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Tree health assessment and risk management of Hura crepitans L. in Purwodadi botanical garden
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Trees have a vital role in human life, including as a part of the urban forest area. The tree health assessment is an important activity to support tree safety and stability in an urban forest. Bogor Botanic Garden is the most extensive botanic garden in Indonesia, with a large collection. The study aims to determine the health condition of old trees ( Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) in the Bogor Botanic Gardens and measure the safety factor’s magnitude. The method used was an evaluation generated based on a sound velocity from Arborsonic’s tool. The measurement of appearance parameters was carried out to complete the information in determining the biomechanical strength of the tree. Four large and old trees, about 170 years old, were chosen in this study. The results showed that decay to hollowness in the trunk varied from 4% to 58%. The biomechanical analysis calculates the safety factor and t/R ratio, revealing that one tree had moderate risk and others possessed low risk. Further investigation to ensure the tree condition should be carried in terms of risk mitigation of tree management.
Wood durability researchers have long described fungal decay of timber using the starkly simple terms of white, brown and soft rot, along with the less destructive mold and stain fungi. These terms have taken on an almost iconic meaning but are only based upon the outward appearance of the damaged timber. Long-term deterioration studies, as well as the emerging genetic tools, are showing the fallacy of simplifying the decay process into such broad groups. This paper briefly reviews the fundamentals of fungal decay, staining and mold processes, then uses these fundamentals as the basis for a discussion of fungal attack of wood in light of current knowledge about these processes. Biotechnological applications of decay fungi are reviewed, and an overview is presented on how fungi surmount the protective barriers that coatings provide on surfaces. Advances in biochemical analyses have, in some cases, radically altered our perceptions of how wood is degraded, and even the relationships between fungal species, while other new findings have reinforced traditional perspectives. Suggestions for future research needs in the coatings field relative to enhanced fungal and environmental protection are presented.
For the sustainability of an important renewable resource, such as wood, it is important to significantly increase the efficiency of its processing. A large part of this raw material ends up in the wood processing industry, where it is used for the production of pulp, paper, construction and furniture timber, floors and others. Therefore, it is very important to gain the knowledge needed for optimal valuation of raw wood material, through quality detection and classification into quality classes. There are many defectoscopic methods working on different physical principles. The most familiar of these methods are semi-destructive and non-destructive, as they do not cause damage to the tree or wood during assessment. The aim of this article is to describe, assess and compare known semi-destructive and non-destructive methods for the assessment of wood properties. This article describes basic visual inspection, basic semi-destructive methods (Pilodyn, Resistograph) and advanced semi-destructive methods (SilviScan®, DiscBot®) as well. Non-destructive methods use mostly acoustic wave motion (acoustic, ultrasonic), high-frequency waves (using georadar, microwave) and methods based on visual evaluation (image, laser). At last, there are X-ray methods with the latest technology using three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT). The implementation of modern non-destructive methods is of great importance for the application of principles of Industry 4.0, where these methods provide collecting of data on the material properties, in its entire production flow of log processing.
Termites are the eusocial arthropod decomposers, and improve soil fertility, crop yield, and also are used by humanity for their benefits across the world. However, some species of termites are becoming a threat to the farming community as they are causing major losses to the agricultural system directly and indirectly. It is estimated that termites cost the global economy more than 40 billion USD annually, and considerable research has been done on its management. In this review, we present the available information related to sustainable and integrated termite management practices (ITM). Furthermore, we insisted that the better management of this menace can be possible through; (i) improving traditional methods to keep termite away from crops, (ii) improving agricultural practices to maintain plants more vigor and less susceptible to termite attack, and (iii) integration of available techniques to reduce termite infestation in crops and surroundings. The application of an effective combination of traditional practices with recently developed approaches is the best option for agricultural growers. Moreover, keeping in mind the beneficial nature of this pest, more innovative efforts for its management, particularly using rapidly emerging technology (e.g. RNA Interference), are needed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
To maximize utilization of our forest resources, detailed knowledge of wood property variation and the impacts this has on end-product performance is required at multiple scales (within and among trees, regionally). As many wood properties are difficult and time-consuming to measure our knowledge regarding their variation is often inadequate as is our understanding of their responses to genetic and silvicultural manipulation. The emergence of many non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methodologies offers the potential to greatly enhance our understanding of the forest resource; however, it is critical to recognize that any technique has its limitations and it is important to select the appropriate technique for a given application. In this review, we will discuss the following technologies for assessing wood properties both in the field: acoustics, Pilodyn, Resistograph and Rigidimeter and the lab: computer tomography (CT) scanning, DiscBot, near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, radial sample acoustics and SilviScan. We will discuss these techniques, explore their utilization, and list applications that best suit each methodology. As an end goal, NDE technologies will help researchers worldwide characterize wood properties, develop accurate models for prediction, and utilize field equipment that can validate the predictions. The continued advancement of NDE technologies will also allow researchers to better understand the impact on wood properties on product performance.
Center for Plant Conservation Botanic Gardens (Bogor Botanical Gardens) is an exsitu conservation center in Indonesia which has ± 13,000 plants specimens collection in shrubs, herbs, lianas and trees. The collection is classified in 218 families, which one is Malvaceae. Most of Malvaceae collections at Bogor Botanical Gardens is tree shaped. Trees have risk of fracture, failure or death which can cause harm. The aim of this research is determining the health condition of Malvaceae collection to predict the occurrence of damage (broken, failure, dead etc.) and as a consideration for collection collections treatment. The method which used are combination of visual observation methods and sound waves using arborsonic. Total samples measured are 7 trees which have criteria such as being in a location with high visitor accessibility, large diameter, old tree and visible disease or pest attack. Each sample was done visually and
checked with arborsonic basically using sound wave. The point of measuring on the tree is depend on initial identification of damage using a rubber hammer. In this research can be concluded, there are 2 trees which high risk of damage and become first priority handling
because has percentage of damage above 60%, 5 trees have medium risk wi th second priority (30-60%).
Trees can drop limbs that injure or even kill people, damage vehicles and infrastructures, especially during storms or extreme climate. They need some assessment and mitigation to prevent it. The Urban Forest and Green Open Space in Universitas Indonesia (UI) need mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of fallen tree. The preventive conducts of fallen trees, broken branches and stems (that possess ability) to cause accidents at the Universitas Indonesia, Depok were carried out through several activities. The result were descriptions of the trees management in UI e.g annual monitoring data of trees, visual mapping, availability of proper tools, standard operating procedures and regular potentially-hazardous trees pruning and/or elimination. Also human resources improvement to meet the environmental safety demand for the UI academia civitas e.g. staffs competency enhancement training and sharing activities (related with tree pruning) with other institutions or stakeholders.
The development of acoustic techniques for wood analysis through tomography has enabled the generation of images by means of nondestructive techniques. These images allow for the evaluation of the internal condition of wood trunks. This type of evaluation provides valuable information since the internal defects (e.g. holes) in the wood are difficult to identify—especially in its early stages of development. Whereas there is a substantial body of work that aims to improve these images by applying new interpolation and inspection techniques, the assessment of these techniques has traditionally been carried out via a bare visual analysis or inspection of the real wood trunk. In this work, an approach is proposed to quantitatively assess interpolation methods regarding their ability to correctly detect faults in the wood. This approach is based on a confusion matrix that allows for the computation of accuracy, reliability and recall. An experiment is presented using images from the cross-section of wood trunks generated by two interpolation methods applied for internal-hole detection: (1) an interpolation method using surrounding points and (2) the Ellipse Based Spatial Interpolation. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the approach in quantitatively assessing and comparing these methods.
A description of termite biology, distribution and diversity, economic importance, and sustainable management is presented. Liquid termiticide injection to soil, to establish a toxic or repellent chemical barrier against termites, is a traditional method applied for control. Baiting programs have been used successfully to eliminate subterranean termite colonies. Biological approaches along with entomophagy are also effective to manage termite population.
Sari
Basal stem rot disease (BSR) caused by Ganoderma boninense is the major pathogen of oil palm in Indonesia and Malaysia. Sometimes in the same location, especially in the peatland, upper stem rot (USR) disease is also found. This research was carried out to identify the pathogen of upper stem rot by molecular approach. Fruiting bodies of fungus were collected from 3 plants with upper stem rot symptoms and 2 plants with basal stem rot symptoms from Labuhan Batu North Sumatra and Kampar Riau. Results showed that all of the fruiting body samples taken from plants with upper stem rot and basal stem rot symptoms were G. boninense.
Awareness of tree risk assessment and management has risen in the United States in 10
recent years. This has been prompted by publications such as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for tree risk assessment (ANSI A300 Part 9 –
Tree Risk Assessment) and the accompanying International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) Tree Risk Assessment Best Management Practices, as well as the subsequent development of the ISA Tree Risk Assessment Qualification. How this increase in awareness 15 has broadly translated into common practice in communities, is not well understood. This paper reports findings from a recent survey of urban forest operations as they directly pertain to tree risk assessment. The survey consisted of a 109-question long-form questionnaire that was sent to 1727 communities, followed up by a truncated version to non-responding communities. Six hundred and sixty-seven (38.6%) communities responded to the survey – 513 to the full survey and 154 to the truncated version. Communities that reported having a certified arborist on staff (p-value = .010), a strategic plan (p-value = .002), an updated inventory (p-value < .001), collecting risk data (p-value = .004), and having a past claim for damage or injury (p-value < .001) were more likely to regularly conduct tree risk management activities.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of natural weathering in ground contact on biological resistance, modulus of rupture, and color stability of heat-treated alder wood. Chemical composition of weathered wood was also studied by FTIR-ATR spectra. Wood stakes were heated at 150, 180, and 200°C for periods of 2, 6, and 10 hours, and the stakes were subsequently exposed to natural weathering and decay in a field area located in the north of Turkey for 3 years. The decay index of heat-treated stakes was lower than that of the controls. The weight loss prevention ratio had an increasing tendency with increasing treatment temperature and length of time. Depending on the treatment parameters, heat treatment reduced the modulus of rupture by up to 50%; however decay caused by soil micro-organisms gave rise to a greater loss of modulus of rupture than heat. Weathering processes caused remarkable color changes in the samples. FTIR-ATR spectra showed significant deformations and degradations in wood components, especially in the hemicelluloses of heat-treated samples. Degradation of hemicelluloses increased with an increase in heat temperature and exposure time.
This paper reports application of electric, ultrasonic, and georadar tomography for detection of decay in trees and their comparison with the traditional penetrom- eter. Their feasibility in arboriculture is also evaluated, critically considering some "open problems." The experi- ments were carried out in an urban environment on two plane (Platanus hybrida Brot.) trees. Both trees, after felling, showed extensive white rot in the central cylinder. The electric tomography revealed low resistivity zones roughly centered in the trunk. A comparison with the successively cut sections showed a fine correspondence to decayed areas and a strong correspondence between high moisture zones and low resistivity zones. Ultrasonic tomography demonstrated to be a very effective tool for the detection of internal decay, accurately locating the position of the anomalies and estimating their size, shape, and characteris- tic in terms of mechanical properties. With the georadar technique, the high contrast of electromagnetic impedance measured between the inner decayed section and the outside sound section allowed the detection of the interface between the sound and decayed section of the tree, using radar acquisition in reflection modality. The penetrometer profiles detected the low-resistance areas inside the two trunks.
A system of tree risk assessment is proposed that expands concepts developed by others and enables a probability of significant harm to be applied to tree-failure risk. By evaluating the components of a tree-failure hazard and assigning to them estimates of probability, the proposed system enables the skilled tree inspector to calculate the product of those probabilities to produce a numerical estimate of risk. The use of quantification in the assessment of tree hazards enables property owners and managers to operate, in as far as is reasonably practicable, to a predetermined limit of reasonable or acceptable risk.
Trees outside closed forest stands differ in the relation between stem diameter, height and crown volume from trees that grew with neighbours close by. Whether this plasticity in tree shape varies between species in relation to their light requirement is unknown. We purposefully sampled 528 trees ranging 5–100 cm diameter at breast height growing in a range of light conditions. Across ten broad-leaved species observed in Sumatra or Kalimantan, a generic relationship was found between light exposure of the crown and a light-dependent a
l parameter that modifies the height–diameter allometric equation (H = a
lD
b
) from those for closed stands. In our results, vertical stretching is well predicted by light availability. In fully open conditions, trees are on average 31% shorter for the same diameter than under (partial) shade. Most of the stretching response occurs in all species as soon as some degree of lateral shading occurs. The response, however, varies by species (8–44% reduction) in a way apparently unrelated to species’ successional status. Crown volume varied less than stem height in its relationship with stem diameter across all light conditions tested. The scaling of crown volume with stem diameter, however, differed markedly between tree species.
The Picus Sonic Tomograph is a noninvasive tool for assessing decay in trees. It works on the principle that sound waves passing through decay move more slowly than sound waves transversing solid wood. By sending sound waves from a number of points around a tree trunk to the same number of receiving points, the relative speed of the sound can be calculated, and a two-dimensional image of the cross-section of the tree, a tomogram, can be generated. Picus tomography and visual inspection were used to evaluate 27 cross-sections from 13 trees. The tomograms correlated closely with the visual assessment of decay. In 10 samples where no decay was present, Picus found no decay. In the remaining 17 samples, Picus detected less decay than was observed visually. Differences in most cases were small (average of 5% of total area). In terms of predicting the location of decay, on average 3% of the total area was a false positive (where the tomogram showed that decay was present but the cross- section did not), and an average of 8% of the area was false negative (the cross-section showed decay that was not seen on the tomogram).
The performance of non-durable wood can be improved through preservative treatment. This chapter reviews the potential preservatives used to protect wood and the methods used for delivering them into the wood. It then discusses emerging wood modification strategies.
The development of simple predictors of tree growth is important in understanding forest dynamics. For this purpose, tree height, crown width in two perpendicular directions, trunk diameter at 1·3 m height (d.b.h.) and crown illumination index (CI) were determined for 727 pole‐sized trees (8–20 cm d.b.h.) of 21 species, on forest dynamics plots at Pasoh Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia and Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. A light‐interception index (LI = A cr CI ² , where A cr is crown area) was calculated for each tree, and wood density (stem wood dry mass/fresh volume) was estimated for each species from reported values.
Diameter growth rates were linearly correlated with LI (mean per species r ² = 0·45, excluding substantially damaged and vine‐covered trees).
Among trees of all species, diameter growth rate was highly correlated with LI/wood density.
Mean growth rate per species varied 10‐fold among the study species, but increased linearly with mean LI/wood density ratio ( r ² = 0·78), consistent with the previous pattern.
Thus much of the variability in tree growth rates, both within and among species, can be accounted for by the simple mechanistic assumption that, within a given size class, growth is proportional to light interception/wood density.
Controlled environment experiments on small epidemics of powdery mildew of barley, an air-borne disease caused by Erysiphe graminis f.sp. hordei, indicated that there was a direct linear relationship between host density and the rate of increase of disease within populations. Under the particular experimental conditions used, the overall infection rate was almost doubled (from 0.39 to 0.75 per unit per day) following an increase in density from 31 to 115 host units per m2. In separate experiments these overall epidemic rates were partitioned into two separate components related to inoculum transmission between plants and inoculum transmission within plants.
Functional size-structure-based models of forest tree population dynamics present a unifying explanation for population-level
patterns and tree community organization. Density-dependent regulation can be explicitly replaced by the effect of size-structure-dependent
suppression on demographic processes in functional size-structure models. This suppression effect sufficiently explains various
patterns reported for crowded evenaged populations. Further, it stabilizes natural forest populations of overlapping generations
at a stationary state with balanced recruitment and mortality. The spatial heterogeneity of light resources created by tree
size structure offers an opportunity for multiple species to coexist by means of trade-offs between demographic parameters.
The energy correlation of tree species diversity at a geographic scale is also attributable to the architectural feature of
forests.
Allocation is one of the central concepts in modern ecology, providing the basis for different strategies. Allocation in plants has been conceptualized as a proportional or ratio-driven process (‘partitioning’). In this view, a plant has a given amount of resources at any point in time and it allocates these resources to different structures. But many plant ecological processes are better understood in terms of growth and size than in terms of time. In an allometric perspective, allocation is seen as a size-dependent process: allometry is the quantitative relationship between growth and allocation. Therefore most questions of allocation should be posed allometrically, not as ratios or proportions. Plants evolve allometric patterns in response to numerous selection pressures and constraints, and these patterns explain many behaviours of plant populations.In the allometric view, plasticity in allocation can be understood as a change in a plant's allometric trajectory in response to the environment. Some allocation patterns show relatively fixed allometric trajectories, varying in different environments primarily in the speed at which the trajectory is travelled, whereas other allocation patterns show great flexibility in their behaviour at a given size. Because plant growth is often indeterminate and its rate highly influenced by environmental conditions, ‘plasticity in size’ is not a meaningful concept. We need a new way to classify, describe and analyze plant allocation and plasticity because the concepts ‘trait’ and ‘plasticity’ are too broad. Three degrees of plasticity can be distinguished: (1) allometric growth (‘apparent plasticity’), (2) modular proliferation and local physiological adaptation, and (3) integrated plastic responses. Plasticity, which has evolved because it increases individual fitness, can be a disadvantage in plant production systems, where we want to optimize population, not individual, performance.
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