Sen, S. , & Dasgupta, B. 2009. Unfreedom and Waged Work: Labour in India’s Manufacturing
Industry. Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Shafir, E. (Eds). 2013. The Behavioral Foundations of Public Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Sharma, K. 1997. “Impact of Policy Reforms on Manufacturing Growth in Nepal.” Asian Survey,
37 (6): 550–560.
Shaw, J. 2007. “There Is No Work in My Village: The Employment Decisions of Female
Garment Workers in Sri Lanka’s Export Processing Zones.” Journal of Developing Societies, 23
(1–2): 37–58.
Shimbov, B. , Alguacil, M. , & Suárez, C. 2019. “Export Structure Upgrading and Economic
Growth in the Western Balkan Countries.” Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 55 (10):
2185–2210.
Shrestha, R.N. 2022. “Role of Remittances in Economic Growth: Evidence from Nepal.” The
Economic Journal of Nepal, 45 (157): 37–57.
Shu, P. , & Steinwender, C. 2019. “The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Firm Productivity and
Innovation.” Innovation Policy and the Economy, 19 (1): 39–68.
Silva, E.G. , & Teixeira, A.A. 2008. Surveying Structural Change: Seminal Contributions and a
Bibliometric Account. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 19: 273–300.
Singer, H.W. 1950. “U.S. Foreign Investment in Underdeveloped Areas: The Distribution of
Gains Between Investing and Borrowing Countries.” American Economic Review: Papers and
Proceedings, 40 (2): 473–485.
Singh, D.A. 2009. “Export Performance of Emerging Market Firms.” International Business
Review, 18 (4): 321–330.
Singh, H.V. , Gupta, K. , Sudan, R. , & Singh, R. 2018. “Product Space Analysis and Industrial
Policy: Identifying Potential Products for India’s Export Expansion and Diversification.”
Brookings India Impact Series no. 082018-2, New Delhi.
Singh, J. 2008. “Labour Law and Special Economic Zones in India.” Working Paper Series. New
Delhi: Centre for the Study of Law and Governance.
Singhania, M. , & Saini, N. 2021. “Demystifying Pollution Haven Hypothesis: Role of FDI.”
Journal of Business Research, 123: 516–528.
Sit, V.F. 1988. “China’s Export-Oriented Open Areas: The Export Processing Zone Concept.”
Asian Survey, 28 (6): 661–675.
Sivalingam, G. 1994. “The Economic and Social Impact of Export Processing Zones: The Case
of Malaysia.” Working Paper No. 66. Geneva: Multinational Enterprise Programme, International
Labour Organization.
Sivananthiran, A. 2007. Promoting Decent Work in Export Processing Zones EPZs in Sri Lanka.
Geneva: ILO.
Ślusarczyk, B. , & Grondys, K. 2018. “The Concept of Sustainable Development in the
Functioning of Municipalities Belonging to Special Economic Zones in Poland.” Sustainability,
10 (7): 2169.
Smith, H. 2002 (Eds.). The Economic Development of Northeast Asia. Cheltenham: Edward
Elgar Publishing.
Smoke, P. 2003. “Decentralisation in Africa: Goals, Dimensions, Myths and Challenges.” Public
Administration and Development, 231: 7–16.
Sobhan, R. 1993. “Structural Maladjustment: Bangladesh’s Experience with Market Reforms.”
Economic and Political Weekly, 2819: 925–931.
Soete, L. , Verspagen, B. , & Weel, B.T. , 2010. “Systems of Innovation.” In B. Hall , & N.
Rosenberg (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Innovation, Chapter 27. North-Holland:
Elsevier, pp. 1159–1180.
Solow, R.M. 1957. “Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function.” The Review of
Economics and Statistics, 39 (3): 312–320.
Soytong, P. , & Perera, R. 2017. “Spatial Analysis of the Environmental Conflict between State,
Society and Industry at the Map Ta Phut-Rayong Conurbation in Thailand.” Environment,
Development and Sustainability, 19 (3): 839–862.
State Bank of Pakistan . 2010. Annual Report 2009–2010. Government of Pakistan.
Steenbergen, V. , & Javorcik, B. 2017. Analysing the Impact of the Kigali Special Economic
Zone on Firm Behaviour. Working Paper F-38419-RWA-1. International Growth Centre.
Steinmueller, W.E. 1996. Technological Infrastructure in Information Technology Industries. In:
M. Teubal , D. Foray , M. Justman , & E. Zuscovitch (Eds.), Technological Infrastructure Policy.
Economics of Science, Technology and Innovation, vol 7. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 117–139.
Stiglitz, J.E. 1998. Towards a New Paradigm for Development. Geneva: United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva, Switzerland.
Stiglitz, J.E. , Lin, J.Y. , and Monga, C. 2013. “Introduction: The Rejuvenation of Industrial
Policy.” In Stiglitz, J.E. , & Lin, J.Y. (Eds.), The Industrial Policy Revolution I: The Role of
Government Beyond Ideology. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Storm, S. 2015. “Structural Change.” Development and Change, 46 (4): 666–699.
Storper, M. 1997. The Regional World: Territorial Development in a Global Economy. New York:
Guilford Press.
Subramaniam, A. , & Roy, D. 2001. “Who Can Explain the Mauritian Miracle: Meade, Romer
Sachs or Rodrik?” Working Paper No.01/116. The World Bank.
Subramanyam, N. , & Kudva, N. 2021. “Acquiescence in the Face of Dispossession in the
Mahindra World City Special Economic Zone, Tamil Nadu, India.” Environment And Planning C:
Politics and Space, 39(1): 114–131.
Sulaiman, M. 2004. “Performance of EPZs in Bangladesh: Special Focus on Backward
Linkages.” Master’s Thesis in Development Studies submitted to the Department of Economics
and Social Science, BRAC University.
Sun, Y. , Du, D. , & Huang, L. 2006. “Foreign R&D in Developing Countries: Empirical Evidence
from Shanghai, China.” China Review, 6 (1): 67–91.
Tan, D. , & Meyer, K.E. 2011. “Country-of-Origin and Industry FDI Agglomeration of Foreign
Investors in an Emerging Economy.” Journal of International Business Studies, 42: 504–520.
Teirlinck, P. , & Spithoven, A. 2013. “Research Collaboration and R&D Outsourcing: Different
R&D Personnel Requirements in SMEs.” Technovation, 33 (4–5): 142–153.
Teixeira, L.C. 2020. “Labor Standards and Social Conditions in Free Trade Zones: The Case of
the Manaus Free Trade Zone.” Economics, 14 (1): 1–41.
Tejani, S. 2011. “The Gender Dimension of Special Economic Zones.” In T. Farole & G. Akinci
(Eds.), Special Economic Zones: Progress, Emerging Challenges, and Future Directions.
Chapter 11. Washington DC: World Bank, pp. 247–281.
The U.S. Department of State . 2021a. Investment Climate: Bangladesh, 2021a.
The U.S. Department of State . 2021b. Investment Climate: Pakistan, 2021b.
The U.S. Department of State . 2022a. Investment Climate: Pakistan, 2022a.
The U.S. Department of State . 2022b. Investment Climate: India, 2022b.
Timmer, C.P. 2007. “The Structural Transformation and the Changing Role of Agriculture in
Economic Development: Empirics and Implications.” Wendt Lecture, The American Enterprise
Institute, Washington, DC, October 30, 2007 .
UN DESA . 2020. International Migration 2020. New York: Department of Economic and Social
Affairs.
UNCTAD . 2005. World Investment Report 2005: Transnational Corporations and the
Internationalization of R&D. Geneva: United Nations Conference of Trade and Development.
UNCTAD . 2006. The Least Developed Countries Report 2006: Developing Productive
Capacities. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
UNCTAD . 2015. Enhancing the Contribution of Export Processing Zones to the Sustainable
Development Goals: An Analysis of 100 EPZs and a Framework for Sustainable Economic
Zones. Geneva and New York: UNCTAD.
UNCTAD . 2019. “World Investment Report 2019.” United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development.
UNCTAD . 2022. Handbook on Special Economic Zones in Africa: Towards Economic
Diversification Across the Continent. Geneva: UNCTAD.
UNECA . 2016. Transformative Industrial Policy for Africa. Addis Ababa: United Nations
Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA).
UNESCAP . 2014. Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals in South Asia: Key Policy
Priorities and Implementation Challenges. Bangkok: United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia Pacific.
UNIDO . 1997. Industrial Estates: Principles and Practices. Vienna: United National Industrial
Development Organisation.
UNIDO . 2018. Demand for Manufacturing: Driving Inclusive and Sustainable Industrial
Development. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
UNIDO . 2019. Eco-Industrial Parks: Achievements and Key Insights from the Global Recp
Programme 2012–2018. Vienna: UNIDO.
UNIDO . 2020. Industrialization as the Driver of Sustained Prosperity. Vienna: UNIDO.
United Nations . 1962. Establishment of Industrial Estates in Under-Developed Countries. New
York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations.
Ustubici, A. 2009. “Export-Processing Zones and Gendering the Resistance: Women’s Strike in
Antalya Free Zone in Turkey.” New Working Paper Series Issue 24, March 2009. London
School of Economics.
van Geet, M.T. , Verweij, S. , Busscher, T. et al. 2021. “The Importance of Policy Design Fit for
Effectiveness: A Qualitative Comparative Analysis of Policy Integration in Regional Transport
Planning. Policy Sciences, 54: 629–662.
Vandermerwe, S. , & Rada, J. 1988. “Servitization of Business: Adding Value by Adding
Services.” European Management Journal, 64: 314–324.
Vassilyeva, Y. 2017. “The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Export Performance: Evidence from
OECD Countries.” Doctoral Dissertation. Budapest: Central European University.
Verba, M. 2015. “Growth and Innovation in the Presence of Knowledge and R&D Accumulation
Dynamics.” MERIT Working Papers 2015-054. United Nations University - Maastricht Economic
and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology.
Vermeulen, F. , & Barkema, H. 2001. “Learning Through Acquisitions.” Academy of
Management Journal, 44 (3): 457–476.
Vernon, R. 1966. “International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle.” The
Quarterly Journal of Economics, 80 (2): 190–207.
Villar, C. , José, P.B. , & Ghauri, P.N. 2020. “Learning from Foreign Operation Modes: The
Virtuous Path for Innovation.” BRQ Business Research Quarterly, 23 (2): 159–171.
Virmani, A. 2005. “Policy Regimes, Growth and Poverty in India: Lessons of Government
Failure and Entrepreneurial Success.” Working Paper no. 170. New Delhi: ICRIER.
Vlcevski, I. 2019. “Institutions and Identity: Their Impact on Macedonia’s Economic
Development.” Umd Voice. https://www.umdgenm.org/2019/01/29/institutions-and-identity-their-
impact-on-macedonias-economic-development/
Vogelsang, T.J. 1997. “Wald-Type Tests for Detecting Breaks in the Trend Function of a
Dynamic Time Series.” Econometric Theory, 13 (6): 818–849.
Vogiatzoglou, K. 2016. “Ease of Doing Business and FDI Inflows in ASEAN.” Journal of
Southeast Asian Economies, 33 (3): 343–363.
Walker, H. , Di Sisto, L. , & McBain, D. 2008. “Drivers and Barriers to Environmental Supply
Chain Management Practices: Lessons from the Public and Private Sectors.” Journal of
Purchasing and Supply Management, 14 (1): 69–85.
Wang, J. 2013. “The Economic Impact of Special Economic Zones: Evidence from Chinese
Municipalities.” Journal of Development Economics, 101: 133–147.
Wang, K. , Wang, J. , Mei, S. , & Xiong, S. 2020. “How Does Technology Import and Export
Affect the Innovative Performance of Firms? From the Perspective of Emerging Markets Firms.”
Complexity, Article ID 3810574.
Wang, Y. , & Li-Ying, J. , 2015. “Licensing Foreign Technology and the Moderating Role of
Local R&D Collaboration: Extending the Relational View.” Journal of Product Innovation
Management, 32 (6): 997–1013.
Wang, Y. , & Zhang, G. 2016, “Sources of Productivity Advantages of Special Economic Zones:
Agglomeration Effect or Selection Effect?” Economic Research Journal, 7 (1): 58–71.
Wark, S.J. 2016. “Promoting Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work: Phase II.”
Independent Evaluation. ILO.
https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ilab/evaluation_type/final_evaluation/sri-lanka-phase-
ii_final-evaluation.pdf
Warr, P. , & Menon, J. 2016. “Cambodia’s Special Economic Zones.” Journal of Southeast
Asian Economies, 33 (3): 273–290.
Weaver, K. 2009. Target Compliance: The Final Frontier of Policy Implementation. Washington,
DC: Brookings Institution.
WEF . 2019. The Global Competitiveness Report. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
Wijendra, H. 2014. “Sri Lankan Apparel Export Position in Global Market.” Textile Learner.
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/01/sri-lankan-apparel-exportposition-in.html, Accessed
on January, 31, 2022 .
White, H. 2009. Theory-Based Impact Evaluation: Principles and Practice. 3ie working Paper 3.
https://www.3ieimpact.org/sites/default/files/2017-11/Working_Paper_3.pdf
Wolford, W. , Borras, S.M. , Hall, R. , Scoones, I. 2013. “Regimes of Dispossession: From Steel
Towns to Special Economic Zones.” Development and Change, 44 (2): 381–407.
World Bank . 1992. “Export Processing Zones.” Policy and Research Series. No 20.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank . 2009. Reshaping Economic Geography: World Development Report 2009.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank . 2013–2014. Enterprise Surveys: India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The World
Bank. http://www.enterprisesurveys.org
World Bank . 2011. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development.
Washington, DC: World Bank Group
World Bank . 2016. Special Economic Zones in the Dominican Republic: Policy Considerations
for a More Competitive and Inclusive Sector. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank . 2018. Logistics Performance Index 2018. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
https://lpi.worldbank.org
World Bank . 2020. Women and Trade: The Role of Trade in Promoting Women’s Equality.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Wu, M. & Huang, J. 2017. “Provincial SEZs, Leading Industries and the Counties” The journal
name is Industrial Economic Perspectives Industrial Economic Perspectives,” 1 (2017): 52–56.
Wu, M. , Liu, C. , & Huang, J. 2021. “The Special Economic Zones and Innovation: Evidence
from China.” China Economic Quarterly International, 1 (4): 319–330.
Wu, X. , & Ramesh, M. 2014. “Market Imperfections, Government Imperfections, and Policy
Mixes: Policy Innovations in Singapore.” Policy Sciences, 47 (3): 305–320.
Wu, X. , Ramesh, M. , & Howlett, M. 2015. “Policy Capacity: A Conceptual Framework for
Understanding Policy Competences and Capabilities.” Policy and Society, 34 (3–4): 165–171.
Wu, Y. , & Li, L. 2017. “Performance Evaluation of Special Economic Zones in China: From the
Perspective of Firm Innovation Capacity.” Journal of Financial Research, 444 (6): 126–141.
Xiang, K. , & Lu, M. 2015. “Speed Versus Quality: Why Regional Dispersion Tendency of
Development Zone Policy Is Not Sustainable?” Journal of Finance and Economics, 4 (1): 4–17.
Yangka, D. 2015. “Hydropower and the Bhutanese Economy.” September 14th, 2015 Accessed
On https://Kuenselonline.Com/Hydropower-And-The-Bhutanese-Economy/
Yeaple, S.R. 2005. “A Simple Model of Firm Heterogeneity, International Trade, and Wages.”
Journal of International Economics, 65 (1): 1–20.
Yong, E.L. 2019. “Understanding Cultural Diversity and Economic Prosperity in Europe: A
Literature Review and Proposal of a Culture–Economy Framework.” Asian Journal of German
and European Studies, 4, 5 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40856-019-0043-3
Yuan, J.D. , & Eden, L. 1992. “Export Processing Zones in Asia: A Comparative Study.” Asian
Survey, 32 (11): 1026–1045.
Yuan, Q. , Liu, B. , & Zhu, X. 2015. “A Research of the Effect of Economic Zone on
Productivity.” The Journal of World Economy, 5 (1): 81–104.
Zahra, S.A. , & George, G. 2002. “Absorptive Capacity: A Review, Reconceptualization, and
Extension”. The Academy of Management Review, 27 (2): 185–203.
Zaidi, S.A. 2005. Issues in Pakistan’s Economy. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
Zamagni, V. 1993. The Economic History of Italy 1860–1990. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Zaman, M.A. 2022. “Job Growth in Manufacturing Plunges: BBS Survey.” The Daily Star, 1
May, 2022 .
Zawislak, P.A. , Cherubini Alves, A. , Tello-Gamarra, J. , Barbieux, D. , & Reichert, F.M. 2012.
“Innovation Capability: From Technology Development to Transaction Capability.” Journal of
Technology Management & Innovation, 7 (2): 14–27.
Zeng, D.Z. 2012. “China’s Special Economic Zones and Industrial Clusters: The Engines for
Growth.” Journal of International Commerce, Economics and Policy, 3 (3): 1250016.
Zeng, D.Z. 2015. “Global Experiences with Special Economic Zones: Focus on China and
Africa.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, 7240.
Zeng, D.Z. 2019. Special Economic Zones: Lessons from the Global Experience, PEDL
Synthesis Paper Series No. 1. Private Enterprise Development in Low-Income Countries.
https://Pedl.Cepr.Org/Publications/Special-Economic-Zones-Lessons-Global-Experience
Zeng, D.Z. 2020. “Special Economic Zones in Sub-Saharan Africa: What Drives Their Mixed
Performance?” In A. Oqubay , & J.Y. Lin (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Industrial Hubs and
Economic Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1008–1026.
Zeng, D.Z. 2021. “The Past, Present, and Future of Special Economic Zones and Their Impact.”
Journal of International Economic Law. Published online 2021 Apr 8 .
Zeng, D.Z. 2022. “What Determines the Heterogeneous Performance of Special Economic
Zones? Evidence from Sub-Sahara Africa.” Global Policy, 13 (4): 495–506.
Zeng, D.Z. , & Zhao, L. 2009. “Pollution Havens and Industrial Agglomeration.” Journal of
Environmental Economics and Management, 58 (2): 141–153.
Zhaoyang, C. 2021. “Risk Transmission Mechanism Across Industries in China.” Social
Sciences Division, MA Thesis Archive. University of Chicago.
Zheng, S. , Weizeng S. , Jianfeng W. , & Matthew E.K. 2017. “The Birth of Edge Cities in China:
Measuring the Effects of Industrial Parks Policy.” Journal of Urban Economics, 100: 80–103.
Zheng, Y. , & Aggarwal, A. 2020. “Special Economic Zones in China and India: A Comparative
Analysis.” In A. Oqubay , & J.Y. Lin (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Industrial Hubs and
Economic Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 607–622.
Zhou, S. , & Hu, A. 2021. China: Surpassing the “Middle Income Trap.” Singapore: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Zhu, S. , & Fu, X. 2013. “Drivers of Export Upgrading.” World Development, 51: 221–233.
Zohir, S.C. 2001. “Social Impact of the Growth of Garment Industry in Bangladesh.” The
Bangladesh Development Studies, 27 (4): 41–80.
Zucker, L.G. , & Darby, M.R. 2001. “Capturing Technological Opportunity Via Japan’s Star
Scientists: Evidence from Japanese Firms’ Biotech Patents and Products.” The Journal of
Technology Transfer 26: 37–58.
