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Chapter 13
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-6684-3937-1.ch013
ABSTRACT
Depending on various factors in the workplace, employees are exposed to some effects such as stress
and workload. The main purpose of this study is one way to explore whether stress and workload en-
countered in working life can cause many physical, mental, and spiritual effects on employees, and the
other is determining which strategies can be developed regarding stress and workload. Within the scope
of the study, concepts of stress and workload were defined within a literature review. This study tries to
sort and classify which strategies could be used when faced with stress and workload. It is possible that
effective strategies applied when encountering negative situations in organizations where the employees
are able to cope with stress and workload will result in positive outcomes. Managing of both concepts
is possible with the help of effective strategies.
INTRODUCTION
With the development of management theories, productivity has been the subject that organizations
focus on the most. The fact that the concept still does not give results at the desired level also questions
the effectiveness of scientific studies. With the belief that the better can always exist, it can be ensured
that the excitement of research is not lost. It is known that the most basic fact about the concept from
history to the present is the employees. When examined within the scope of productivity, ensuring that
the employees fulfill their responsibilities in the organization in the best possible way has been the
primary focus of the organizational management. Stress, one of the most popular concepts of our time,
Effective Strategies for
Managing Workload and Stress
Tarık Ziyad Çelik
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8011-415X
Dicle University, Turkey
Gülseda Köse
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7072-9054
Dicle University, Turkey
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Eective Strategies for Managing Workload and Stress
has been investigated in many studies in this context. The increasing importance of the concept and the
effects that employees are exposed to have created the need for effective management. Stress burden of
employees, how much stress they can cope with, and its effect on organizations are among the issues
that organizational management focuses on. In many studies, it has been observed that a certain stress
level can produce positive results for organizations. In particular, it is known that the concept should be
handled together with the workload, and that workload triggers the formation of stress after a certain
level. It is important to manage the workload correctly, just like the concept of stress. Determining the
employees’ physical and psychological workload levels can give accurate results to prevent the problems
that may arise. If the organizations correctly determine the workloads related while making their busi-
ness plans, they can recruit by evaluating the characteristics of the employees in this context. This is an
important phenomenon in order to prevent future problems.
With the changing and transforming business life, the quality of the work done will definitely change.
The nature of the changing jobs will also affect the workload and stress levels. It is known that employees
may be exposed to some effects outside of work, which will also spread to the workplace. Organiza-
tions should also monitor changes in the level of stress or workload that may result from the effects that
employees may be exposed to outside of the workplace. Organizations should establish internal units
or benefit from external resources in order to continuously evaluate employees and keep productivity at
the highest level. Outputs such as leaving the job, absenteeism, job laziness, and an increase in negative
behaviors in the workplace are observed as similar results of the concepts of stress and workload. This
similarity has increased the need for the correct definition of situations that may cause both concepts.
When the studies conducted in this context are examined, it is seen that both concepts can be managed
effectively. In many studies examined, the consensus about workload and stress is that it is possible to
minimize the effects of both concepts with effective management. In the study, research on stress and
workload was examined, and some clues were tried to be given to organizations about how both concepts
could be managed effectively. The importance of the study lies in being able to find the application in
theory and practice. In addition, the study aimed to define the concepts of stress and workload clearly.
BACKGROUND
Factors, such as globalization, pandemic, economic turmoil, global warming, and technological in-
novations, put pressure on individuals with rapid changes. Individuals face stress by being exposed to
psychological distress and negative emotional states as a result of pressures that may occur at different
levels (Mroczek, Almeida 2004: 356). The difference in the amount of stress changes the effect of stress
and can affect the entire organization over the employees in certain periods (Ailen, 1983: 8). At the same
time, while the appearance of depression in employees (Hammen 2005: 296) often leads to reactions
including chronic arousal and dysfunction, it can also lead to the emergence of negativity such as anxiety
(Lovibond, Lovibond 1995: 335). According to Ramamurthi et al. (2016), it can vary from person to
person and according to their abilities. As a matter of fact, people who spend most of their time work-
ing at the workplace can inevitably reflect these symptoms on their work. In the case of this situation,
many related disturbances can cause businesses to suffer great losses (Ross and Altmaier, 1994). As a
result, due to the formation of stress in businesses, negative consequences occur, including reduced work
activities, increased staff turnover, and poor health conditions. It can be observed that the employee
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loses motivation, the tendency to slow down, the performance quality and productivity level change,
and the creative behaviors decrease. It can also result in various diseases and deaths. (Ailen, 1983: 8).
It is said that the stress encountered in working life occurs with many physical, mental and spiritual
effects on employees. Today, the causes of job stress can be reflected in the organizational structure
depending on many factors. According to Albrecht (1979), insufficient or excessive workload, time pres-
sure, lack of supervisory mechanism, lack of equivalence of authority and responsibility are important
factors that create stress. According to Davis and Newstrom (1988: 422), stress occurs due to reasons,
such as role ambiguity, organizational culture incompatibility, unsuitability for the job, role conflict,
responsibility anxiety and wage dissatisfaction. As a result, work accidents, performance efficiency,
working conditions, incompatibility with human relations and work alienation are seen.
The employee wants to work in an environment where he is valued, communication progresses well,
is supported by managers, and he reflects this on his work efficiency. Managers can contribute to the
development of the employee’s sense of belonging and increase his motivation. Otherwise, they will
face excessive workload, feeling of worthlessness, the anxiety of failing at work, uncertainty in career
planning, role and conflict. As a result of this, negative processes, such as alienation from work, absen-
teeism and increase in employee turnover, may create costs for organizations (Cooper & Dewe, 2004).
Workload has been identified as a factor that causes stress in many studies. However, considering
the workload on its own and similar to the concept of stress, it is seen that it can be heavily affected
by individual differences. This shows that the concept is a phenomenon that needs to be examined and
emphasized separately from stress. Various methods can be developed in order to overcome the work-
load, which negatively affects the organization and the employee, and to minimize its effects. Methods
like social support programs, counselling centres, training and development programs will facilitate
the revision process by establishing a bridge between the employee and the management. Employees’
motivation can be increased by following methods such as awards, promotions, wage increases, social
events, and valuing ideas. Providing these will strengthen internal communication and increase com-
mitment to work. In addition to all these factors, social solidarity to be developed with managers and
colleagues will minimize work effects and keep their effects at tolerable levels. Moreover, employees
will be able to cope with the workload and stress they may encounter. For this reason, organizations
will benefit from a number of strategies to improve the effects of stress and workload. Thus, effective
regulations for employees will be determined, and it will be easier to identify and manage problems.
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER
Definition of Stress
Many studies have been conducted on the definition of stress. While Selye (1974: 137) defined stress
as the body’s indistinct response to pressure and desires, Organ and Hamner (1982: 255) defined it as
the body’s reaction to an undetermined effect. Lazarus and Folkman (1984: 21) stated that stress is a
phenomenon that emerges as a result of the evaluation and perception of events or situations. Wheeler
(2007: 2) defined stress as an action that suppresses and compels the individual and needs to make an
effort with some practices to be able to struggle. Dewe, O’Dristrol, & Cooper (2010: 3) stated that stress
is an important issue that directs relationships in business life and that sectors should focus on. Kyriacou
(2007: 135) explained that stress causes the employee’s alienation from work and the decrease in his
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performance due to the increase in the factors that can put pressure on the employee (such as time and
work pressure). In this context, Weiner (1982) stated that various pressures that affect the performance
and reactive behaviours of the employee emerge as workload.
SOURCES OF STRESS
Individual Sources of Stress
The level and degree of stress perceived by individuals with different personality traits vary. Newstrom
and Davis (2002: 396) emphasize that individual stress sources vary depending on individuals’ experi-
ences, demands, purposes of approaching events, and other factors. According to Robbins (1992), reac-
tive situations affecting the individual, such as death, happiness, excitement and longing, are among the
sources of emotional stress. According to Kraut (1965), failures in business life constitute one of the
main causes of emotional stress. According to Hallowell (2005), the effect of stress on individuals is in
the form of habituation and the manifestation of reactions on people. Characteristics that make up per-
sonality traits like being extroverted or introverted, and A and B behaviour types in individuals play an
important role in encountering stress and different health problems (Mc. Michael, 1979: 77). According
to Friedman and Rosenman (1974: 238-239), those with A-type personalities are versatile people who
can do many things simultaneously. According to Matthews (1982), these individuals create a feeling
of security against the outside but internally feel insecurity. Smith (1986) states that these individuals
who have such characteristics most of the time are more of a man of duty in working life than being in a
managerial position. Winslow (2003) emphasized that this type of people helps managers and employees
to progress in the work environment. On the other hand, individuals with B-type personality behaviours
are described to be patient, calm, away from competition, to be able to look at life from a wider perspec-
tive, and thus experience less stress (Robbins, 1992). And because they have these features, they are said
to be more successful in coping with stress (Luthans, 1992: 407).
Physical (Environmental) Sources of Stress
Stress sources known as physical or environmental are stated as the emergence of results created by
factors such as extremely hot or cold environment, insufficient lighting, and disturbing noise, causing
the organism to give harmful reactions, and resulting in changes in reflexive functions (Hart, 1990: 15-
16). Childre and Rozman (2005) stated that the body secretes more than 1,400 different biochemical
secretions when perceiving stress. The fact that these secretions show symptoms in various aspects of
the human body plays an important role in the emergence of some complaints (Carnegie, 2012). These
complaints include increased blood pressure, disturbance in digestion, feeling of weakness, shortness
of breath, headache, fatigue, allergic reactions and nausea (Mc Grath, 1976: 1369).
Organizational Sources of Stress
Employees undertake various duties and responsibilities in the organizational culture they are in. At the
same time, they have to establish good relations with their colleagues and managers in the organizational
structure (Kwok, 2006: 1). Thus, they try to adapt to the organizational culture’s values, responsibili-
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ties, and rules (Batemon & Strasser, 1984). However, although business life’s complex and competitive
structure causes various negativities in some periods, it can also affect employees in different aspects.
Sauter, Murphy, and Hurrell (1990) stated that organizational stress is the harmful factor that occurs
when job expectations do not match the employee’s capacity, desires, or resources. Drummond (2000),
on the other hand, states that physical and emotional reactions are an important factor in the formation
of stress. Albrecht (1979: 135), in his study on organizational stress, concluded that individuals with
middle-level management status are under more pressure than individuals with top-level management
status. For example, while a company’s downsizing causes employees to experience high stress due to
the fear of losing their jobs, they may also have to overcome this situation (Carolyn et al. 2014: 53).
THE CONCEPT OF WORKLOAD
There is no generally accepted definition of workload. However, some definitions have been made in
line with the studies carried out. The workload is expressed as the situation in which working individu-
als are in the process of working more than they can complete within the specified time (Jex, 1998: 48).
According to Gryna (2004), excessive workload occurs when work demands exceed the specified time
and resources. In other words, the workload is explained as the situation that arises from the insufficient
necessary resources to complete the tasks and responsibilities related to the excessive work, time pres-
sure, delivery deadline, and work role (Beehr & Glazer, 2005). In addition, excessive workload reveals
the phenomenon of how excessive the job performance should be (Iverson & Maguire, 2000: 814). Ac-
cording to Sales (1970), the increase in workloads can increase system performance at productivity and
such levels; however, he also states that the same increased workloads can have detrimental effects on
both system performance and employees. On the other hand, Brown and Benson (2005) point out that
the increased workload may create undesirable situations for employees. Cordes and Dougherty (1993)
explain the workload as a phenomenon that occurs when employees do not feel they have sufficient
knowledge and equipment to complete a task, regardless of their job descriptions. At the same time, the
unattainable highness of the specified standards stands out as one of the reasons for the workload (Elloy
& Smith, 2003). As another reason, incompatible situations between job demands and available resources
force individuals to make more effort (Maslach & Goldberg, 1998). Employees, especially when faced
with excessive workload, experience emotional fatigue and exhaustion and, at the same time, become
unable to fulfil their responsibilities. In addition, it increases feelings of loneliness and frustration. This
shows the stress formation of the workload on individuals (Ray, 1991). In fact, regarding this situation,
Singh (1998), in his study on excessive workload and job stress dated 1998, found a positive correlation
between the two variables.
Causes of Workload and Stress
Role Ambiguity
Kahn et al. (1964) define it that affects employees’ physical and emotional states positively or negatively
and reflects this with their behaviours in the workplace. Ali and Cabir (2014: 16) defined it as the situ-
ation where the employee cannot fully determine his/her responsibility or cannot fulfill the work action
according to the status he/she is in. According to Frew (2000: 27), it emerges when the employee does
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not know exactly what the job done means or how important it is in the entire organizational functioning
process. At the same time, it is stated that role ambiguity being too effective results in the emergence of
physiological disruptions, increase in organizational dysfunction and decrease in productivity (Colligan
& Higgins, 2006: 93). As a result, symptoms of tension, job absenteeism, low satisfaction and low job
participation occur in employees within the organizational structure (Cox et al., 2000). Therefore, not being
motivated, inadequacy in expectations and responsibilities occurs. It is emphasized that these concepts
emerge with negative situations on the organizational structure (Schuler, Aldag & Brief, 1977: 125).
Role Conflict
It occurs when the role that the individual takes responsibility for does not progress in parallel with
expectations and when he/she has two different incompatible roles (Arnold & Feldman, 1986). When
the individual is faced with stress and, in line with this situation, conflict arises from the relationship
between the roles (McShane &Von Glinow, 2008: 205). The simultaneous emergence of two or more
roles for which the person is responsible causes role conflict. In other words, role conflict is the state of
being ready to fulfil multiple tasks at the same time (Colligan & Higgins, 2006). Role conflict causes
organizational dysfunctions, but it also means adopting more to one of these role responsibilities than
the other tasks (Ivancevich et al., 1990: 588).
Wage
The concept of wage is an important factor for individuals to maintain their lives. Wage is the most
basic reward that employees receive in return for their efforts. When looking at the relationship between
wages and workload, it is seen that generally, low-wage employees get sick more related to their physi-
cal work. Therefore, it can be said that the physical needs of those working in low-wage employees are
higher. In a study conducted on hotel room cleaners, it is seen that most of them complain of back and
neck pain (Krause et al., 2005).
Furnham (2005) evaluated the concept of wage as a stress factor that shows its effect more in times
of financial difficulties with insufficient compensation. Again, concerning wages, the fact that the em-
ployee is not paid due to his contribution to his organization creates a source of stress (Potgieter, 1996).
However, according to Uppal (2005: 344), employees have a higher tendency to seek new jobs with
higher wages if they cannot meet their needs. At the same time, these individuals consider evaluating
job offers from their competitors in the market (Catwright & Cooper, 1997: 20).
Working Conditions
A poor working environment has a significant impact on workload and source of stress for the employee.
Although the employees have different physical characteristics, the working conditions cannot be defined
as appropriate if the objective workload levels are not determined exactly. While the physical conditions,
which are among the environmental factors, are among the factors that make up the working environment
of the people, the negative conditions of the environment are among the elements that will cause the stress
the individuals will experience (Mc Grath, 1976). Vibration, lighting, noise, temperature, ergonomic
structure and air quality in the environment effectively affect employees as psychological and physi-
ological resources and stated that the lack of these sources would cause employees to experience stress.
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Business relationships
Different dimensions of the relationships that individuals have established with each other. Therefore,
the relations established within the organizations being strong and in harmony will somehow reduce
the managers’ problems arising from the business process (Rogers et al., 1994). According to Davis
(2004), there may be symptoms, such as insecurity in business relations, indifference to the solution of
problems, and lack of expected support. According to Poon (2006: 518), the relations in the business
environment not progressing well indicates that successful relations are not established. At the same
time, communication breakdown, the emergence of ambiguity and contradictions in the job description
adversely affect relations in the business environment (Catwright & Cooper, 1997: 18).
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT STYLE
Organizational culture provides individuals within the organization with a sense of identity and ownership.
According to Hellman and McMillan (1994), organizational culture makes employees feel that they are
connected to a large and important organization and that they are an integral part of this organization.
In addition, it is seen as an element that shapes and directs the behaviours of employees within certain
standards and strengthens the formation of social balance (Smircich, 1983: 345). According to Zabojnik
(2002), the management style is seen as the deterioration in the organizational culture, weakness in com-
munication, inadequacy of the leadership qualities and the lack of organizational structure. Organizational
structure, which can be a cause of stress in organizations, affects the performance of managers at a certain
level. Determining standards and policies can cause pressure and tension on the ideas and behaviors of
managers in the formation of organizational culture and organizational climate (Catwright & Cooper,
1997: 20). The activities of the managers in the organization and the job descriptions they fulfil form the
organizational position. According to Clarke and Cooper (2000), the organizational position is seen as a
variable criterion related to organizational structure, which is one of the causes of stress. Organizational
space, which is also expressed as another source of stress, is defined as managers’ completed duties,
ideas, and personal space or place with their colleagues. In this case, exceeding the existing boundaries
due to the sense of belonging can be a source of stress (Ross & Altmaier, 1994: 49).
Adaptation to Technological Innovations
While benefiting from many technological products in both individual and working life, saving time and
cost increases the use of and interest for technological tools. At the same time, adapting to technology
and innovations is emerging as a leading factor in the increase of the feeling of excessive workload and
burnout (Girrier, 2003). According to Thomas and Smith (2006), e-mail density, laptops, the internet,
and smartphones cause individuals to constantly contact their work without the concept of time. As a
negative act of adapting to innovations in technology, it is shown that working individuals tend to do
more work outside of their working hours (Kuschel, 2015). This situation results in the fact that it is
not possible for the employees to distance themselves from their jobs even for a moment (Milkovich
& Boudrea, 1991: 60), and this means an extra workload for the employees. Therefore, technological
resources can be among the factors that trigger the formation of stress today.
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Generational Difference
The needs of society differ according to the conditions of the period. People living at different times
may create different behaviours, demands, and priorities. The emergence of these behaviours is indicated
by the concept of generation. Mannheim, in his research dated 1998, defined the concept of generation
as a group of people who have common habits and culture, have experienced similar situations in the
same period, and share the same value judgments. Generations are known as X, Y and Z generations
today. According to Zemke et al. (2001: 100), people in the X generation are hardworking, realistic,
competitive, and have high loyalty values. X generation is a generation consisting of individuals who
respect authority within the organization, pay attention to their style in communication, stay away from
conflict and tension, adopt working under conditions such as flexible working environment, non-strict
control and receiving fast feedback, avoid stressful jobs, facilitate their work and enjoy their work.
DeVaney (2015: 13) emphasized that the members of generation Y consist of individuals who have a
civic mentality, who are participatory parents, have positive perspectives, can perform multiple tasks
at the same time, and give importance to the balance between team-oriented work and life. Among the
remarkable features of generation Z are individuals who are intertwined with technology, adopt quick
consumption and interactive activities, can complete their work meticulously and in a short time, play
internet games, socialize quickly (Williams, 2010: 12). This generation consists of individuals who do
not like authority, are satisfied with completing their work in comfort and flexibility, demand the sup-
port of work processes with technology, have a high tendency to stress in case of low job satisfaction,
and do not hesitate to change jobs.
STRATEGIES THAT COULD BE APPLIED TO COPE
WITH STRESS RELATED WORKLOAD
Individual Stress Management and Workload
Having a versatile nature, people may encounter some problems in these areas. The individual can look
for ways to cope with individual stress by evaluating current conditions. The person may experience
uneasiness and restlessness and thus can be in both physical and spiritual concerns (Werther & Davis,
1985: 420). An individual’s physical, mental and behavioural stress management may vary depending
on the individual’s qualities (Yates et al., 1989). At the same time, many researchers state that mental
workload arises from individual differences. The ability to overcome the workload on employees is due
to their instinctive activities. Casali and Wierwille (1984) stated that the workload could not be observed
directly; therefore, psychological and physiological behaviors should be evaluated by measuring and
observing. Colle and Reid (1999) stated that the improvements in both mental and physical behaviors
of the employee depend on the lightening of the workload over time.
In order to overcome negative developments that affect the health of the individual, Norfolk (1989:
39) emphasizes the importance of participating in various exercises, bodily movements, breathing ex-
ercises, and social and sportive activities. It is stated that increasing social activities and strengthening
the communication established with people as ways to cope with stress are among the activities that can
help keep the stress at low levels (Dolan, 2007). Supportive activities will provide positive changes in
the working life as well as the daily life of the employees. Increasing one’s optimistic thinking capacity
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will also keep the workload perception at low levels (Hulbert and Morrison, 2006: 246). In fact, the
psychological and physical activities he will do will increase his struggle to cope with the workload. In
addition, it will facilitate the acquisition of new skills in increasing business success (Leka et al., 2003).
Individually, relaxing activities, such as meditation, yoga, breathing exercises and massage, contribute
to the formation of healthy effects on the individual (Cox & Ferguson, 1991). At the same time, behav-
ioural methods and social support aids to be applied within the organization will play an active role in
reducing the workload of employees. Cohen and Wills (1985) stated that the social support benefits to
be applied could be an important phenomenon in reducing the health problems of the employee and
coping with the workload.
Employees want to be appreciated while fulfilling their responsibilities towards work (Sjoberg &
Sverke, 2000). For a healthy organization and employee development, it is important to increase the
number of employees whose opinions are taken into account, express their opinions easily, and be sup-
ported for their full participation in the work (Hunt & Morgan, 1994). With these practices, it is possible
to increase the employee’s work motivation and overcome the workloads that may occur (Kanungo, 1979).
Diemer (1994: 97-98) stated that providing this communication will increase the competitiveness of the
organization and will motivate the employee to overcome the workload and express himself.
Organizational Stress Management and Workload
The stress formation that occurs after some events experienced by the members of the organization within
the organizational structure is reflected positively or negatively according to the extreme pressures and
demands (Leka et al., 2005: 52). According to Auerbach and Gramling (1998: 42), in order to manage this
stress within the organization, reinforcing the positive features that arise with the phenomenon of stress
by minimizing the negative features that disrupt the daily work of employees will provide convenience
in the organizational stress process. Therefore, to overcome these problems, coping methods with stress
should be developed and applied within the organizational framework (DeFrank & Ivancevich, 1998:
61). It can be expected that the appreciation of the employees after fulfilling their job responsibilities
increases the motivation and can increase their contribution to the organization by undertaking extra
workloads (Schnake & Dumler, 2003: 284).
Creating a Positive Organizational Culture
Enterprises can reflect a strict management style with the excess of bureaucratic and formal procedures
they apply in the corporate culture. According to Luthans (1992), high hierarchical structures mean that
employees who stay in an unfavourable organization will have low job satisfaction. At the same time,
this situation will cause work stress (Katz, 1977: 29-30). Again, it causes the concept of organizational
stress to reach serious dimensions on employees. Therefore, in order to reduce stress management,
Cooper (1998: 199) stated that the organizational structures in which the centralized structure is less,
the communication channels work properly, and the fair approach is applied will create more successful
methods. Accordingly, a positive organizational culture should be created, taking into account the deci-
sions of the employees in the organization, supporting their participation in the process and contributing
to the development of the sense of belonging (Balzac, 2014: 221). There is an increase in the workload
of the employees in the organizations that do not positively approach the change in the organizational
culture. Therefore, supporting positive change in organizational culture is an important factor for the
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welfare of the organization (Asad, 2003: 139-140). Since organizational support reinforces the sense of
responsibility on employees, the employee should exert more effort in fulfilling his job responsibilities
(Hong et al., 2006: 4). Supporting the efforts of employees, being honest, consistent and reliable, and
inspiring them to highlight the supportive role of an accessible manager in the organization (Leitter et
al., 2014). At the same time, adopting behaviours within the organization effectively provides a more
comfortable working environment and contributes to the formation of a positive organizational structure
(Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980). However, it is stated that activities such as increasing the quality of the
working environment and creating an ergonomic structure in order to protect the physical and mental
health of the employees arising from the sense of burnout and to minimize the anxiety that may occur
due to stress will positively affect the motivation of the employees (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993).
Job Enrichment and Job Design
Job enrichment aims to rearrange the work done in the organizational culture to be meaningful to increase
the enthusiasm for the work by ensuring that the employees reach a satisfactory level (Choudhary, 2016).
With job enrichment, innovations and revisions are made in routinely progressing jobs (Hall, 1976). The
application of job rotations, job design techniques that provide new opportunities with responsibility,
and various skills will support the formation of interactions within the organization in managing stress
(Luthans, 1989: 211). It is necessary to plan the organizational goals and determine the compatibility of
the strategies by the managers. In order to overcome the workload, the employee should be supported,
and their motivation should be increased; job enrichment, job design strategies and the employee’s ad-
aptation to the process should be ensured (Jimoh & Danlami, 2011). The fact that the employees operate
in a wide area in the organization not only reduces the workload but also ensures that they dominate the
work, thus increasing their success in the organization (McMahan et al., 1998).
Identifying Organizational Roles and Reducing Conflict
Role conflict, which is reflected as one of the main causes of stress in the organization, occurs when
the aims, objectives, expectations and demands of the members of the organization are not in harmony
(Dubrin, 1981: 330). Role definitions of each staff member should be determined and presented to him.
Specifying different duties and responsibilities in relation to the job to be done can create a feeling of
discomfort in the employee (Gomez & Michaelis, 1995: 22). Clearly specifying the work to be done
by the employees will not only reduce the occurrence of role conflict but will also contribute to the
elimination of extra workloads (Hutchison, 1997a). By determining the roles, establishing teams and
empowering the staff, the workload of the employees can be alleviated, and the role conflict can be
reduced (Shelton, 2006).
Training and Development Programs
The work efficiency of the adequately equipped employee for his job increases, and his interest in the
job increases. In the meantime, while the absenteeism rate decreases and the sense of commitment to the
workplace increases, inefficient work disciplines that can cause stress such as fear, anxiety, and avoidance
of work can be seen in the employee who feels insufficient in his work (Henneberger & Sousa-Poza,
2002). The reward system, which is one of the development activities of the organization, is to create
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the feeling of being willing to work more than expected from the employee and to be able to cope with
the given job (Chandra, 2006). Evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the employee in career plan-
ning, emphasizing the positive aspects, developing these aspects with various training programs will
cause the individual to be protected from tension and stress (Psacharopoulos, 1985). At the same time,
adaptability to the job and ability to fulfill the assigned task should be taken into account in career plan-
ning, necessary training should be given to the personnel for the determined duties and authorities, and
work responsibilities and workload should be alleviated by supporting the employees with development
programs (McDonald & Hite, 2005).
Time Management
Employees, who complain about the lack of time and say that they cannot complete their work, fall under
stress when faced with such situations (Oshagbemi, 1995: 31). The concept of lack of time, which causes
anxiety and panic, causes the employee to make more mistakes (Mackenzie, 1989: 15). Planning and
time management to avoid being faced with a workload more than expected will prevent the emergence
of unexpected situations in the organization (Brunsman, 1994). Weeding out unnecessary work, keep-
ing communication short and making quick decisions are possible with planned progress and effective
management of time (Danielson, 1963: 14). It is important to set goals and a time for the goals to be
achieved. According to Morgan (1993), effective practice can be achieved by getting rid of unnecessary
work, creating a to-do list, measuring positive and negative results, and examining the realization of the
targeted time planning. Effective time management process applied in this respect will help employees
and managers achieve successful results and reduce stress pressure (Makin & Lindley, 1995: 22–28).
Social Supports
One of the most important points of social support is to end the problems that may arise regarding the
work responsibilities and workloads of the employees with the support received from their colleagues
(Lindorff, 2001: 281). The development of social support awareness acts as a reinforcer in reducing the
workload by showing an increasing momentum in work efficiency, work performance, motivation and
job satisfaction (Marcintus et al., 2007: 104). According to Nekoranec and Kmosena (2015), strengthen-
ing the friendship relationship in difficult times and sharing in various fields can increase the success
rate in order to overcome the stress and crises that may occur. On the contrary, according to Koubekova
(1997), experiencing social bond deficiencies may cause anger, anxiety and feeling of loneliness and
stress on the individual. In this respect, the concept of social support describes the communication of
people with other people or groups (Trewor & Enright, 1990: 7).
Establishing Consultations
Counselling units should be ensured as the first step that can be applied to reduce the stress of personnel
in work environments. In this context, according to Davis (1987), a helpline, a counselling unit should be
established. Practices, such as psychological support programs for employees or individual counselling
practices, are among the practices that can be beneficial in reducing work stress (Newman & Beehr, 1979).
In this direction, the implementation of activities like preparing the personnel for new jobs and activi-
ties, organizing action plans and practical training in line with professional planning methods constitute
234
Eective Strategies for Managing Workload and Stress
the most effective techniques in combating organizational stress (Luthans, 1989: 212-213). In order to
prevent problems that may arise from the workload of the relevant department, one-on-one meetings
with the managers should be conducted, and a roadmap and plans should be created for the solution of
the problems (Van der Sluis & Poell, 2003). The planning of the work under the responsibility of the
employee and the feedback to be made about the work will reduce the occurrence of problems and will
also help increase the motivation and productivity of the employee (London, 1993).
Humour
Despite its impact on employees and organizations because of its main element of interaction, it is likely
that managers fail to realize numerous benefits of humour (Romero & Cruthhirds, 2006). However, hu-
mour is suggested as a very effective management tool that can be used to achieve goals (Duncan, 1982),
and it is seen that it can be used in the workplace to create team unity, provide employee motivation,
generate ideas, and prevent the spread of disappointment (Lyttle, 2007). While Yovetich et al. (1990)
stated in their study that humour reduces the level of stress, Henman (2001) stated that a joke to be made
in a stressful situation eliminates the feeling of losing control, and Dixon (1980) stated that the fear of
losing control can be overcome with humour. Martineau (1972) stated that the feeling of togetherness in
the workplace that can be created with humour will facilitate the sharing and management of the factors
that cause stress, and Sykes (1966) stated that it will facilitate the establishment of different friendship
relations. Besides all these positive aspects, it has been stated that humour can also cause discomfort,
such as distancing employees from their work or weakening or damaging the authority of the manager
(Lyttle, 2007). The increase in the workload creates a negative psychological effect on the attitude of the
employee towards the work. In this respect, humor emerges as an effective method to cope with the dif-
ficulties in the work environment to alleviate the workload and emotional reactions (Smith et al., 2000).
In addition to all these, Humor plays an important role in the positive development of social relations at
work (Holmes and Marra, 2002).
CONCLUSION
In line with today’s conditions, we spend most of our lives working at the workplace. Employees work
in business environments where competition, variability and uncertainty are intense. Fulfilling the pur-
poses and responsibilities of the work within the organization, working in harmony with colleagues and
managers constitute the requirement of an efficient work environment. Inadequate working conditions,
inability to determine roles, and excessive or low workload trigger stress. This leads to the emergence of
organizational stress. Therefore, the employees experience difficulty in showing dedication and adapt-
ability. Stress, which first appears with psychological effects and then affects the individual negatively,
can cause serious discomfort to the employee. Over time, these disturbances cause the individual to
break away from social life and work environment, alienate from work, and distance from the organiza-
tion with the perception of absenteeism and dissatisfaction. In order to turn these negative situations
into positive ones, collaborative work should be carried out within the scope of combating stress and
workload. Strengthening activities should be carried out by identifying the weak sides that employees
are exposed to stress and workload. The employees should be assisted with training, informative mes-
sages, social activities and advisory boards. The individual should be equipped to first deal with stress
235
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and workload management and then manage his behaviour in the institution. This will contribute to the
increase in individual self-confidence, the increase in work motivation, the strengthening of the sense
of loyalty towards the institution and the development of the concept of value. Both the individual and
the organization will experience a healthy interaction process. In this respect, the organization should be
in contact with the employee, identify the problems that may cause alarm in the future and solve them
quickly, and always reflect the feeling of value to the employee.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
How employees should manage their energies to combat stress or workload, the effectiveness of creating
areas where they can do mental exercises, the development of applications where the optimum stress
level of employees is constantly determined and their effects on performance, the determination of stress
and workload levels from employee behaviors using artificial intelligence, the role of emotional intel-
ligence in coping with stress, managing the increased stress levels of managers who think that online
work affects employee productivity as issues that need to be investigated in future research.
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