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Assessing and mapping habitat quantity and quality in High Nature Value (HNV) agricultural landscapes
Abstract
Low-intensity agricultural activities have found to greatly promote biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. High nature value (HNV) agricultural landscapes are generally characterised by low-intensity agricultural systems and high cover of semi-natural habitats, providing valuable areas for biodiversity conservation. Considering the importance of HNV landscapes in terms of biodiversity conservation, it is important to develop adequate tools for assessing and mapping biodiversity at landscape level.
In this study, we developed a mixed methodological framework to assess and map biodiversity in the Burren HNV agricultural landscape using habitat quality as a proxy. This methodology involved the use of data collected in the field using Rapid Assessment Cards and data obtained from an expert knowledge-based model.
Overall, the main habitat categories in the region in terms of their cover and their influence on habitat quality were improved grassland and calcareous grassland and limestone heath mosaic group. Improved grassland had the highest cover in the study area but low habitat quality score (score = 2.4), representing areas of concern for biodiversity. Calcareous grassland and limestone heath mosaic group had the second highest cover and the highest habitat quality (score = 8.0), representing valuable biodiversity hotspots. Adequate management strategies should therefore mainly target these two habitat categories to efficiently conserve and promote biodiversity in the Burren case study region.
This study demonstrates that the methodological framework applied may represent an effective tool to assess and map biodiversity at landscape level, enabling the mapping of the distribution and extent of biodiversity hotspots and areas of conservation concern more widely. It may also provide key spatially-explicit information for optimal targeting of land-use management for biodiversity.
... The primary methods for calculating habitat quality encompass three distinct approaches. Firstly, field surveys involve obtaining direct data on habitats through on-site investigations and sampling, including the species, quantities, and distributions of plants and animals, for subsequent habitat quality assessment (Farukuzzaman et al., 2023;Volpato et al., 2024). Secondly, remote sensing techniques utilize data derived from satellite imagery and aerial photographs to analyze factors such as vegetation cover and land use changes, thereby evaluating habitat quality (Das et al., 2024;Vaz et al., 2015). ...
Habitat quality is a key indicator for evaluating the biodiversity of a region. This study aims to assess the current status and characteristic changes of habitat quality in Donggang District, Rizhao while analyzing the potential factors influencing the quality of the habitat. The study employed the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs Habitat Quality (InVEST-HQ) mode to assess the spatiotemporal variations in habitat quality in the Donggang District from 2008 to 2022. GeoDetector was utilized to investigate the impact of various factors on the spatial differentiation characteristics of habitat quality. The potential correlation between economic development and habitat quality was further explored using the Spearman correlation coefficient and Grayscale Association Analysis. The results reveal that habitat quality in Donggang District is highest in the east and lowest in the west, with significant correlations to land use and vegetation coverage. The study highlights a decline in habitat quality over the period, linked to rapid economic growth and industrial expansion. These insights are crucial for balancing urban biodiversity with economic development.
A major component of Earth's dry surface is human-managed grassland, making the relationships among management actions, grassland biodiversity and ecosystem services of great ecological interest. Common management practices-fertiliser addition and large herbivore grazing-influence grassland diversity and productivity. The Nutrient Network, a distributed research effort, investigates these relationships across grasslands at a global scale. The Burren contains internationally important grasslands with high biodiversity maintained by traditional farming practices. Using six years of data from the Slieve Carran Nutrient Network site, we examine the effects of fertilisation and large mammal herbivory on plant diversity and biomass in a unique Irish context. We find 1) fertiliser addition and herbivore exclusion both decrease diversity and increase biomass, and 2) independent of our experimental treatments, biomass increased throughout the study. Our findings on treatment effects align with results from the wider Nutrient Network experiment. Additionally, the increase in bio-mass during the study is consistent with an abandonment effect. This research shows twin pressures of agricultural intensification and abandonment of traditional management practises detrimentally impact Burren grassland biodiversity. This is relevant to future management decisions, as biodiversity provides key ecosystem services in the Burren, including supporting tourism that contributes to local economies.
Farmlands are currently among the dominant uses of the land. When managed under low‐input farming systems, farmlands are associated with diverse cultural and natural heritages around the world. Known in Europe as high nature value (HNV) farmlands, these agricultural landscapes and their associated farming systems evolved as tightly coupled socioecological systems, and are essential to biodiversity conservation and the delivery of ecosystem services to society. However, HNV farmlands are vulnerable to socioeconomic changes that lead to either agricultural intensification or land abandonment. We present a range of plausible future scenarios for HNV farmlands, and discuss the related management options and expected socioecological outcomes for each scenario. We then provide recommendations for policy, practice, and research on how to best ensure the socioecological viability of HNV farming systems in the future.
A broad array of methods have been developed and applied to map ecosystem services and their values at various geographic scales. For example, the ESMERALDA project developed methods for ecosystem service mapping across Europe. This paper describes how different methodological interlinkages can be used in ecosystem service mapping and assessment and how the integration of information can be facilitated to assist in decision-making processes related to sustainable use and protection of ecosystem services. This paper is based on a literature review and expert consultations throughout the project. The accumulation of knowledge in ecosystem assessment processes will be described through multiple steps: 1) data compilation, 2) analyses run via independent or linked methods applications and tools, 3) integration of information from multiple analyses and 4) finally, feeding into the decision-support frameworks. The challenges and possibilities of using combinations of various datasets and methods will be discussed. This workflow is demonstrated with real-world applications. In addition, technical pitfalls and challenges, as well as linkages to overall ecosystem assessments and policy questions, are analysed and discussed.
Abstract High Nature Value farmland (HNVf) plays an important role in delivering biodiversity and has the capacity to deliver many important environmental public goods such as clean air, clean water, climate regulation and aesthetic landscapes. A lack of information on what exactly characterises a HNV farm is a major impediment to the application of policy supports for the conservation of HNVfs. For the first time in Ireland, the diversity of HNV farms and the characteristics that distinguish the different types from one another is described. The typology methodology employed incorporates farm-scale land cover and management data based on a national sample of HNV farms. We identified six HNVf types and describe them here; five correspond to existing broad EU HNVf types and another ‘Aggregate HNVf’, which has not been previously described. There is a clear diversity of HNVf in Ireland and this can be captured and described in a broad typology that includes selected farm structural characteristics, management variables and basic habitat attributes. Similar farm types occurred across geographically disparate parts of Ireland, indicating the need for policy supports that target each of the HNVf types rather than address specific geographic locations. The identification of ‘Aggregate HNVf’ highlights the need for HNVf to be considered at multiple scales and not at farm-scale only. This typology can facilitate better understanding of HNVf at farm-scale for policymakers and farm advisors and thereby aid the development of national policies and measures that better target, support and conserve HNV farmland. The approach developed in this study could be adapted and applied in other European countries or regions to describe the diversity of HNVf from areas with known high HNVf potential.
The intensification of agriculture has a great influence on grassland, resulting in the disappearance of many plant and animal species and changing open landscape. Sustainable farming practices, which use farm animal grazing, are seen as a potential solution to continued biodiversity loss resulting from over- or undergrazing. In the article the influence of grazing animals on grassland biocenoses and their use in active biodiversity protection are reviewed based on over 100 references. It is concluded that animal grazing can be a tool to maintain or restore biodiversity of open landscape and contribute to the aesthetic and leisure importance of grassland. The successful use of grazing for environment protection and biodiversity enhancement requires careful planning and should be adapted to local conditions. A deep understanding of the relationship between herbivores, plant, and small animal communities and the abiotic environment is essential. Therefore, there is a need for comprehensive research programmes in the area of extensive grazing, combining expertise from ecology, botany, agronomy, animal production and rural economics. The research should include both field experiments and development of appropriate models, allowing for the design of agroenvironmental schemes aimed at the protection of grassland biocecenoses.
High nature value (HNV) farming systems play a crucial role in the conservation of biodiversity across large tracks of the European countryside. The socio-economic viability of these low intensity farming systems is in question, with many facing the stark choice of either abandonment or intensification. This review paper explores the concept of HNV farming and examines the links between grazing management and biodiversity conservation in European HNV upland environments. The paper ends with an analysis of the implications of European agricultural policy for HNV farmland, along with future trends and challenges for HNV farming systems.
Global environmental challenges require approaches that integrate biodiversity conservation, food production, and livelihoods at landscape scales. We reviewed the approach of conserving biodiversity on "high-nature-value" (HNV) farmland, covering 75 million ha in Europe, from a resilience perspective. Despite growing recognition in natural resource policies, many HNV farmlands have vanished, and the remaining ones are vulnerable to socioeconomic changes. Using landscape-level cases across Europe, we considered the following social-ecological system properties and components and their integration into HNV farmland management: (1) coupling of social and ecological systems, (2) key variables, (3) adaptive cycles, (4) regime shifts, (5) cascading effects, (6) ecosystem stewardship and collaboration, (7) social capital, and (8) traditional ecological knowledge. We argue that previous conservation efforts for HNV farmland have focused too much on static, isolated, and monosectoral conservation strategies, and that stimulation of resilience and adaptation is essential for guiding HNV farmland through rapid change.
Mapping key areas for ecosystem service (ES) supply is essential for the development of strategies that will ensure their future supply. Given the rapid development in this area of research, we performed a review of different approaches used to map ES, with a special focus on those that use social–ecological data. We used an analytical framework based on five criteria for analyzing and comparing the methodological approaches: the types of ES, availability of data sources, types of data sources, spatial scale, and methods used to model ES. We found that regulating services were the most commonly mapped, followed by provisioning, cultural, and supporting services. Secondary (readily available) data were used more frequently than primary data to map ES. Biophysical data (land-cover variables) and mixed sources (databases like global statistics) were the most commonly employed ones. Most studies were performed at the regional or at the national scale. The most commonly used method to model services was the development of models based on the well-known causal relationships between environmental variables, followed by the extrapolation of ES values from primary data to the total analyzed area frequently using land-cover maps. Our synthesis reveals that the majority of studies are based on secondary data, applied at broad scales, without validation techniques. There is an urgent need to develop methods for deepening our understanding of the social–ecological processes behind the supply of ES in order to improve our ability to map ES for decision making.
Intensified grasslands are usually the dominant type of grassland in many countries in Europe but are generally of poor ecological value. Several management factors may affect biodiversity of these grasslands including fertilisation, grazing and cutting management. Their effects on grassland biodiversity are described in this paper. In most cases, intensive and profitable grass production from semi-natural grasslands appears to be incompatible with maintaining a high level of biodiversity. Two key questions then arise: how to restore biodiversity in intensive grasslands while limiting the technical and economical consequences? How to choose the target species on an objective basis? Some solutions are considered in the paper but it is suggested that (1) new tools (i.e. indicators) are required to evaluate the functions of biodiversity and to achieve biodiversity restoration goals and (2) in the short-term the research priority is to understand and predict biodiversity at the field and farm-scale.
Mainstreaming ecosystem services into policy and decision making is dependent on the availability of
spatially explicit information on the state and trends of ecosystems and their services. In particular, the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 addresses the need to account for ecosystem services through
biophysical mapping and valuation. This paper reviews current mapping methods, identifies current knowledge gaps and provides the elements for a methodological framework for mapping and assessing
ecosystems and their services at European scale. Current mapping methodologies go beyond purely
land cover based assessments and include the use of primary data of ecosystem services, the use of
functional traits to map ecosystem services and the development of models and ecological production
functions. Additional research is needed to cover marine ecosystems and to include the resilience of
ecosystems to environmental change in spatially explicit assessments. The ecosystem services cascade
which connects ecosystems to human well-being is argued to provide a suitable, stepwise framework for
mapping ecosystem services in order to support EU policies in a more effective way. We demonstrate
the use of this framework for mapping using the water purification service as case.
Agricultural abandonment reflects a post war trend in western Europe of rural depopulation to which isolated and poorer areas are most vulnerable. The commercialisation of agriculture, through technological developments, and the influence of Common Agricultural Policy have increased productivity and focused agricultural activity on more fertile and accessible land thus transforming traditional approaches to farming. In many areas this has lead to a decline in traditional labour intensive practices and marginal agricultural land is being abandoned. The problems that these trends create are particularly marked in mountain areas. The social and economic impacts of these changes have been well documented. However, the implications for environmental policy are less well recognised. This paper reviews the literature on abandonment and gives a comparative analysis of European mountain case studies to assess the environmental impacts of land abandonment and decline in traditional farming practices. It finds abandonment is widespread and that, while the influence of environmental changes is unpredictable due to environmental, agricultural and socio-economic contextual factors, abandonment generally has an undesirable effect on the environmental parameters examined. The application of agri-environment policy measures in relation to abandonment is discussed and suggestions for future policy are proposed.
In many European agricultural landscapes, species richness is declining considerably. Studies performed at a very large spatial scale are helpful in understanding the reasons for this decline and as a basis for guiding policy. In a unique, large‐scale study of 25 agricultural landscapes in seven European countries, we investigated relationships between species richness in several taxa, and the links between biodiversity and landscape structure and management.
We estimated the total species richness of vascular plants, birds and five arthropod groups in each 16‐km ² landscape, and recorded various measures of both landscape structure and intensity of agricultural land use. We studied correlations between taxonomic groups and the effects of landscape and land‐use parameters on the number of species in different taxonomic groups. Our statistical approach also accounted for regional variation in species richness unrelated to landscape or land‐use factors.
The results reveal strong geographical trends in species richness in all taxonomic groups. No single species group emerged as a good predictor of all other species groups. Species richness of all groups increased with the area of semi‐natural habitats in the landscape. Species richness of birds and vascular plants was negatively associated with fertilizer use.
Synthesis and applications. We conclude that indicator taxa are unlikely to provide an effective means of predicting biodiversity at a large spatial scale, especially where there is large biogeographical variation in species richness. However, a small list of landscape and land‐use parameters can be used in agricultural landscapes to infer large‐scale patterns of species richness. Our results suggest that to halt the loss of biodiversity in these landscapes, it is important to preserve and, if possible, increase the area of semi‐natural habitat.
The British uplands are internationally important for their unique plant and bird communities. They have considerable economic, nature conservation, landscape, aesthetic and tourism‐related value and as a result are under a variety of different pressures, most notably from sheep farming, shooting interests, commercial forestry and conservation interests.
In order to optimize biodiversity in the uplands, the challenge is to find how to balance the different land‐use pressures. One key upland species that is potentially affected by livestock grazing, and is of considerable interest to both foresters and nature conservationists, is the field vole Microtus agrestis . Relaxation of livestock grazing can result in an increase in vole numbers. This in turn could have both positive and negative implications for biodiversity as (i) field voles are a major source of prey for other species and (ii) they are a cause of damage to newly planted trees and potentially damaging in areas of native woodland regeneration.
A replicated, randomized block experiment, consisting of six replicates of four livestock grazing treatments, was established in 2003 (with baseline data collected in 2002). This enabled us to examine the effects of livestock grazing on field vole abundance.
We have demonstrated experimentally for the first time that livestock grazing pressure affects the abundance of field voles (as measured by a vole sign index) in the uplands. In the first year of the experiment, immediate treatment effects were detectable, with a lower abundance of voles in the conventionally grazed treatment compared with those in the ungrazed treatment, and with intermediate vole abundances in the lightly grazed treatments. The significant treatment effects became more apparent in 2004, with a higher abundance of voles in the extensively grazed mixed treatment (i.e. sheep and cattle) than in the extensively grazed treatment that contained only sheep.
Synthesis and applications . In order to maximize biodiversity in the uplands, our results suggest that low intensity livestock grazing, used in a novel ways, could be a useful management tool to reduce vole abundance (and hence subsequent tree damage) compared with excluding livestock from young plantations completely. Furthermore, vole abundance would be higher at low grazing intensity compared with conventional stocking rates, thus still providing food for raptors and other vole‐eating vertebrates. Indeed, low‐intensity sheep and mixed livestock grazing might improve prey availability as a direct consequence of increased heterogeneity in vegetation structure. Our results suggest that it may be possible to maintain the open character of moorland habitats, and benefit key upland species generally, by reducing sheep grazing pressure and introducing low‐intensity mixed livestock grazing throughout the uplands.
The aim of this paper is to identify the habitat types listed in the Habitats Directive Annex I that require low-intensity
agricultural management for their existence. We assessed the link between the Annex I habitat types and agricultural practices
in order to identify habitat types that depend on the continuation of agricultural practices or whose existence is prolonged
or spatially enlarged via blocking or reducing the secondary succession by agricultural activities. 63 habitat types that
depend on or which can profit from agricultural activities—mainly grazing and mowing—were identified. They are classified
into 2 groups: (1) habitats fully dependent on the continuation of agricultural management; (2) habitats partly dependent
on the continuation of agricultural management. This paper also briefly discusses habitat types for which either doubts remain
on their dependence on agricultural management, or the relation to extensive farming practices exists only in part of their
area of distribution in Europe or under certain site conditions, respectively. Assessments of the conservation status of habitats
of European Importance by 25 EU Member States in 2007 showed that habitats identified by us as depending on agricultural practices
had a worse status than non-agricultural habitats.
KeywordsAgricultural management–Favourable conservation status–Grazing–Habitats Directive–High Nature Value Farmland–Mowing–Natura 2000–Ostermann list
The objective of this study is to assess land-use intensity and the related biodiversity in agricultural landscapes of the EU25 for the current situation (2000), and explore future trends, based on the four EURURALIS scenarios up to 2030.Data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) were used to classify farm types in 100 regions of the EU15, according to agricultural intensity. For the ten New Member States (EU10), which are not yet considered by the FADN, country level data were used to obtain similar farm types. Three processes were considered for the assessment of future trends in agricultural land-use intensity: (1) land-use change, (2) conversion into organic farming, and (3) changes in productivity of crop and grassland production.An ecosystem quality value was attributed to each farm type according to dose-effect relationships between pressure factors and biodiversity compared to the value for an undisturbed situation. The biodiversity in agricultural landscapes was then calculated as the average ecosystem quality multiplied by the relative area size of each farm type within a region. A similar method of attributing ecosystem quality values to other land-use types allowed comparison between different land-use types.Referring to the current situation, results indicate the lowest ecosystem quality values to be found in intensively used agricultural areas in lowlands (e.g. The Netherlands and northern France) and irrigation systems (e.g. Greece), whereas relatively high values are found in Spain and the New EU Member States. Scenario results show that for the A1 scenario (Global economy), the highest loss in ecosystem quality will take place in all regions in croplands and grasslands. The B2 scenario (Regional communities) provides the best opportunities to improve ecosystem quality of agricultural landscapes. In most scenarios, agricultural land is decreasing, while the remaining agricultural areas tend to be used more intensively. The negative impact of intensification on biodiversity is partly set off by (active or spontaneous) nature development on abandoned agricultural areas, but the overall trend seems to be generally negative.The strength of this methodology is that it provides a quick overview of land-use intensity change and biodiversity trends. Through the use of this farm-type level of analysis we have provided a good picture of the differences in land-use intensity and the related biodiversity between the EU regions and the scenarios.
Turloughs are karst wetland ecosystems that are virtually unique to Ireland. Flooding annually in autumn through springs and fissures in the underlying limestone and draining in the springtime, often through the same fissures or swallow-holes, they have been described as ‘temporal ecotones’. Over 300 have been documented. They are priority habitats in the EU Habitats Directive and support a variety of wet grassland and fen type vegetation. Though the vegetation has been recorded and mapped for over 80 turloughs, records for invertebrates are more sporadic. Characteristic species include some aquatic species-often benefiting from the absence of fish-, and many wetland terrestrial species, including carabid beetles that are rare on a European scale. Due to their shallow nature and the full vegetation cover of the basin, turloughs can host internationally significant numbers of visiting winter wildfowl, particularly whooper swans. The variety of plant and invertebrate communities between turloughs is primarily due to different hydrogeomorphological characteristics, but also depends on the range of grazing practices on turloughs. Since these often vary within a turlough basin, this helps maintain within-turlough biodiversity. The main threat to turloughs in the past was drainage, but pollution by nutrients is also now potentially detrimental. However, a more recent and important threat may be the cessation of farming within turloughs. As potentially threatened wetlands of European importance, turloughs require a full inventory of their biodiversity and the factors affecting it. The collation here of all literature concerning turloughs will provide a basis for an integrated approach to future research on turloughs that is essential for a full understanding of these complex ecosystems.
1. While the value of linear farm habitats for the protection and enhancement of farmland biodiversity in general is known, less is understood about their contribution to Diptera, especially those with different ecological requirements. In this study, we examined the impact of a range of linear farm habitats in agricultural grassland on Syrphidae and Sciomyzidae (Diptera) both of which provide important ecosystem services. 2. Species richness and abundance for each family were measured across five different linear habitat types (dense and open hedgerows with/without adjacent watercourses and watercourses only). While dense hedgerows with adjacent watercourses showed the greatest numbers of Syrphidae species and individuals, open hedgerows with adjacent watercourses had significantly more Sciomyzidae species and individuals than dense hedgerows without watercourses or open hedgerows only. 3. Syrphidae species richness was significantly correlated with the flowering plant species richness of linear habitats, while Sciomyzidae species richness was correlated with a habitat quality score for grasslands adjacent to the linear habitats. 4. Overall, Syrphidae and Sciomyzidae species richness and community composition are shown to reflect a farming intensity gradient with significantly greater species richness for both families on extensive farms. 5. Our results suggest that different dipteran taxa which utilise linear habitats may have different requirements. This has implications for future agri-environmental schemes in the context of how we assess the conservation value of linear habitats on farmlands.
1. While the value of linear farm habitats for the protection and enhancement of farmland biodiversity in general is known, less is understood about their contribution to Diptera, especially those with different ecological requirements. In this study, we examined the impact of a range of linear farm habitats in agricultural grassland on Syrphidae and Sciomyzidae (Diptera) both of which provide important ecosystem services.
2. Species richness and abundance for each family were measured across five different linear habitat types (dense and open hedgerows with/without adjacent watercourses and watercourses only). While dense hedgerows with adjacent watercourses showed the greatest numbers of Syrphidae species and individuals, open hedgerows with adjacent watercourses had significantly more Sciomyzidae species and individuals than dense hedgerows without watercourses or open hedgerows only.
3. Syrphidae species richness was significantly correlated with the flowering plant species richness of linear habitats, while Sciomyzidae species richness was correlated with a habitat quality score for grasslands adjacent to the linear habitats.
4. Overall, Syrphidae and Sciomyzidae species richness and community composition are shown to reflect a farming intensity gradient with significantly greater species richness for both families on extensive farms.
5. Our results suggest that different dipteran taxa which utilise linear habitats may have different requirements. This has implications for future agri-environmental schemes in the context of how we assess the conservation value of linear habitats on farmlands.
Concerns over the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in farmland have prompted the development of agri-environment policy measures aimed at reducing farming pressure and maintaining semi-natural habitats in farmed landscapes. However, further knowledge is needed to guarantee successful agri-environment measures implementation. The current study assessed the quantity and the quality of semi-natural habitats in farms across a gradient of farming intensities in two contrasting regions in Ireland. Policy protection seemed fundamental for semi-natural habitats preservation. Habitats not protected by agricultural policy relied on extensive farming and are in danger of disappearing if they are intensified or abandoned. Due to the lack of policy incentives for habitat quality, no correlations were found between farming intensity and share of semi-natural habitats with habitat quality. Therefore, extensive farming and retention of habitats alone may not reverse the decline of farmland quality and biodiverisity and, thus, measures incentivising the environmental quality may be more successful.
Even though European Landscapes are in a process of transformation on a scale, speed and magnitude that greatly exceed any changes in the past, it is important not to be discouraged, but search for possibilities of building up sufficient capacities, both intellectually and physically, to mitigate and even reverse further landscape deterioration. A solution may be contained within the concept of sustainability. In general, it is assumed that sustainability of the earth system is supported by three pillars that can be illustrated by a triangular relationship, namely the social, economic and ecological capital. Within this framework a landscape is a sustainable portion of the planet in which the well being of its peoples, the sound economic functioning and the ecological functioning of its ecosystems are well balanced in the long term perspective.
Low-intensity agriculture is important for the conservation of many European habitats and species. However, biodiverse farmlands—also referred to as high nature value (HNV) farmlands—are threatened by years of agricultural intensification and land abandonment. Considering the ongoing changes in land-cover—evident throughout Europe—it is important to assess how land transformation is affecting HNV farmlands. Here, we evaluate land-cover changes within HNV farmlands during 2006 - 2018. We find that HNV farmlands inside Natura 2000 sites are less likely than those outside to be converted to artificial surfaces and more likely to maintain mosaic farming. However, land transformation patterns vary between member states, suggesting that different processes are driving the land-cover changes within each state. We recommend that member states support HNV farmers by making a more effective use of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and that the EU prioritizes the protection of HNV farmlands during its next CAP reform post-2020.
The intensification of farming practices, along with the loss and fragmentation of semi‐natural habitats within agricultural areas, has contributed significantly to insect decline worldwide including flower‐visiting aculeate Hymenoptera.
In this study aculeate Hymenoptera were collected using bi‐directional Malaise traps placed along farmland linear habitats across a range of farming intensities. The aim was to further our understanding of the value of farmland linear habitats to this insect group and in particular the Vespinae, an understudied subfamily.
Overall, significantly greater aculeate Hymenoptera species richness was found on extensive than on intermediate and intensive farms. Significantly more species and specimens were collected on the side of the traps adjacent to the linear habitats compared to the side which opened onto the fields. Aculeate Hymenoptera species richness was also significantly greater in dense hedgerows than in open hedgerows. Furthermore, two out of six Vespinae species, Vespula rufa and Vespula vulgaris , had significantly more individuals on extensive than intensive farms.
This study highlights that low‐intensity farming practices and farmland linear habitats, especially dense hedgerows, may enhance aculeate Hymenoptera occurrence in agricultural areas. It also demonstrates that Malaise traps set up along linear habitats across a range of farming intensities can make a significant contribution to knowledge regarding the biodiversity value of such areas. Given that selected Vespinae species follow similar trends to aculeate Hymenoptera, the possibility of using them as simple biodiversity indicators is worthy of further exploration.
The European landscape reflects many centuries of dynamic interaction between people and their natural environments. Indeed, much of the current biological and aesthetic value of the wide variety of "cultural" landscapes has been created and is now maintained by long-established farming systems. Such traditional systems (many of which are pastoral based) are generally well integrated with the environment and involve management practices that do not over-exploit the natural carrying capacity of the land. However, the rapid modernisation of agriculture that occurred after the 1939-1945 war resulted in an intensification of many European farming systems and has had severe negative effects on the environment. This modernisation initially occurred primarily in northwest Europe fuelled by the European Union (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), but with the expansion of the EU it is continuing and is certain to increase in southern, central, and eastern Europe. The response of the EU to this fundamental imbalance between farming and the environment has included the introduction of compulsory regulations to ensure the implementation of minimum environmental standards in the production processes and the promotion of agri-environment programmes to encourage farmers to undertake positive environmental management on their farmland. The ongoing reforms of the CAP will undoubtedly place greater emphasis on agri-environment programmes and increasingly on the concept of "integrated rural development." There is, however, still a pressing need for detailed information to justify to the EU and world markets why certain types of farming system should be central to future European rural development policies.
1. The historical role of agriculture in creating semi-natural vegetation is still not fully appreciated by many ecologists, conservationists, policy-makers or the general public. Nor is the fact that for many European landscapes and biotopes of high nature conservation value, the only practicable, socially acceptable and sustainable management involves the continuation of low-intensity farming. Consequently, too much emphasis is placed on attempting to ameliorate damaging effects of agricultural management rather than supporting ecologically sustainable low-intensity farming practices. 2. More than 50% of Europe's most highly valued biotopes occur on low-intensity farmland. However, most of this farmland has no environmental policy directly affecting it; most management decisions are taken by farm businesses and determined primarily by European and national agricultural officials. As a result, there continues to be intensification or abandonment of traditional practices, changes which are equally damaging to the nature conservation value. 3. However, the nature conservation importance of low-intensity farming systems is gradually being recognized. Reforms and reviews of agriculture policy are providing a variety of potential opportunities for maintaining such systems. Unfortunately, initiating change through policy is a slow process. There is therefore also a pressing need to look for other opportunities to maintain surviving systems and, where possible, to reinstate those recently lost. 4. Although these systems may be considered low-intensity in terms of chemical inputs and productivity, they are usually high-intensity in terms of human labour. Therefore, the processes that make the low-intensity farmed countryside biologically rich and diverse must be understood, but at the same time mechanisms to make life easier and more rewarding for the people who work such farmland must be found. 5. Ecologists and conservationists should think less of 'remnants of habitat being left amongst farmland' and more of a farmland biotope for which optimum management practices need to be developed. At the same time the current emphasis on site-based conservation should be complemented by strategic initiatives that promote wise management of the wider countryside.
Ecosystem services (ES) mapping make the benefits of nature spatially explicit. The different methods used for ES mapping limit the comparability of outcomes and call for a more consistent but flexible approach. We present a four step tiered approach for ES mapping supporting scholars to select the adequate combination of variables: First, the user, researcher or policy maker defines the goal of the ES assessment. Second, a meta-analysis of relevant ES mapping studies is conducted to identify key variables for mapping the selected ES. Third, the identified variables are attributed to the different levels of the multitier framework according to the level at which they best answer the policy or research question. Finally, appropriate methods for mapping the ES are selected based on the reviewed studies. We illustrate the approach for recreational services at three different tiers. Main advantages of the tiered approach are that (i) it can be adapted to other ES, (ii) it supports the efforts toward a standardized ES assessment, (iii) it provides information about relevant variables to be considered in long term monitoring at different scales, (iv) it supports sustainable resource management as it ensures the inclusion of information relevant to decision makers at different levels.
We compared the uses and definitions of habitat-related terms in 50 articles from 1980 to 1994 to operational definitions we derived from the literature. Only 9 (18%) of the arti- cles we reviewed defined and used habitat-related terms consistently and according to our definitions of the terms. Forty-seven articles used the term "habitat;" however, it was only defined and used consistent with our definition in 5 articles (11%) and was confused with vegetation association or defined incompletely in 42 papers (89%). "Habitat type" was the term most commonly used incorrectly; 16 of 17 times (94%) it was used to indi- cate vegetation association, but habitat and vegetation association are not synonymous. Authors did not provide definitions for habitat use, selection, preference, or availability 23 of 28 times (82%). We concluded that habitat terminology was used vaguely in 82% of the articles we reviewed. This distorts our communication with scientists in other dis- ciplines and alienates the public because we give ambiguous, indefinite, and unstandard- ized answers to ecological questions in public and legal situations. Scientists should de- fine and use habitat terminology operationally, so that the concepts are measurable and accurate. We must take the challenge to standardize terminology seriously, so that we can make meaningful statements to advance science.
Burren grassland is an important habitat for biodiversity conservation, but studies to date have not provided sufficient scientific understanding of vegetation dynamics to inform selection of appropriate management prescriptions. This paper reports on a pilot scale study on a small grassland patch on limestone pavement near Mullach More in the Burren National Park. Through experimental manipulation, it examines the effects of grazing and bare soil gap creation on vegetation dynamics and reproductive success over six years, with a focus on temporal changes in cover, species richness, flowering rates, turnover and mobility. Cessation of grazing resulted in very marked frequency reductions for most species, but increases for some grasses and increased flowering frequency in some forb species. Gap creation resulted in vegetation change that persisted for at least two years under ungrazed treatment, but for six years in grazed sward. Soil depth decreased under grazing but increased under ungrazed treatment. The grassland patch had attributes suggestive of both equilibrium and non-equilibrium vegetation dynamics. As the small study area selected may not be fully representative of the markedly heterogeneous Burren landscape, this paper does not arrive at conclusions in relation to all Burren grasslands and their conservation, but rather identifies some attributes important in informing prescription selection that require further testing at larger scale.
European grasslands encompass a wide range of habitats that vary greatly in terms of their management, agricultural productivity, socio-economic value and nature conservation status, reflecting local differences in physical environment and economy, the effects of traditional practices and impacts of recent management. Widespread loss of biodiversity, as well as other environmental problems, have resulted from agricultural intensification or abandonment. Policies that have contributed to this have been progressively revised, initially by agri-environment schemes, and subsequently through changes in farm support payments and stricter regulatory frameworks, though many threats remain. We consider the agricultural implications of grassland biodiversity in terms of impacts on herbage production, feed intake and forage quality. Grassland biodiversity is both an externality of particular environments and farming systems and also contributes to objectives of multi-functional land-use systems. In addition to meeting species conservation and habitat protection, grassland biodiversity can contribute to enhanced value of agricultural products of regional, nutritional or gastronomic value, and to non-commodity outputs: agro-tourism, ecosystem functions linked to soil and water quality, and resilience to environmental perturbation. Needs and to conserve and improve the biodiversity potential of agricultural grasslands of typical moderate/high-input management, and for marginal, including communally managed large scale grazing systems, are considered using examples from contrasting areas of Europe. These include reindeer grazing in northern Fennoscandia, winter grazing in the Burren, Ireland, and cereal-fallow sheep grazing system of La Mancha, Spain.
http://ria.metapress.com/content/lnt7264076660621/?p=cd435615aad546e892cda0d4fa264d19&pi=3
This study addresses the classification of grassland and heath communities found within the Burren uplands of Co. Clare and identifies threats to their integrity. Quadrats were taken on a range of sites, focusing on semi-natural, upland grassland and heath of conservation interest. Before analysis, the data set was divided into a heath group and a grassland group based on cover of dwarf shrubs. The data were analysed using TWINSPAN and canonical correspondence analysis. Within the grassland group, two main associations were found: the Sesleria caerulea–Breutelia chrysocoma association of lownutrient, calcareous, species-rich grasslands, and the Dactylis glomerata–Holcus lanatus association of more-mesotrophic grasslands. Within each group three sub-associations were identified. The heaths also fell into two main groups: one dominated by Dryas octopetala, and the other by Calluna vulgaris. The Dryas heath association formed three sub-associations, while the Calluna heaths formed three distinct associations, including associations of rare alpine heaths with Empetrum nigrum and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. From direct ordination, significant environmental and management factors, such as altitude, soil depth and grazing pressure, were identified. Trends within the data set suggest a gradual increase in agriculturally favoured species with increased summer grazing. Abandoned and less-grazed areas are threatened by scrub and bracken encroachment.
Among the main effects of human activities on the environment are land use and resulting land cover changes. Such changes impact the capacity of ecosystems to provide goods and services to the human society. This supply of multiple goods and services by nature should match the demands of the society, if self-sustaining human–environmental systems and a sustainable utilization of natural capital are to be achieved. To describe respective states and dynamics, appropriate indicators and data for their quantification, including quantitative and qualitative assessments, are needed. By linking land cover information from, e.g. remote sensing, land survey and GIS with data from monitoring, statistics, modeling or interviews, ecosystem service supply and demand can be assessed and transferred to different spatial and temporal scales. The results reveal patterns of human activities over time and space as well as the capacities of different ecosystems to provide ecosystem services under changing land use. Also the locations of respective demands for these services can be determined. As maps are powerful tools, they hold high potentials for visualization of complex phenomena. We present an easy-to-apply concept based on a matrix linking spatially explicit biophysical landscape units to ecological integrity, ecosystem service supply and demand. An exemplary application for energy supply and demand in a central German case study region and respective maps for the years 1990 and 2007 are presented. Based on these data, the concept for an appropriate quantification and related spatial visualization of ecosystem service supply and demand is elaborated and discussed.
Atlantic Hazelwoods form a distinctive (yet apparently over-looked) habitat that appears to be unique to western Scotland and, to a lesser degree, western Ireland. The origins of this habitat appear to date from the early Holocene, and there is compelling evidence that some stands may have existed in unbroken succession for 10,000 years. Recognition of the potential relict status of some areas of hazel gradually emerged as a result of several decades of study of the lichen flora. The smooth bark of hazel in western Scotland is known to support a species-rich and specialised lichen community (the Graphidion), including rare, endemic and old woodland indicator species. However, the full expression of this community is found to occur only in certain stands: often coastal, with no (or very few) other trees or shrubs present, and with a long history, but with little evidence of intensive exploitation. Seeking further evidence to back up the relic status of these Atlantic Hazelwood stands proved elusive. Very little work appears to have been directed towards looking at ‘natural’ hazel dynamics, with always the assumption that all stands of hazel have undergone coppice management at some time. It appears that Tansley (1949) is the only authority to recognise that in certain situations and conditions, hazel will form a climax scrub. However, how hazel stools develop over time in the absence of coppicing has been tentatively investigated by using DNA evidence to test for clonality between adjacent stools, with some convincing results. Atlantic Hazelwoods are already recognised as of international importance for their lichen flora. Suggestions are put forward for sympathetic conservation of this habitat, whilst at the same time recognising the need to promote more research to investigate the relict woodland status of the Atlantic Hazelwoods.
1. The historical role of agriculture in creating semi-natural vegetation is still not fully appreciated by many ecologists, conservationists, policy-makers or the general public. Nor is the fact that for many European landscapes and biotopes of high nature conservation value, the only practicable, socially acceptable and sustainable management involves the continuation of low-intensity farming. Consequently, too much emphasis is placed on attempting to ameliorate damaging effects of agricultural management rather than supporting ecologically sustainable low-intensity farming practices. 2. More than 50% of Europe's most highly valued biotopes occur on low-intensity farmland. However, most of this farmland has no environmental policy directly affecting it; most management decisions are taken by farm businesses and determined primarily by European and national agricultural officials. As a result, there continues to be intensification or abandonment of traditional practices, changes which are equally damaging to the nature conservation value. 3. However, the nature conservation importance of low-intensity farming systems is gradually being recognized. Reforms and reviews of agriculture policy are providing a variety of potential opportunities for maintaining such systems. Unfortunately, initiating change through policy is a slow process. There is therefore also a pressing need to look for other opportunities to maintain surviving systems and, where possible, to reinstate those recently lost. 4. Although these systems may be considered low-intensity in terms of chemical inputs and productivity, they are usually high-intensity in terms of human labour. Therefore, the processes that make the low-intensity farmed countryside biologically rich and diverse must be understood, but at the same time mechanisms to make life easier and more rewarding for the people who work such farmland must be found. 5. Ecologists and conservationists should think less of 'remnants of habitat being left amongst farmland' and more of a farmland biotope for which optimum management practices need to be developed. At the same time the current emphasis on site-based conservation should be complemented by strategic initiatives that promote wise management of the wider countryside.
The maintenance of grasslands as distinct habitats depends on regular management, usually through grazing or mowing, but their species diversity is known to decline with increasing management intensity. The reduction of management intensity can be a useful tool for the long-term conservation of the biological diversity of grasslands. We analyzed floral and faunal diversity on intensively and extensively ( unintensively) grazed pastures and on 5- to 10-year-old ungrazed grasslands in northern Germany. Each of the three grassland habitats differing in grazing intensity was replicated six times. We related diverse taxa such as grasshoppers, butterfly adults and lepidopteran larvae, and trap-nesting solitary bees and wasps to vegetation structure. There was an increase of species richness and abundance from pastures to ungrazed grasslands. The percentage of parasitism of the most abundant trap-nesting species, the digger-wasp ( Trypoxylon figulus), was also higher on ungrazed grasslands. Decreased grazing on pastures enhanced species richness for adult butterflies only, whereas the abundance of adult butterflies, solitary bees and wasps, and their natural enemies increased. Although the differences in insect diversity between pastures and ungrazed grassland could be attributed to a greater vegetation height and heterogeneity (bottom-up effects) on ungrazed areas, the differences between intensively and extensively grazed pastures could not be explained by changes in vegetation characteristics. Hence, intensive grazing appeared to affect the insect communities through the disruption of plant-insect interactions. A mosaic of extensively grazed grassland and grassland left ungrazed for a few years may be a good means by which to maintain biodiversity and the strength of trophic interactions.
The effects of agricultural intensification on biodiversity in arable systems of western Europe have received a great deal of attention. However, the recent transformation of grassland systems has been just as profound.
In Britain, the management of grassland has changed substantially in the second half of the 20th century. A high proportion of lowland grassland is managed intensively. The major changes include a doubling in the use of inorganic nitrogen, a switch from hay to silage, and increased stocking densities, particularly of sheep. Structurally diverse and species‐rich swards have been largely replaced by relatively dense, fast‐growing and structurally uniform swards, dominated by competitive species.
Most of these changes have reduced the suitability of grassland as feeding and breeding habitat for birds.
The most important direct effects have been deterioration of the sward as nesting and wintering habitat, and loss of seed resources as food. Short uniform swards afford poor shelter and camouflage from predators, whereas increased mowing intensities and trampling by stock will destroy nests and young. Increased frequency of sward defoliation reduces flowering and seed set, and hence food availability for seed‐eating birds.
The indirect effects of intensification of management on birds relate largely to changes in the abundance and availability of invertebrate prey. The effects of management vary with its type, timing and intensity, and with invertebrate ecology and phenology, but, in general, the abundance and diversity of invertebrates declines with reductions in sward diversity and structural complexity.
Low input livestock systems are likely to be central to any future management strategies designed to maintain and restore the ecological diversity of semi‐natural lowland grasslands. Low additions of organic fertilizer benefit some invertebrate prey species, and moderate levels of grazing encourage sward heterogeneity.
There is now a need to improve understanding of how grassland management affects bird population dynamics. Particularly important areas of research include: (i) the interaction between changes in food abundance, due to changes in fertilizer inputs, and food accessibility, due to changes in sward structure; (ii) the interaction between predation rates and management‐related changes in habitat; and (iii) the impact of alternative anti‐helminithic treatments for livestock on invertebrates and birds.
Agriculture represents the dominant land use throughout much of western Europe, and a significant part of European biodiversity is associated with this habitat. We attempted to quantify the changes in agriculture and biodiversity in Britain since the 1940s.
There have been widespread declines in the populations of many groups of organisms associated with farmland in Britain and north‐west Europe. The declines have been particularly marked amongst habitat specialists; many of the taxa still common on farmland are habitat generalists.
Farming practices have become increasingly intensive in the post‐war period, with a dramatic reduction in landscape diversity. Since 1945, there has been a 65% decline in the number of farms, a 77% decline in farm labour and an almost fourfold increase in yield. Farms have become more specialized; the greatly increased use of machinery has made operations quicker and more efficient, but has resulted in the removal of 50% of the hedgerow stock. Autumn sowing of crops has become predominant, with winter stubbles now far less prevalent. The number and extent of chemical applications has increased greatly, but the net amount applied, and their persistence, has decreased in recent years.
Intensification has had a wide range of impacts on biodiversity, but data for many taxa are too scarce to permit a detailed assessment of the factors involved. Reduction in habitat diversity was important in the 1950s and 1960s; reduction in habitat quality is probably more important now.
As a case study, the declines in populations of seed‐eating birds populations were assessed in relation to changing agricultural management. Generally, the declines were likely to be caused by a reduced food supply in the non‐breeding season, although other factors may be important for particular species.
Agriculture will face a number of challenges in the medium term. While research into the mechanisms underlying species and habitat associations, and their interaction with scale, will be critical in under‐pinning management, consideration of farmer attitudes and socio‐economic factors is likely to be as important. Biodiversity may benefit from integrated farming techniques but these need to incorporate environmental objectives explicitly, rather than as a fringe benefit.
European upland landscapes are of high natural and cultural value. In this paper we present a case study, set in the Irish uplands. We highlight the complex links between ecology, farming systems, the policy environment and the local socioeconomic and cultural context. Given the current low economic returns from hill sheep farming, pluriactivity and multifunctionalism are increasingly necessary farm household coping strategies. We argue that the part-time farming model has land use management and ecological implications for the uplands. Overall we find that within the social-ecological system studied, farming households are adjusting to changing circumstances rather than exiting the sector en mass. We conclude that effective policies for the conservation and management of the uplands, requires a cross-sectoral approach that can take account not only of environmental criteria, but also land managers socio-economic objectives.
In 1981, an appeal was made for a systematic visual record of the main European traditional landscapes (openfield, bocage, Waldhufen, coltura promiscua, etc.) now being transformed or eliminated. More inclusive inventories of cultural associations (e.g., literary, linguistic) of these landscapes were also advocated. Together with assessments of relative vulnerability, results were to be used for a pan-European guide or Red Book, ideally of interest to planners, educators and the general public. The lack of such a guide has long been a major gap in the otherwise massive historico-geographical literature on landscapes. The 1981 proposal was not acted upon, although since then there have been many initiatives that meet some of the needs identified. A pan-European visual-cultural guide is, however, still lacking, especially one that could serve to enlist broader lobbying support. In 2000, a project was, therefore, started to probe the logistical and conceptual aspects of such a guide (British Isles excluded; E. Europe included later). So far, some 300 panoramic and detailed photographs of representative sites have been taken. These sites or ‘type locations’ are given to solicit counter-proposals. An inventory of literary, linguistic and other associations has been started. The vanishing coltura promiscua emerges as the type with probably the highest associative value. Public awareness of traditional landscapes (highest for bocage and huertas, lowest for openfield and Waldhufen) has also been assessed informally. Some reflections on landscapes are offered, including the notion that traditional landscapes should perhaps be valued as much as symbols of toil and survival as for their aesthetic appeal and historical or ecological value.
Agricultural intensification has led to a widespread decline in farmland biodiversity measured across many different taxa. The changes in agricultural practices affect many different aspects of the farmland habitat, but agricultural industry, policy and much previous research has tended to be concerned with specific sectors or practices (e.g. pesticide use or cereal husbandry). Here, we review the empirical literature to synthesize the research effort that has been directed to investigate specific practices or goals to make general statements regarding the causes and consequences of farmland biodiversity decline. We argue that the loss of ecological heterogeneity at multiple spatial and temporal scales is a universal consequence of multivariate agricultural intensification and, therefore, that future research should develop cross-cutting policy frameworks and management solutions that recreate that heterogeneity as the key to restoring and sustaining biodiversity in temperate agricultural systems.
Decline of grassland diversity throughout Europe within the last decades is threatening biological diversity and is a major conservation problem. There is an urgent need to determine the underlying factors that control vascular plant species richness and composition in managed grasslands. In this study, 117 grasslands were sampled using standardised methods. Explanatory variables were recorded for each grassland site, reflecting the local field management, site-specific environmental conditions and large-scale spatial trends. Using variation partitioning methods, we determined the pure and shared effects of these three sets of explanatory variables on the plant species richness and composition in grasslands. Most of the explained variation in plant species richness was related to the joint effect of local field management and environmental variables. However, the applied variation partitioning approach revealed that the pure effect of spatial variables contributed relatively little to explaining variation in both the plant species richness and species composition. The largest fractions of explained variation in plant species composition were accounted for by the pure effects of environmental and local field management variables. Moreover, the results revealed that the main mechanisms by which these sets of explanatory variables affect plant species vary according to the type of management regime under study. From our findings we could conclude that particularly a reduction of nitrogen fertilisation on meadows and grazing at a low stocking rate on pastures can help to conserve biodiversity.