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Chapter
Can Intergenerational Mentoring
Prevent Ageism?
Keri D.Larsen, MyiaGraves and RylieBroussard
Abstract
Intergenerational mentoring is a way to break down barriers between different
generations by utilizing mentoring. Intergenerational mentoring with older adults
provides opportunities for activities and learning for young people. Various studies
have suggested that providing opportunities for older adults and younger adults to
spend time together could be an excellent opportunity to debunk many of the beliefs
that young people may have about older adults. Stereotyping or discrimination of
someone due to age is known as ageism. Empathy has been shown to be associated
with ageism. Higher empathy scores were negatively correlated with total ageism
scores meaning that the more empathy a person has, the less ageism that they possess.
Therefore, it could be that providing opportunities for the generations to spend time
together could increase their empathy for that group and reduce their ageism.
Keywords: intergenerational mentoring, ageism, mentoring, empathy, successful aging
. Introduction
The word mentor comes from the Greek word meaning enduring. It is defined as a
sustained relationship between a youth and an adult. Intergenerational mentoring is
a unique way of bringing two groups together to share their strengths while provid-
ing a mutually beneficial relationship. This social relationship that is mentoring has
two main roles as experts and as role models. In its natural form, mentoring occurs
because of friendships, teaching, coaching, collegiality and counseling; at the same
time, it can also be planned. This planned mentoring occurs through structured pro-
grams in which mentors and participants are selected and matched through a formal
process. For example, new teachers are paired with more experienced teachers to help
them learn how to be an even better educator or students that start a new sport may
be paired with someone who has been playing that sport for a while so they can learn
what they need to know to succeed. Mentoring can be facilitated in so many different
situations.
According to Butler, ageism is discrimination against individuals or groups on
the basis of their age []. This concept was patterned after sexism and racism. Butler
later refined his concept of ageism to a “process of systematic stereotyping and
discrimination against people because they are old” []. Regardless of the definition
that is subscribed to, ageism has been shown to have a negative impact on a person’s
physical and mental health; which in turn affects their quality of life. Since ageism is
Intergenerational Relations – Contemporary Theories, Studies and Policies
an increasing problem in society, it would be wonderful to find a way to eliminate it.
To put this into perspective, is it possible that intergenerational mentoring is a way to
increase empathy and value for older adults and, in turn, help prevent ageism? Most
of the research discussed in this chapter supports this in the affirmative.
. Defining mentoring
In the United States, older adults are the fastest growing subgroup of the popula-
tion. Due to growth in this population, there are many societal concerns of which
ageism is a major concern. Mentoring presents a unique opportunity for positive
intergenerational interactions to reduce the gap between diverse generations [].
Mentoring is a kind of activity that involves establishing an ongoing in-person
relationship with another person. A mentor is someone who shares their knowledge,
skills, and experience over a prolonged period of time. Intergenerational mentoring
is a type of mentoring where older adults provide guidance to younger people by
sharing their experiences and wisdom []. For instance, an older person can provide
consistent support to a younger person going through a difficult situation or period in
life. Intergenerational mentoring participants may vary in age from preschool through
university students and settings such as older adults living in long-term care facilities
or independent community dwellings []. This collaboration between younger people
and older people presents many chances to interact in meaningful activities that can
have mutual benefits.
The growing problematic behaviors in younger people, such as criminal activ-
ity and high-level drug use, has increased []. Older mentors, particularly those
who have experienced similar situations as high-risk youth, have been found to be
effective in reaching out and relating to those who feel misunderstood by family
and community members []. It is important to create positive environments and to
have engaging experiences despite their life circumstances in order to encourage the
younger individuals to strive for their full potential. And, for some older adults, this
results in having a reason to continue on and have a purpose in life. Mentor expecta-
tions are to serve as a guide for psychological support which can reflect positively on a
young person’s self-esteem.
As previously mentioned, intergenerational mentoring is also beneficial for older
adults. Older adult mentors who participate in intergenerational mentoring programs
report an improvement in physical health, cognitive function, and psychosocial well-
being []. Available evidence suggests that intergenerational mentoring and activities
may improve older adults’ sense of self-worth, self-esteem, and life satisfaction.
Overall, intergenerational mentoring is a promising approach to decreasing the gap
between generations and increasing the understanding of the extent to which differ-
ent generations can support one another.
. Mentoring and intergenerational relationships
Intergenerational relationships prove themselves to be important as they are
described as “lifelong, continuous, and dynamic parent-child relationships and family-
based interpersonal relationships across generations” []. These relationships can
bring forth positive feelings, provide an exchange of resources and support, and deliver
opportunity and structure for intergenerational interactions, which can be applied to
Can Intergenerational Mentoring Prevent Ageism?
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1003215
all generations involved []. A study, conducted by geriatric RNs, Wu and Chiou from
Taiwan, enhanced these ideas through observing older adults (ages and above)
who were described as having a low quality of life and having depressive symptoms. Wu
and Chiou [] determined that higher depressive symptoms were significantly associ-
ated with poor social support and intergenerational relationships, which shows how
important mentoring is for all of those involved. However, it is important to note some
limitations of the study: convenience sampling; a number of adults with severe depres-
sive symptoms that denied participation, the number of children and grandchildren each
older adult had, and causal inferences of risk factors like social support and intergenera-
tional relationships, all may have affected the valid results of this study.
It has been determined that intergenerational relationships and mentoring may
bring about many benefits to the older population. With relationships connected to
the younger generations, older adults can establish a sense of self-importance by pass-
ing on knowledge to others, as well as improved cognitive function, physical health,
and social activity [–]. Furthermore, mentoring provides a self-given purpose
through spending time teaching and learning from those in other generations [, ].
On the other hand, intergenerational relationships can also help with the reduction of
negative stereotypes that ageism promotes [, ]. Mentoring can provide an escape
out of comfort zones that older adults may linger in, and provide feelings of joy and
freedom from the impending process of aging [].
. Issues related to ageism
In this chapter, we have discussed mentoring and its benefits for so many different
individuals and groups of individuals, in addition to many different settings. It seems
that mentoring in its many forms is beneficial to so many. Let us take a look at the
concept of successful aging.
. What is successful aging?
Life expectancy has increased because we have better medical care and are start-
ing to focus on prevention. Thus, people are better able to take care of themselves.
However, what good is longevity if a person does not have their physical or mental
health? Furthermore, one person’s idea of what is meant by successful aging may be
different from that of another person. Successful aging has come to be equated with
the quality of aging, but what does it really mean? High physical and psychological
functioning in old age and being free from disease is how some define successful
aging. For many people, successful aging brings about ideas of “life satisfaction,
longevity, freedom of disability, mastery and growth, active engagement with life,
and independence” [].
As part of a research project, one of the authors was afforded an opportunity to
ask a group of older adults what successful aging meant to them []. See Table
for several of their responses.
As you can see from the responses, people have a vastly different idea of what suc-
cessful aging is to them. All of these ideas denote positive attributes or things that most
people want to ascribe to as we get older. But, where does that leave the person that is
disabled or has limits to their independence? Does that mean that they are not aging suc-
cessfully? By defining successful aging, are we excluding many older adults that do not
fit the definition? Additionally, what would being excluded from that grouping do to the
Intergenerational Relations – Contemporary Theories, Studies and Policies
mental health of those individuals? Therefore, it seems that we, as a society, need to have
some concept of successful aging to work towards. So, what is missing?
. Ageism defined
Robert Butler coined the term “ageism” in []. His definition stipulates that
ageism is a process of systematic stereotyping and discrimination against people
because they are old, just as racism and sexism accomplish this for color and gender”
[]. According to the World Health Organization, ageism refers to stereotypes,
prejudice and discrimination toward others or oneself based on age []. In other
words, ageism refers to how we think, how we feel and how we act toward others or
oneself based on age. Yes, a person can have stereotypes about themselves. If a person
feels that older adults cannot benefit from exercise then they likely believe that about
themselves and do not exercise – a sort of self-fulfilling prophecy. Could this dis-
crimination affect our health and serve to prevent successful aging?
According to Allen et al., adults –years of age experience ageism every day
[]. The World Health Organization reports that of the world’s population
negatively stereotype based on a person’s age []. What are the implications of this
phenomenon of ageism on the increasingly enlarging group of older adults?
. Ageism and health
Ageism has many diverse but negative health effects for the older adult popula-
tion. For example, the discrimination and community-perceived assumptions about
the aging population can cause negative impacts on the mental, social, and physi-
cal health realms which can lead to a decrease in quality of life and eventually in
longevity.
The mental impact of ageism, such as being seen as unimportant can cause nega-
tive self perceptions that can issue real self disvalue. Hence, why “the most frequently
examined condition, depression, showed evidence that ageism was associated with
onset of the condition and a lifetime of depression” []. Moreover, the impacts of
. enjoying life
. being gracious with myself
. staying in shape
. eating right and keeping my weight managed
. having fun in life
. being independent
. having a social life
. learning something new each day
. not taking myself too seriously
. plastic surgery
Tab le 1 .
What is successful aging?.
Can Intergenerational Mentoring Prevent Ageism?
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1003215
ageism may cause cognitive decline. Individuals dealing with depressive symptoms
over time that are being negatively affected by age stereotypes from society are more
likely to develop Alzheimer’s-disease-related brain changes [].
Ageism can also affect the social life of an older person, which may be one of the
most determining factors of how deep the effects of ageism can be. To illustrate, older
adults navigate a narrower life-space than younger people; life space refers to the spa-
tial area in which a person moves about and interacts with the world. Upon retirement
from the paid workforce, older adults spend more time in their immediate neighbor-
hoods []. With that said, the older generation is comfortable to limit themselves to
only expending time and energy to what needs immediate attention. This could cause
them to neglect further social interactions with others in their age group and those
in the younger population. As a result, they may not continue learning new skills on
how to communicate and understand the always advancing generation. Perhaps with
increased socialization, such narratives might stall perpetuation of age stereotypes
and reveal the problem of ageism toward older adults []. Furthermore, socializa-
tion of older adults is important as it can lead to group identification that enables the
application of self-compassion and empathy to motivate those to continue to search
for a purpose in their lives, learn new things, meet new people and engage in activities
that they find fascinating and rewarding. However, ageism can cause discrimination,
causing attitudes of feeling out of place which could impede their pursuit of their
definition of successful aging.
. Prevention of ageism
The looming question here is - Can Ageism be prevented? According to the World
Health Organization, in conjunction with the United Nations, there are three strate-
gies that may lead us toward eliminating ageism. Those strategies include the follow-
ing: policies and laws; education; and intergenerational experiences []. Policies and
laws are necessary for regulating and prohibiting ageism in our workplaces and in
healthcare. Education is vital to helping people understand and recognize ageism in
our own worlds. And, finally, intergenerational mentoring is a strategy that intention-
ally brings together groups of different ages and creates a necessary dialog between
people of different ages that does not exist in everyone’s world.
Figure depicts four generations of Acadians passing on the vital aspect of life
for them – fishing. The Acadians are a group of people of French descent who settled
in the New France colony of Acadia when they were expelled from Nova Scotia. This
culture is being kept alive in the daily activities of the people. This is intergenerational
mentoring to help preserve a culture. Moreover, it is easy to imagine the benefits of
this type of mentoring including and not limited to teaching young generations that
older adults are valuable.
In today’s society, many young people grow up without the benefit of an older
person in their lives. This can be due to the fact that young families find it difficult
to make a living where they grew up and have decided to relocate their family.
Or, the older generation has passed away. Overall, there can be any number of
reasons that older adults are missing from the picture, and this can cause the
dialog between the ages to be missing as well. This creates a deficiency in the
understanding of the richness of benefits that can be shared between the genera-
tions. Dialog among people of different age groups is one of the things that can
help clear up misunderstandings related to getting older and help build empathy
for older adults.
Intergenerational Relations – Contemporary Theories, Studies and Policies
Recent research has shown that in young adults, gender and low levels of empathy
were strong predictors of ageism. And, as a result, negative attitudes toward older adults
[]. Empathy is being able to put yourself in someone else’s situation. People that do
not have the capacity to put themselves in someone else’s situation are more likely to
have discriminatory thoughts and ideas about older adults. But, it was found that college
students that have increased interactions with older adults showed less negative attitudes
toward older adults []. These results are outstanding. They postulate that it is possible
to increase empathy in young people by creating interactions between them and their
older counterparts. Which, in effect, is intergenerational mentoring.
Figure depicts a proud Grandfather holding his grandson. This is a natural
intergenerational mentoring relationship. This little boy has been afforded the
Figure 2.
Grandparent and grandson spending time together.
Figure 1.
Culture preservation through intergenerational mentoring.
Can Intergenerational Mentoring Prevent Ageism?
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1003215
Author details
Keri D.Larsen*, MyiaGraves and RylieBroussard
Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond,LA, UnitedStates
*Address all correspondence to: keri.larsen@selu.edu
opportunity to learn many things from his grandfather; thus fostering a wonderful,
rich and rewarding relationship. Unfortunately, many children grow up without
this opportunity. While this is sad, we can compensate for it with programs in which
young people and older people are matched up to create an artificial mentoring
relationship. Furthermore, Leedahl, Brasher, LoBuono, Wood and Estus, also found
that intergenerational interactions between college students and older adults was able
to decrease many of the negative attitudes that the younger people had toward the
older ones [].
. Conclusions
It is very easy to see how important intergenerational mentoring can be to prevent
ageism by creating avenues for dialog between the generations and increasing empa-
thy toward older adults, but most of this information is anecdotal. There is definitely a
lack of empirical evidence that supports these ideas. This gap in the literature further
warrants more exploration of intergenerational mentoring and the benefits to older
adults and possibly the prevention of ageism. An exhaustive search of the literature
was unable to produce research studies where intergenerational mentoring brought
about any negative effects. And, since empathy seems to be something that can be
changed; it is highly likely that it could prevent ageism, and turn this theoretical
perspective into beneficial results.
© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/.),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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