Electrical Impedance Study on Whole Blood Cells and Red Blood Cells during Storage in Refrigerator
Abstract and Figures
Doctors or health laboratory workers usually carry out manual blood examinations, who cell morphology parameters by eye. Electrical impedance spectroscopy has been proposed to assist doctors in examining blood damage. The effect of storage on blood cells will be evaluated using an electrical impedance measurement system on blood cells. The results of electrical impedance measurements will be correlated with the quality and quantity of blood cells, namely the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) value. Three bags of complete blood cell packages (from different donors) and 1 bag of red blood cell packages were used as blood samples. All blood samples using citrate phosphate dextrose adenine (CPDA) anticoagulant were obtained from the Indonesian Red Cross, Malang City Branch. Electrical impedance and cell-count measurements were performed on Day 0 (before being put into the refrigerator) and on Days 2, 4, 7, 10, 17, 21 and 28 after being placed in the fridge. Electrical impedance was measured using Bio-Impedance Spectroscopic Data Acquisition (BISDAQ). As the duration of storage increases, the MCHC value tends to decrease. The total impedance tends to decrease with increasing storage duration; the total impedance on Day 28 shows the lowest value. In general, the resistance value of the solution is correlated with the MCHC value of the blood cells. The escape of some material in the cell to the solution outside the cell results in a decrease in the resistance properties of the solution, according to the study’s results. The total electrical impedance decreases with increasing storage duration. Storage duration affects the quality and quantity of blood cells. The MCHC value of blood cells decreased with increasing storage duration. The value of MCHC is strongly correlated with the value of the external solution resistance of the cell. HIGHLIGHTS The total electrical impedance decreases with increasing storage duration Storage duration affects the quality and quantity of blood cells The MCHC value is strongly correlated with the value of the external solution resistance of the cell. The decrease in the MCHC value results in a reduction in the value of the external solution resistance of the cell GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
![EIS spectrum analyzer (analysis and simulation of impedance spectra) [25]. The electrical circuit analogy model for a blood sample (where R1 is the solution resistance of the cell, and W1 is the Warburg impedance (infinite diffusion layer thickness).](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377793914/figure/fig1/AS:11431281220886192@1706623983033/EIS-spectrum-analyzer-analysis-and-simulation-of-impedance-spectra-25-The-electrical_Q320.jpg)
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... Modern blood processing technologies have been developed to separate blood components to minimize rolling and blood aggregation. However, if whole blood remains one of the options for blood transfusion, efforts are needed to improve storage conditions and maintain platelet activation during longer storage periods (Widodo et al., 2024). ...
Blood, a vital tissue comprising blood cells within the plasma matrix, plays a crucial role in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and functional components throughout the body. Insufficient blood levels can lead to disorders or life-threatening conditions, necessitating blood transfusions for those experiencing deficiencies. Blood banks store blood products to meet transfusion needs, emphasizing safety, donor health, patient conditions, cross-matching accuracy, and storage quality. Examining stored blood indicates an individual's physiological response to environmental changes, with quantitative and qualitative changes visible through whole blood cell count and impedance parameters. Electrical impedance spectroscopy, which measures these biological properties, shows that although blood cell count remains stable over 35 days, impedance characteristics change significantly. Analysis of the Nyquist Zriil plot reveals a consistent decrease in Zriil values, indicating reduced extracellular resistance (Res) over time. These impedance changes reflect alterations in blood morphology, providing crucial insights into the quality of stored blood. In conclusion, electrical impedance spectroscopy effectively monitors stored blood quality, detecting significant changes in extracellular resistance over extended storage periods. These findings underscore the importance of regular monitoring and proper management of stored blood to ensure its safety and effectiveness for transfusions.
Background:
Several factors contribute to the manifestation of red blood cell (RBC) storage lesions, with one of the most interesting being the "donor variation effect". Since many haematological characteristics of blood donors are sex-dependent, sex hormones and their age-dependent variation may affect the storage profile of RBCs.
Materials and methods:
Fresh blood from 200 healthy male and female donors underwent haematological, biochemical and physiological analysis. Three selected groups of donors (men, n=8; pre-menopausal women, n=8; and post-menopausal women, n=4) exhibiting as similar as possible baseline values were recruited for blood donation in leukoreduced CPD/SAGM units. RBC indices, haemolysis and propensity for haemolysis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and plasma antioxidant capacity were measured bi-weekly.
Results:
Female blood was characterised by lower plasma antioxidant capacity and free haemoglobin (Hb) levels in vivo, in spite of the higher RBC osmotic fragility, compared to male blood. Comparatively low Hb concentration was also measured in stored RBCs from female donors, as in vivo. Mean corpuscular Hb (MCH), mean corpuscular Hb concentration (MCHC), and plasma antioxidant capacity were also lower in female donors throughout storage, even though baseline levels were equal to those of the male group. There was no difference in propensity of stored RBCs for haemolysis between male and female units but intracellular ROS levels were significantly lower in female RBCs. Increased end-of-storage extracellular potassium and recruitment of protein stress markers (clusterin, Hb) to the RBC membrane were observed in the units of post- vs pre-menopausal female donors at mid-storage onwards.
Discussion:
Donor's sex has an impact on Hb concentration and redox parameters of stored RBCs. In addition, menopause seems to promote RBC membrane remodelling, at least during prolonged storage. Our pilot study provides new insights on the different effects on RBC storage lesion according to sex.
Bioelectric impedance spectroscopy (BIS) has been widely used to study the electrical properties of biological tissue based on the characteristics of the complex electrical impedance dispersions. One of the problems in using the BIS method is the length of time required for the data acquisition process and possibly data analysis as well. In this research, a compact and work rapidly BIS instrumentation system has been developed at a low cost. It is designed to work in the frequency range of 100 Hz to 100 kHz, which is generally used in the fields of biophysics and medical physics. The BIS instrumentation system is built using several integrated modules. The modules are an AC current source to produce a selectable injection current; a data acquisition system to measure voltage, current, and phase difference rapidly and simultaneously; and software to calculate and display measurement results in the form of Bode and Nyquist plots in real time. The developed BIS system has been validated using a simple RC circuit as the sample being tested. The average time needed in the process of data acquisition and analysis until the formation of impedance dispersion curves in the form of Bode and Nyquist plots, for 54 sample frequencies, is less than one minute. The system is able to identify R and C values of the sample with a maximum error of 1.5%. In addition, some simple application examples are also presented in this paper.
Obtaining reliable and reproducible high quality data in multicenter clinical research settings requires design of optimal standard operating procedures. While the need for standardization in sample processing and data analysis is well-recognized, the impact of sample handling in the pre-analytical phase remains underestimated. We evaluated the impact of sample storage time (≈transport time) and temperature, type of anticoagulant, and limited blood volume on reproducibility of flow cytometric studies.
EDTA and Na-Heparin samples processed with the EuroFlow bulk lysis protocol, stained and stored at 4 °C showed fairly stable expression of cell surface markers and distribution of the major leukocyte populations for up to 72 h. Additional sample fixation (1% PFA, Fix & Perm) did not have any beneficial effects. Blood samples stored for <24 h at room temperature before processing and staining seemed suitable for reliable immunophenotyping, although losses in absolute cell numbers were observed. The major losses were observed in myeloid cells and monocytes, while lymphocytes seemed less affected. Expression of cell surface markers and population distribution were more stable in Na-Heparin blood than in EDTA blood. However, storage of Na-Heparin samples was associated with faster decrease in leukocyte counts over time. Whole blood fixation strategies (Cyto-Chex, TransFix) improved long-term population distribution, but were detrimental for expression of cellular markers. The main conclusions from this study on healthy donor blood samples were successfully confirmed in EDTA clinical (patient) blood samples with different time delays until processing. Finally, we recognized the need for adjustments in bulk lysis in case of insufficient blood volumes.
Despite clear overall conclusions, individual markers and cell populations had different preferred conditions. Therefore, specific guidelines for sample handling should always be adjusted to the clinical application and the main target leukocyte population.
Background
There is currently no single index for the diagnostic screening of hereditary spherocytosis (HS). However, hematology analyzers are widely used in hospital laboratories because of their highly automated performance and quality control procedure, and detection of some blood cell parameters may be useful for the early screening of HS.
Methods
We investigated the values of blood cell parameters for the screening and differential diagnosis of HS. We performed a descriptive study of 482 samples (67 cases of HS, 59 cases of G6PD deficiency, 57 cases of AIHA, 199 cases of thalassemia, and 100 cases of healthy controls) that were run on Beckman Coulter LH780 Hematology Analyzer.
Results
HS was characterized by increased MCHC, decreased MRV, MSCV‐MCV < 0, and increased Ret with no concomitant increase in IRF. The areas under the ROC curves were MSCV‐MCV (0.97; 95% CI 0.95‐1.0) > MRV (0.94; 95% CI 0.91‐0.97) > MCHC (0.92; 95% CI 0.88‐0.97) > Ret/IRF (0.77; 95% CI 0.7‐0.84). MSCV‐MCV ≤ 0.6 fl was valuable parameter for the diagnostic screening of HS, with a sensitivity of 95.5% and specificity of 94.9%.
Conclusion
These indices have high reference values for differentiating HS from thalassemia, AIHA, and G6PD deficiency.
Housewives perform daily household chores, which directly expose them to indoor particulate matter (PM). Indoor PM exposure is a potential factor that increases systemic inflammation and affects hematopoietic action. This study investigated the decrease in indoor PM concentration by air purifiers on indicators of anemia, such as hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). We analyzed the data of 40 housewives who were subjected to an air purifier intervention in Seoul and Ulsan, Republic of Korea. Indoor exposure levels of PM2.5 and PM10 were analyzed with sensor adjusted and gravimetric measurement. We also investigated the same anemia indicators before and after the installation of an air purifier for three months (short-term: one month, long-term: three months). Statistical analysis was performed by a multiple linear model and a linear mixed model. The indoor PM exposure levels and air purifier use were related to anemia indicators (hemoglobin and MCHC). The increase in indoor PM2.5 level was associated with a decrease in MCHC (β: 0.034, P = 0.031) and hemoglobin (β: 0.013, P = 0.04). The decrease in indoor PM2.5 concentration by air purifier was associated with an increase in MCHC (β: 0.204, P = 0.087) and hemoglobin (β: 0.190, P = 0.039). In particular, after air purifier intervention, the amounts of MCHC and hemoglobin significantly increased. Our results suggest that indoor air purifier use could decrease indoor PM level and the risk of anemia to housewives. Because the effect on anemia is subacute, it was confirmed three months after air purifier operation. In conclusion, anemia indicators can be improved by PM reduction management.
Alterations in the deformability of red blood cells (RBCs), occurring in hemolytic blood disorders such as sickle cell disease (SCD), contributes to vaso-occlusion and disease pathophysiology. However, there are few...
Hematology is a series of blood tests carried out to identify any problems or blood disorders based on the number of cells.There is a tendency to postpone hematological examinations because of the high demand for samples to be tested. Delayed analysis of blood samples can affect the reliability and validity of hematological testing results. This research aims to determine the characteristics of the blood impedance value stored in an EDTA tube for 6 hours based on the electrical impedance spectroscopy method. The number of blood cells factor influences the characteristic of blood impedance. Measurement of whole blood cell impedance was injecting 100 µA currents into the sample at the frequency range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz. The longer the blood is stored, the higher the blood impedance value. The condition happens because of changes in blood morphology during storage. The effect of blood storage time shows a shift in the characteristic impedance value after 2 hours of storage.
Erythrocyte quantity is one of the parameters of the physiological conditions. This case causes knowledge about the nature and amount of erythrocytes to be interesting objects of research. This paper discusses the detection of erythrocyte quantities using an interdigitated electrode by Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) method. Impedance measurements performed by injecting a current of 10 µA in the frequency range of 100 Hz - 100 kHz. Measurement made at erythrocyte concentrations from 3.79 x 10⁴cell µL-¹ to 7.61 × 10⁶ cell µL⁻¹. The results show that increasing the number of erythrocytes will increase the impedance value exponentially. Increasing the quantity of erythrocytes can be observed well at frequencies above 1 kHz. The minimum detection limit for erythrocytes is 3.79 x 10⁴cell µL⁻¹.
Objective:
To determine whether bioelectrical impedance-derived phase angle (PA) can be a predictor of red blood cell (RBC) transfusion in patients undergoing cardiac surgery.
Design:
An observational retrospective study of prospectively collected data.
Setting:
Single center, tertiary referral university hospital.
Participants:
The study sample comprised 642 adult patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery.
Interventions:
Patient demographic and clinical variables were collected. The body composition of the patients was evaluated by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) the day prior to surgery. The rates of postoperative RBC transfusion were recorded.
Measurements and main results:
Among the 642 patients (67.8% men, median age of 66 [range 59-73]) included in the present study, 210 (32.7%) received at least 1 RBC unit postoperatively. Hypertension, preoperative stroke, renal failure, preoperative hemoglobin and hematocrit values, BIA-derived PA, aortic crossclamp time, and cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) time were associated with the risk of RBC transfusion in the univariate analysis, and were included in the final multivariate regression model. Preoperative stroke (odds ratio [OR] 0.394; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.183-0.848; p = 0.017), preoperative hemoglobin values (OR 0.943; 95% CI: 0.928-0.960; p < 0.001), PA <15th percentile (OR 2.326; 95% CI: 1.351-4.000; p = 0.002), and CPB time (OR 1.013; 95% CI: 1.008-1.018; p < 0.001) were identified as independent predictors of RBC transfusion.
Conclusion:
Several factors were identified to be associated significantly with postoperative RBC transfusion in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Among the conventional predictors, the value of the BIA-derived PA was indicated as a potent prognostic tool.