A History of Southern Sudan Refugees in Gambella, Ethiopia: From 1955 -2000

Abstract

Ethiopia has a long tradition of accommodating refugees. The refugees from Southern Sudan were among the accommodated groups due to the destructive civil war since 1955. However, the experience of those refugees has not been a researched theme. Therefore, there is a need to reconstruct the history of southern Sudanese refugees in Gambella, Ethiopia from 1955 to 2000. This study is historical research in design. The sources were archival documents, informants selected using purposive sampling, and secondary literature. The data from these sources were exploited using narrative analysis. It is a type of analysis that connects events, actions, and experiences and arranges them chronologically. Evidence from these sources indicated that Southern Sudanese refugees arrived in Gambella in two phases. The first phase was started in 1955 due to the conflict between Anya Nya rebels and the government. Those refugees established both camp and self-settlement among local populations. They were supported by international organizations and the Ethiopian government. At that time, refugees had peaceful interaction with the host communities. Nevertheless, after the 1972 peace agreement between rebels and Sudanese government, many refugees were repatriated from Gambella, and some established permanent settlements. The revived conflict in the 1980s resulted in the second phase of refugees' influx into Gambella. In this phase, refugees were accompanied by the militant group known as the Southern Sudanese Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA). The arrival of SPLA had consequences in the interaction of the host community and refugees. Generally, the study discloses the Ethiopian experience of accommodating refuges.

Full text

East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (2023) Volume 8 (1) 121-130
Licensed under a Creative Commons. Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: shimelsayele21@gmail.com
ISSN: 2521-2192 (print), 2959-149X (electronic) Haramaya University, 2023
A History of Southern Sudan Refugees in Gambella, Ethiopia: From 1955 –2000
Shimels Ayele Yalew*
Bahir Dar University, Faculty of Social Science, Department of History and Heritage Management
Article History: Received: August 16, 2021; Accepted: April 16, 2022; Published: June 15, 2023
Abstract: Ethiopia has a long tradition of accommodating refugees. The refugees from
Southern Sudan were among the accommodated groups due to the destructive civil war
since 1955. However, the experience of those refugees has not been a researched theme.
Therefore, there is a need to reconstruct the history of southern Sudanese refugees in
Gambella, Ethiopia from 1955 to 2000. This study is historical research in design. The
sources were archival documents, informants selected using purposive sampling, and
secondary literature. The data from these sources were exploited using narrative analysis. It
is a type of analysis that connects events, actions, and experiences and arranges them
chronologically. Evidence from these sources indicated that Southern Sudanese refugees
arrived in Gambella in two phases. The first phase was started in 1955 due to the conflict
between Anya Nya rebels and the government. Those refugees established both camp and
self-settlement among local populations. They were supported by international organizations
and the Ethiopian government. At that time, refugees had peaceful interaction with the host
communities. Nevertheless, after the 1972 peace agreement between rebels and Sudanese
government, many refugees were repatriated from Gambella, and some established
permanent settlements. The revived conflict in the 1980s resulted in the second phase of
refugees’ influx into Gambella. In this phase, refugees were accompanied by the militant
group known as the Southern Sudanese Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA). The arrival of
SPLA had consequences in the interaction of the host community and refugees. Generally,
the study discloses the Ethiopian experience of accommodating refuges.
Keywords: Ethiopia; Gambella; History; Refugee; Southern Sudan

Shimels East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 8 (1) 121-130
122
1. Introduction
The varying definitions given by experts of different disciplines make the term refugee vague.
However, for this study, the term refugee takes the meaning given by the 1951 UN convention on
refuge and Organization of African Unity. According to United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees [UNHCR] (1992), a refugee is an individual who is outside his country of nationality due to
well-established fear of being persecuted. Similarly, the Organization of African Unity [OAU] (1969),
defined refugee as a person who is compelled to leave his place of residence owing to aggression,
occupation or alien domination.
A significant number of the world’s population became refugees across different periods, but
researches introduced the cases of refugees only after the 1980s. Earliest studies on refugees were
conducted by scholars of sociology, anthropology, political science and international relation,
development studies, and law. Even though the change and continuities in the experience of refugee
should be understood as part of historic developments, historical researches concerning refugees have
been insignificant (Marfleet, 2007).
Historians overlooked the experience of refugees in national, regional or world histories. In fact,
there were specific historical works of literature on refugees such as the Jews and Hindus, but those
works of literature considered refugees as passive subjects in the alien land. Nevertheless, history
must recognize the experience of different groups of refugees over time, the response of host states or
communities, their interaction with the host communities, and various effects (Stone, 2018). In short,
the history of refugees should be incorporated and recognized by national historiography.
The refugee studies in Ethiopia have shortcomings like that of the rest parts of the world. Despite its
age-old experiences with refugees, studies give priority to recent experiences. The historical
perspective of refugees has assumed little emphasis. Researches regarding refugees in Ethiopia were
conducted dominantly either by political scientists or anthropologists. As a result, the researches
primarily focused on the impacts of refugees, ways of repatriation and the importance of integration
(Hammond, 2014).
Despite the settlement of refugees in Gambella since 1955, studies on the issue unnoticed historical
aspects and the issue of integrating it into the national historiography. Researchers such as (Mekuria,
2013; Girma, 2016 and Falge, 1997) were dedicated to assessing the impacts of refugees on the host
communities and cultural situation within the refugee camps. In addition, the efforts of maintaining
earlier tradition by refugees in Gambella were addressed (Falge, 1997). Moreover, Somali refugees
have been coming to Ethiopia since 1988, following the civil war of Somalia. However, the studies on
Somali refugees in Ethiopia give emphasis on the ways of mitigating the problem. These include
repatriation and restoration of the refugees to their homeland (Grayson and Coles, 2013).
Refugees’ settlement approaches, the interaction with the host communities, and economic and
political situations as a historical process in Gambella had been left untouched. This shows the
presence of historiographical gap. As a result, the primary purpose of this study is to reconstruct a
history of refugees in Gambella from the 1955-2000. The study answers the following key questions.
1. What were the settlement approaches of Southern Sudanese refugees in Gambella?
2. How was the interaction of refugees and the host communities?
3. Why were refugees accompanied by armed groups?
4. What were the effects of accompanying armed groups?
2. Research Methods
This study was designed to record a history of refugees with special emphasis on Southern Sudanese
in Gambella, Ethiopia. Thus, it is a historical research that employs narrative analysis of sources.
Historical research is the process of investigating past events systematically to provide an account of
happenings rather than mere accumulation of data and facts (Tan, 2015). In addition, it encompasses
the identification and classification of different elements in the subject of study. Furthermore, it is
analytical because the study focuses on why or how historical events happened (Neville, 2007).

Shimels A History of Refugees in Gambella
123
The statements in the study are substantiated by evidence from both primary and secondary sources.
The primary sources include archival documents from Ethiopian National Archives and Library
Agency and informants from Gambella region, while the secondary sources used were journal articles,
books, and web sources. In order to collect sufficient and reliable data, interview and content analysis
were used as important techniques.
Archival documents were carefully selected based on content description about refugees. In
addition, informants were selected using non-probability purposive sampling because of the nature of
the research. The study needs eye witnesses and participants of a historical event. Thus, the selected
informants were either refuges or local officials and members of host community in the period
between 1950s-2000. The main criterion of this type of sampling is the researchers’ judgment
(purposive). It is based on judging who is able to provide the best information to achieve the
objectives of a study. Besides, it is very useful to construct a historical reality, describe a phenomenon
or develop something about which only a little is known (Kumar, 2011).
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Introduction to Refugees in Ethiopia
Political revolution as part of liberation efforts after the Second World War and internal African
socio-political problems resulted in refugees. By the year 1967, there were around 730,000 refugees in
Africa. The number of African refugees peaked from 400,000 in 1964 to 6.7 million in 1995. In those
years, the largest refugee-producing countries include Mozambique, Ethiopia, Angola, Sudan,
Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi, Namibia, Zaire, and Chad (Degu, 2002). Refugees from south of the
Sahara constituted an overwhelming number. Since the 1960s, African refugees have been
characterized by the steady increase in number. Besides, refugees dominantly settled in rural areas.
Those rural settlements resulted in physical changes in many regions. In addition, there were small
dispersed urban refugees (Hamrell, 1967). Furthermore, African refugees had unique features such as
continuous growth since the 1960s; displacement that tends to cover short distances; refugees’ staying
in or nearer to the place of initial arrival during their exile, and predominant movement from rural to
rural (Degu, 2002).
During late 1970s and early 1980s, East Africa in general and the Horn of Africa in particular, were
places for large-scale refugee movements. Civil war and famine were the major reasons for
displacement. Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan were the dominant nations in displacing and hosting
refugees. For instance, by the 1980s, there were more than one million Ethiopian refugees in Sudan,
Kenya and Somalia. Likewise, the Sudanese civil war produced the largest number of refugees who
settled in Eastern and Central Africa (Mekuria, 2013).
Ethiopia has a long history of providing relief for the people who sought asylum (Diaz, 2020). Its
recorded history of receiving refugees dates back to 615 AD. Qurayish Arab persecution of the first
Muslims drew refugees to the ancient Aksumite kingdom of Ethiopia. Prophet Muhammad’s earliest
disciples and of course with his daughter Rukiya, came as refuge to Ethiopia in two phases. Christian
king of ancient Aksum had given relief for those Muslims from persecutors (Abbink, 1998).
The other recorded history of Ethiopia’s tradition of welcoming refugees was during the world wars.
Particularly during the Second World War, large number of refugees flocked to Ethiopia to escape
from the devastating conflicts. Similarly, due to the decolonization process of Africa significant
number of refugees arrived in Ethiopia. The decolonization process was often accompanied by violent
conflicts. Africans who were well aware of Ethiopia’s independence arrived in search of humanitarian
aids. Refugees from non-independent countries of Africa included freedom fighters, promoters and
youths in search of education and occupation or settlement. Politically many asylum seekers took
lessons to liberate their country. The visit of Nelson Mandela to Ethiopia and engagement in training
could be a bold example in this case. Those refugees from different countries of Africa were
supported by voluntary agencies (Hamrell, 1967).

Shimels East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 8 (1) 121-130
124
Post-colonial African conflicts also disturbed the lives of many people in forcing them to leave their
homes as refugees. The genesis of colonialism and lack of political intelligence among Africans
resulted in frequently erupting conflicts. Those conflicts consumed the lives of many Africans and
evicted many more as refugees. The Sudanese refugees were the results of post-colonial African
conflicts. These refugees rushed to escape from the danger caused by the conflict between the rebels
and the government (Nobel, 1982). According to Hamrell (1967), there were more than 100,000
Sudanese refugees settled in different countries of Africa. The vast majority of those refuges settled in
central and Eastern Africa. Accordingly, around 27,000 refuges settled in Central African Republic;
24,000 refugees settled in Democratic Republic of Congo; and 55,000 refugees entered into Uganda
in 1967. Ethiopia also provided shelter for refuges as signatory countries to the 1951 United Nations
(UN) and 1969 Organization of African Unity (OAU) Refugee Conventions, respectively. It
maintained open borders for refugees seeking protection in the country (Girma, 2016).
There was large number of Southern Sudanese refugees who arrived at Gambella since 1955. The
arrival of Sothern Sudanese refugees at Gambella can be divided into two major phases. The first
phase started after the eruption of Sudanese Civil War in 1955, which was fought between the Anya
Nya rebels and the Sudanese government in Khartoum from 1955-1972. At that time, the Southern
Sudanese communities were disturbed by Sudanese government troops and the rebels. There were
also the Nuer and Anuak guerrillas who set up their bases near the border of Gambella. As a result,
many Southern Sudanese were forced to cross the border into Ethiopian sub-province of Gambella
(Mekuria, 2013). Most of the refugees who sought to be in Ethiopia were from the surrounding
Sudanese provinces. The Ethnic composition of refugees included Shilluk, Nuer, Denka, Murle,
Anuak and others. According to the memo from Gebremariam (1970), who was governor of Gambella
sub-province, there were approximately 30,000 Sudanese refugees in Ethiopia after the 1955 incident
of Southern Sudan.
However, with the signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972, which ended the First Sudanese
Civil War, many South Sudanese refugees were repatriated to their homeland. In spite of this, many
people from Southern Sudanese Nuer and Anuak permanently settled in Gambella Sub-province
(United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 1991). The first repatriation
attempt was unsuccessful due to the eruption of second civil war in the 1980s. The second Sudanese
civil war was erupted in 1983 and resulted in a new arrival of refugees to Ethiopia. This commenced
the second phase of refugees’ influx into Gambella.
3.2. Refugee Settlement Type in Gambella
Refuges often settle in two ways. Those were camp settlement and self-settlement together with the
host communities (McConnachie, 2016). Similarly, Southern Sudanese refugees in Ethiopia inhabited
in camps together with the host community. The memorandum from Regional Affairs Coordination
Office (1989) to Hailu Yimenu, who was Ethiopian Workers Party (EWP) Committee Member and
Vice Minister, showed that the onset of camp settlement in Ethiopia has been associated with the
arrival of Southern Sudanese refugees in 1955. Accordingly, the Ethiopian government opened
refugee camps in collaboration with the United Nations Higher Commission for Refugees (UNHCR).
Three camps in Asosa area in Benishangul Gumuz Region and four camps in the Gambella Region
were established. Most of the refugees were settled in Southwestern Ethiopian region of Gambella. As
stated by Riek, an informant, refugee camps were opened in Itang, Phunydo, Bonga and Dima.
Among the refugee camps in Gambella Region, Itang was the largest of all. The refugee camps were
established to give protection and deliver humanitarian aids.
Itang was established by the joint effort of the Ethiopian government and the UNHCR in 1983. The
administrative issues were given to Ethiopian Administration for Refuge Affairs (ARA) and the camp
communities. Other relief provision activities were done by the World Food Program (WFP), the
UNHCR, and other non-governmental organizations. The overwhelming number of refugees in Itang
comprises Nuer. Besides, a significant number of Dinka and a small number of Shilluk, Anuak,

Shimels A History of Refugees in Gambella
125
Didinga, Latuka, Toposa, Murle, Nuba, Uduk, and people from Western Equatorial constituted the
camp population (UNICEF, 1991). The memorandum from Regional Affairs Coordination Office
(1989) indicated that those refugee camps hosted more than 300,000 Southern Sudanese refugees. An
informant, Deng, also estimated more than 300,000. Indeed, the people in refugee camps were not
only the Sudanese, but some Ethiopian citizens who were registered in search of social services, such
as health and educational facilities.
However, all the incoming refugees were not hosted at the camps. From the total number of
refugees who had arrived in the late 1950s, around 26,000 were in the refugee camps and the
remaining refugees were living together with the host communities (Girma, 2016). In connection to
self-settlement, urban refugees had arrived in the Town of Gambella that hosted around 5000
refugees. The refugees were allowed to dwell in the east of Jejebe River, where the office of the
UNHCR was based (Mekuria, 2013). According to Tut, an informant, the place was formerly known
as Chankuar, but later on, this name was changed to New Land.
The presence of fellow ethnic groups, geographical proximity, and their livelihood opened the doors
for permanent settlement. For instance, most of the refugees escaped the civil war with their cattle.
Some of the severely affected regions, due to civil war, were the adjacent area of Gambella in South
Sudan, Upper Nile and Jongle States. The people who live in this region are Nuer, Dinka, Anywak,
Murle, and others. Especially, during the civil war the factional fight within Southern Peoples
Liberation Army (SPLA) seriously affected the Lou and Jikany Nuer (Informant, Tut). Since the
adjacent land to Gambella in Sudan is settled by Nuer, the majority of the refugees are ethnically
Nuer. Some of the refugees from Anuak and Nuer did not settle in the camp and started life with their
fellow Ethiopians. There were Nuer refugees who got Ethiopian Identity Card, learned in Ethiopian
schools, joined higher education and employed as citizens (The memorandum from Regional Affairs
Coordination Office, 1989).
3.3. Refuge Interaction with the Host Communities
3.3.1. Hospitable environment and host interest in refugee camps
Ethnic homogeneity of refugees and host communities had created opportunities for marriage
arrangement and establishment of permanent settlement. The refugees from Anuak and Nuer ethnic
groups could be best examples of such integration. For instance, the pastoral economic activity of the
Nuer and the availability of suitable grazing land in the Ethiopian side can be a pull factor. In
addition, there were no identity cards issued by the government for refugees. Earlier competition to
get loyal citizenship of the people in the borderlands between Ethiopia and Sudan also continued. The
sub-provincial administration in Gambella was not happy with the activities of non-governmental
organizations when they had tried to identify refugees and Ethiopian citizens (The Memo from
Gebremariam, 1970). The refugees that came with their cattle preferred to settle outside camps.
Refugee camps were not suitable for herding cattle due to lack of water and grazing land. Thus, self-
settlements were easily integrated with to ethnic groups. They began to share available resources of
the host communities with them (Informant, Choul).
Ethiopian citizens had interests in refugee camps due to several factors. First, the second Sudanese
civil war extended battlefields nearer to the Ethiopian border. As a result, there were an intensified
insecurity and instability in the region particularly closer to the international boundary. Ethiopian
citizens in the borderlands were forced to leave their dwellings. Some of them moved to refugee
camps and others went to urban areas. Ethnic similarity with refugees helped citizens to join camps
easily (Tadesse, 2002).
Second, better social services established in the refugee camps attracted a lot of people. There were
limitations on the government to build infrastructure for the local communities whereas the refugee
camps became centers of vast aid operations run by UNHCR. Educational facilities and the food aid
available in refugees’ camps were the main sources of attraction. The educational support package
arranged by the UNHCR for refugees included scholarships (with food, shelter, and allowance) all the

Shimels East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 8 (1) 121-130
126
way up to college and university levels. Better education facilities attracted Ethiopians to the Sudan
side refugee camps. They preferred to send children to schools in refugee camps to governmental
schools (Minda, 1975).
The aid foods include beans, rice, wheat flour, biscuits, cooking oil, sugar and various tinned foods
Feyissa, 2010). Informant, Tut and Gatluak also listed the aforementioned aid items provide to
refugees. In line with, the food aid available in refugee camps, Ethiopians got it in two ways. Either
they bought the food from refugees or they registered as refugees to get it for free. Ethiopians who
were pastoralists benefited from this opportunity. In fact, the people in Gambella had the habit of crop
production along the rivers after the end of the summer season, but due to dependence on hoe
cultivation, often recurring natural hazards such as flooding, and drought prevented them from being
self-sufficient. Therefore, the arrival of refugees was an opportunity for Ethiopians that enabled them
to have easy access to food items (The memorandum from the then ice Prime Minister of Ethiopia,
1990; Memo to Illubabour Province, 1982).
3.3.2. The role of SPLA in the host-refuge interaction
The Southern Sudanese Liberation Movement (SPLM) or Southern Sudanese People Liberation Army
(SPLA) was founded in 1983 for the self-determination of Southern Sudanese people. It had the
political aim of creating democratic and secular Sudan. It was founded as a reaction towards the
exploitation and discrimination of the south by the north and the introduction of sharia law by
President Nimeiri. The movement mobilized the Nilotic southern people of Sudan to struggle against
the Sudanese government. The British colonial administration used to rule Sudan by dividing it into
south and north. This had a profound effect for the development of separate identities. The
disagreement went bitter and culminated in conventional fighting (Falge, 1997).
The SPLA was allowed to establish its base in Ethiopia by the Derg as a tit-for-tat action against the
government of Sudan (Bayissa, 2007). The Government of Sudan gave political and military support
to the various Eritrean liberation movements. In addition, Khartoum backed Oromo Liberation Front
(OLF), Tigray People Liberation Front (TPLF), and Gambella People Liberation Movement (GPLM).
The Derg employed possible efforts to respond to such activities (Feyissa, 2010). The Derg responded
by providing the more militant SPLM/A with comprehensive support (Wassie, 2014). In the early
years of the SPLA establishment, the rift between the governments in Addis Ababa and Khartoum
were getting wide. There was fierce competition between the two governments to destabilize one
another.
The SPLA was not only allowed to use Gambella as a base, but it was also put in charge of security
in and around the refugee camps and the border areas in collaboration with the Ethiopian government.
With its headquarters near Itang, the SPLM/A set up several camps in the region and a military
training center at Bonga around twenty kilometers to the east of Gambella Town. Bonga was selected
probably due to its distance from the army of Sudan government considered as enemy. Its location
along the mainline to Addis Ababa could make the communication between SPLA and Derg easy.
Besides, SPLA had an opportunity to have health posts inside Ethiopian Region (Informant, pal).
The presence of the SPLA had a number of effects on the people of sub-province. First, it forced
them to participate in the conflict with Sudan which happened in two ways. Ethiopians who had been
living in the borderlands were disturbed by the fighting in the neighboring country. Sometimes, there
were insurgent attacks launched by the army of Sudan inside Ethiopian territory. The refugee camps
were also used as recruitment centers for the SPLA. Ethiopians inside and outside the refugee camps
were forcefully recruited. The government did not give protection to citizens (Minda, 1976).
Second, since the first arrival of refugees during the imperial period, there was no hostility between
the host and refugee because of cultural similarities, but during the second phase of refugee flight to
Gambella, things changed. The foundation and movement of the SPLA in the region brought about
destructive effects in their interaction with the Anuak. Most of the members of the SPLA were the
Nuer and Denka. Soldiers of SPLA brought atrocities against the host communities. South Sudanese

Shimels A History of Refugees in Gambella
127
Nuer participated in the conflicts with the Anuak in Ethiopia around refugee camps. Thus, peaceful
interaction between Ethiopian Nuer and Anuak was disturbed. The temporary presence of the army
resulted in lasting bruises on their interaction (Mekuria, 2013).
Thirdly, undisciplined soldiers of SPLA participated in illegal activities such as rape, labor abuse
and forceful confiscation of properties. Ethiopians were not exceptions from the atrocities.
Sometimes, they also engaged in conflict with SPLA. For instance, in May 1985, while SPLA
members were transporting ammunition and maize from Minkong to Burbiey, Ethiopian Nuer fought
and took materials at Makiey. SPLA members then took punitive measures against Nuer. The Derg
was accused of keeping silent for such threats of the army on the citizens. Moreover, the SPLM
activities put a serious threat to the wildlife in the area. Soldiers hunt animals for food, ivory and skin.
This caused a great loss of wild animal population of the area (The memorandum from Regional
Affairs Coordination Office, 1989).
4. Conclusions
Ethiopia had been accommodating refugees mainly from its neighboring countries in its age-old
history. The refugees from Southern Sudan were among the different groups who arrived at Ethiopia.
Southern Sudanese refugees began to enter Gambella from 1955 due to the erupted civil wars. The
refugees entered Gambella in two phases. The first was from 1955-1972, and the second followed
after 1983. The fighting between the rebels and the Sudanese government brought about a
humanitarian crisis in the region. Gambella was the nearest place to those refugees to cross and settle.
Most of them were from the adjoining areas of Sudan. Although they were diverse in terms of
ethnicity, the Nuer and Anuak dominated the refugee population.
The refugee settlements in Gambella were of two types: camp settlement and self-settlement
(together with the host communities). In the former case, after their arrival in Gambella, the refugees
were registered by the UNHCR that provided them with shelter, food and other social services in the
refugee camps. Refugee camps were established in Itang, Phunydo, Bonga and Dima. However, all
the refugees were not settled in camps and registered by UNHCR. There was a significant number of
the Sudanese who settled together with the host communities. The existence of fellow ethnic groups
in Gambella enabled them to settle out of the refugee camps easily. Possession of a larger number of
cattle and available land for pasture also contributed to the settlement of refugees with the host
communities.
The relation between refugees and the host communities was peaceful in the first phase. It
incorporated economic relation, and cultural and trade exchanges. However, the arrival of the
SPLA/M in the second phase disturbed host-refugee interaction. The Southern Sudanese refugees in
Gambella were accompanied by an armed group known as SPLM/A after 1983. The presence of
armed group disturbed the lives of Ethiopians in Gambella. Members of the SPLA used to force locals
to participate in the conflicts, engage in plundering cattle, abduction, rape, and other activities. It also
resulted in prolonged inter-ethnic conflicts between the Anuak and Nuer. Many of the SPLA members
were from the ethnic groups of Denka and Nuer. They used to involve in the local conflicts between
Nuer and Anuak supporting one over the other.
5. References
Abbink, J. 1998. An historical-anthropological approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of identity and
politics. Journal of African Cultural Studies, 11 (2): 109-12.
Bayissa, Regassa. 2007. The Derg-SPLM/A cooperation: An aspect of Ethio-Sudan proxy wars.
Ethiopian Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities (EJOSSAH), 5 (2): 19-44.
Degu, W. A. 2002. The state, the crisis of state institutions and refugee migration in the Horn of
Africa: The cases of Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. University of Amsterdam: UVA-DARE.
Diaz, D. 2020. Ethiopian country refuge response plan, the integrated response plan for Refugees
from Eritrea, Sudan, South Sudan and Somalia. January 2019-December 2020. UNHCR.

Shimels East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 8 (1) 121-130
128
Falge, C. 1997. The Nuer as refugees: A study of social adaptation. MA thesis. Addis Ababa
University.
Feyissa, Dereje. 2010. The cultural construction of state borders: The view from Gambella. Journal of
Eastern African Studies, 4 (2): 314-330.
Gebremariam, Lemma. 1970. Memorandum to Bitwoded Zewude G/Hiwot (Ministry of Interior)
concerning the existing situations of Gambella Sub-province. National Library and Archives
Agency (NLAA).
Girma, Endalkachew. 2016. Assessing impact of South Sudanese refugees on the host communities of
Itang Woreda: A case study of Tierkidi refugees’ camp in Gambella Regional State. MA
thesis. Addis Ababa University.
Grayson, C. and Coles, E. 2013. Durable solutions from the perspective of Somali refugee living in
Kenyan and Ethiopian camps and of selected communities of return. Danish Refugee Council
(DRC).
Hammond, L. 2014. History, overview, trends, and issues in major Somali refugee displacement in
the near region: New issues in refugee research. The UN Refuge Agency, UNHCR.
Hamrell, S. 1967. Refugee problem in Africa (ed.). Uppala: The Scandinavian Institute of African
Studies.
Kumar, R. 2011. Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. London: Sage
publication Ltd.
Marfleet, P. 2007. Refuge and history: Why we must address the past. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 26
(3): 136-148
McConnachie, K. 2016. Camps of containment: A genealogy of the refugee camp. Humanity: An
International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, 7 (3): 397-412.
Mekuria, Wosenu. 2013. The socio-economic impact of South Sudanese refugees on the host
communities in Ethiopia: The case of Pugnido refugee camp: Pugnido, Gambella Region. MA
thesis, Addis Ababa University. AAU Institutional Repository.
Memorandum to the then Vice Prime Minister of Ethiopia. 1990. National Library and Archives
Agency (NLAA).
Minda, Meharene. 1975. Report Ministry of Foreign Affairs on Akobo Incursion by Sudanese.
National Library and Archives Agency (NLAA).
______. 1976. Memorandum to Ministry of Defense, regarding the attack on Ethiopian citizens of
Akobo. National Library and Archives Agency (NLAA).
Ministry of Interior to Illubabor Province. 1982. Memorandum regarding shortage of rain dated.
National Library and Archives Agency (NLAA).
Neville, C. 2007. An introduction to research and research methods. Teaching material. University of
Bradford, School of Management.
Nobel, P. 1982. Refugees, law, and development in Africa. Michigan Journal of International Law
(MICH. J. INT’L L.), 3 (1): 255-287.
OAU (Organization of African Unity). 1969. OAU, convention governing the specific aspects of
refuge problem in Africa. Addis Ababa.
Regional Affairs Coordination Office. 1989. Memorandum to Hailu Yimenu, EWP committee
member and Vice Prime Minister, regarding released prisoners from Gambella. National
Library and Archives Agency (NLAA).
Stone, D. 2018. Refugees then and now: Memory, history and politics in the long twentieth century:
An introduction. Patterns of Prejudice, 52: (2-3): 101-106.
Tadesse, Medhane. 2002. Gambella: The impact of local conflict on regional conflict. Institute of
Security studies. Pretoria.
Tan, J. J. 2015. Historical research: A qualitative research. Academia.
(https://www.academia.edu/24276932). (Accessed on 19/11/2021).

Shimels A History of Refugees in Gambella
129
UNHCR (United Nations Higher Commission for Refugee). 1992. Handbook on procedures and
criteria for determining refugee status under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol
relating to the status of refugees. Geneva.
UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund). 1991. Operational lifeline
Sudan. The return to Southern Sudan of the Sudanese refugees from Itang camp, Gambella,
Ethiopia. United Nations, Nasir, Southern Sudan.
Wassie, M. H. 2014. Conflict dynamics in three level games: The conflict formation in Gambella,
southwest Ethiopia. MA thesis, Addis Ababa University.

Shimels East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 8 (1) 121-130
130
List of informants
No.
Name
Sex
Age
Date of
interview
Place of
interview
Remarks
1
Bol Tut
M
82
March 9,
2018
Tierkidie
refugees’ camp,
Gambella
He arrived in Gambella in 1958
as a refugee. He was repatriated
to Sudan after the 1972 CPA. He
came to Tierkidie Refugee camp
in 2014 after the onset of civil
war in South Sudan.
2
Gach Deng
M
76
January 16,
2018
Kule refugees’
camp, Gambella
He was in Itang Refugee Camp
after the eruption of the second
Sudanese civil war, repatriated in
1990, and came as refugee to
Kule Camp, Gambella in 2014.
3
Gatkouth
Choul
M
78
March 9,
2018
Tierkidie
refugees’ camp,
Gambella
He lived as refugee in Ethiopia in
the earliest two civil wars of
Sudan. He came to Tierkidie
refugees’ camp due to the civil
war in South Sudan.
4
Thuwat Pal
M
NA
February
13, 2019
Telephone
conversation, he
was in Kenya at
a time of
interview.
Thuwat was the secretariat of
Ethiopian Workers Party/EWP in
Illubabor province during the
Derg regime. He was the leading
individual when Gambella was
promoted to administrative
region. He is also the son of
Qegnazmach Pal Chay.
5
Tut Riek
M
80
January 16,
2018
Kule refugees’
camp, Gambella
He was in Itang Refugee Camp
after the eruption of first
Sudanese civil war, repatriated in
1990, and came as refugee to
Kule Camp, Gambella in 2014.
6
Wiyual
Gatluak
M
76
January 16,
2018
Kule refugees’
camp, Gambella
He was in Itang refugee Camp in
the 1980s. He came to Kule
Refugees camp in 2014.