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Water2024,16,410.https://doi.org/10.3390/w16030410www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Article
Post-RestorationMonitoringofWetlandRestoredfrom
FarmlandIndicatedThatItsEffectivenessBarelyMeasuredUp
RuiCao
1,†
,JingyuWan g
2,†
,XueTian
3
,YuanchunZou
3
,MingJiang
3
,HanYu
4,
*,ChunliZhao
1,
*andXiranZhou
4
1
CollegeofForestryandGrassland,JilinAgriculturalUniversity,Changchun130118,China;
rxsmchh@163.com
2
JilinAcademyofAgriculturalSciences,Changchun130033,China;jlskjtwjy@163.com
3
KeyLaboratoryofWetl an dEcologyandEnvironment,NortheastInstituteofGeographyandAgricultural,
ChineseAcademyofSciences,Changchun130102,China;tianxue0431@163.com(X.T.);zouyc@iga.ac.cn(Y.Z.);
jiangm@iga.ac.cn(M.J.)
4
TheFacultyofAgronomy,JilinAgriculturalUniversity,Changchun130118,China;13639837189@163.com
*Correspondence:yuhan@jlau.edu.cn(H.Y.);zcl6368@163.com(C.Z.)
†
Theseauthorscontributedequallytothiswork.
Abstract:Inthecontextofwetlandrestoration,thereconstructionofanecosystem’sstructuretypi-
callymanifestswithinarelativelyshorttimeframe,whiletherestorationofitsfunctionoftenneces-
sitatesanextendedperiodoftimefollowingtheimplementationofrestorationmeasures.Conse-
quently,itbecomesimperativetoengageinthecomprehensive,long-termdynamicmonitoringof
restoredwetlandstocapturetimelyinformationregardingtheecologicalhealthstatusofwetland
restoration.Inthispaper,weaimedtopreciselyassesstheecosystemhealthofatypicalwetland
thathadbeenconvertedfromfarmlandtowetlandinFujinNationalWetland Parkin2022.Wese-
lected18ecological,social,andeconomicindicatorstoestablishawetlandecologicalhealthevalua-
tionmodel,andthenusedthemethodofananalytichierarchyprocess(AHP)tocalculatethe
weightsforeachindicatorandacquiretheecologicalhealthindex(EHI)score.Theresultsofour
studyrevealedthattheecosystemhealthindexwas3.68,indicatingthattheFNWPwetlandecosys-
temwasin“good”condition;thisresultwasmainlyaffectedbywetlandwaterquality(0.382).The
ecologicalhealthassessmentofrestoredwetlandscanmonitorwetlandecologicalresourcesand
provideascientificbasisforthemanagementandprotectionofrestoredwetlands.
Keywords:wetlandecosystemhealth;landscapepatterns;remotesensing;ecosystemhealthassessment
1.Introduction
Wetla ndreferstoanaturalorartificial,long-termortemporaryswamp,peatland,or
waterarea,withorwithoutstaticorflowing,fresh,brackish,orsalinewaterbodies,con-
sistingofwaterbodieswithadepthofnomorethan6matlowtide[1].Wetla nd sare
multifunctionalecosystemsthatplayanimportantroleinregulatingtheclimate,main-
tainingbiodiversity,purifyingwaterquality,thecarbonandnitrogencycles,andprovid-
ingbiologicalhabitats,andthusareconsideredtobeoneofthethreemajorecosystemsof
theEarth[2–7]knownasthe“kidneysoftheEarth”[8–12].Atthesametime,wetlandsare
oneofthemostthreatenedandsensitiveecosystemsduetointensifyinghumanactivities
[13–17].Between1700and2020,atotalof3.4×10
6
km
2
ofinlandwetlandshasbeenlost
globally,andmainlyacrossEurope,theUnitedStates,andChina[18,19].Thedecreasein
wetlandareaismainlyduetoirrationalhumanexploitationanduse,andwetlandloss
anddegradation,leadingtoseriousproblemssuchasnaturaldisastersandecological
degradation.Consequently,itisimperativethatnationalfocusisdirectedtowardthecon-
servation,restoration,andreconstructionofwetlandecosystems[20–22].Sincethe18th
NationalCongress,Chinahasimplementedits13thFive-YearImplementationPlanfor
Citation:Cao,R.;Wang,J.;Tian,X.;
Zou,Y.;Jiang,M.;Yu,H.;Zhao,C.;
Zhou,X.Post-RestorationMonitoring
ofWet landRestoredfromFarmland
IndicatedthatitsEffectivenessBarely
Measuredup.Wate r2024,16,410.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w16030410
AcademicEditor:RichardSmardon
Received:21December2023
Revised:24January2024
Accepted:24January2024
Published:26January2024
Copyright:©2024bytheauthor.
LicenseeMDPI,Basel,Swierland.
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticle
distributedunderthetermsand
conditionsoftheCreativeCommons
Aribution(CCBY)license
(hps://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).
Water2024,16,4102of16
NationalWetlandProtection,introducedtheWetl an dProtectionLawofthePeople’sRe-
publicofChina,andissuedtheNationalWetl andProtectionPlan(2022–2030)tocarryout
comprehensiveprotectionandrestorationmeasuresforwetlands[23].
Wetla ndecosystemhealthischaracterizedbythefollowingpoints:(1)thepreserva-
tionofunimpairedmaterialcirculationandenergyflowwithinthesystem;(2)thatkey
ecologicalcomponentsandorganictissuesaremaintainedinanintactstatewithoutdis-
eases,exhibitingresilienceandstabilityinthefaceofbothprolongedandabruptnatural
oranthropogenicdisturbances;and(3)theoverallfunctionalityoftheecosystemmani-
festsasdiversifiedecologicalprocesses,speciesdiversity,andheightenedbiological
productivity[24,25].On1June2022,theWetl an dProtectionLawofthePeople’sRepublic
ofChinacameintoforce,whichclearlystipulatestheprinciplesofprioritizingprotection,
systematicgovernance,scientificrestoration,andtherationalutilizationofwetlandsin
China.Traditionally,anecosystem’shealthassessmentisconductedusingfieldobserva-
tiondataormodels.Commonlyusedmethodsincludeindicesofbiologicalintegrity(IBI)
[26],theHydrogeomorphicMethod(HGM)[27],pressure–state–response(PSR)modeling
methods[28],andtheevaluationofLDI(landscapedevelopmentintensity)[29].Mostre-
searchershavecombinedthesemethodswiththeanalytichierarchyprocess(AHP)and
FuzzyComprehensiveEvaluation(FCE)tosystematicallyandcomprehensivelyassessthe
healthstatusofanentirewetlandecosystem[30–37].Inaddition,themonitoringofwet-
landsinChinashouldbemorescientificallystandardizedandcontinuouslyoptimizedin
termsoftheselectionofacombinedindicatorsystem,fieldmonitoringandcollection
methods,anddataanalysisandmanagement[38–40].
TheSanjiangPlain,situatedinthenortheasternpartofHeilongjiangProvince,China,
isthelargestmarshwetlandareawithinthecountry’sterritory.Atthebeginningofthe
19thcentury,thewetlandareainthisregionwas534.5×104ha,accountingfor49.08%of
thetotalareaoftheSanjiangPlain[41–43].Inresponsetoescalatingnationalrequirements
forgrainproductionandpopulationexpansion,theSanjiangPlainhasundergonefour
stagesoflarge-scaleagriculturaldevelopment(1949–1954,1956–1958,1969–1973,1975–
1983),leadingtothesubstantialconversionoflargeareasofnaturalwetlandsintoarable
land[44,45].Between2000and2015,thetotalwetlandareaintheSanjiangPlaindecreased
by250,856ha,andthewetlandvegetationcoveragedeclinedfrom91.8%to74.0%[46].
Thisstudyselectedatypicalconverted-farmlandwetlandintheFujinNationalWet-
landPark(FNWP)inthehinterlandoftheSanjiangPlain.Theaimistoevaluatetheeco-
systemhealthoftherestoredwetlandandanalyzethefactorsaffectingtheecological
healthofthewetlandthroughthesystematicmonitoringofvariousindicatorsofhydrol-
ogy,waterquality,birds,soilcharacteristics,andthelandscapepaernoftherestored
wetland.Wealsoaimtoconstructarestoredwetlandecosystemhealthevaluationsystem
andusetheanalytichierarchyprocesstocalculatetheecosystemhealthindexofthewet-
landtoevaluatethecurrenthealthstatusoftherestoredwetland.
2.MaterialsandMethods
2.1.StudyArea
TheFNWPislocatedinnortheasternHeilongjiangProvince(46°55′52.72″ N,
131°44′51.33″E),onthesouthbankofthedownstreamoftheSonghuaRiver.Notably,the
FNWPoccupiesapivotalpositionwithinthecoreareaoftheSanjiangPlain(Figure1).
TheFNWPcoversanareaof2200ha,andisatypicalareaforrestoringfarmlandtowet-
land.Ourmainstudyareaislocatedinthe1152haofrestoredandreconstructedwetland,
accountingfor52.36%ofthetotalparkarea.FNWPbelongstothemiddletemperatecon-
tinentalsemi-humidmonsoonclimatezone,characterizedbymarkedseasonaltempera-
turevariations.Theaveragemulti-yeartemperatureis2.5°C,andtheaveragemulti-year
precipitationis512mm,withconcurrenthotconditionsandconcentratedprecipitationin
Water2024,16,4103of16
summer[47].Thewetlandsarerechargedbytwomainwatersources:naturalprecipita-
tion,includingsurfacerunofffromthesurroundingfarmlandcatchment,andrecharge
fromthecanalssouthofthepark[48].
Figure1.LocationofsamplingsitesinFNWP.
FNWPwasapprovedasanational(pilot)wetlandparkin2009,andhasexperienced
severalimportantstagesfrom“primitivenaturalmarshwetland—wetlandreclamationand
wetlanddegradation—returningfarmlandtowet/degradedwetlandrestoration”.We tland
restorationwascarriedout,throughscientificplanning,in2011,andthewetlandprotection
andrestorationandcapacitybuildingprojectwasofficiallylaunchedwithaloanfromthe
Germangovernmentin2013,includingtheconstructionofsluicegatesandembankments,
wetlandrestorationfromfarmland,andecologicalislands’construction,etc.Theprojectpe-
riodwasfromJuly2013toJune2018,andrestorationstartedinearly2014.
2.2.DataSourcesandProcessing
Theevaluationofwetlandecologicalhealthprimarilyreliesonlong-termmonitoring
datafromrestoredwetlandsandfieldsurveys.Vari ous datacollectionmethods,suchas
experimentalanalysis,fieldmonitoringsurveys,questionnaires,andliteraturereviews,
areemployedtoensurethecomprehensivenessandreliabilityofthedata.Differenttypes
ofdatarequiredifferentcollectionmethods,ensuringarobustevaluationprocess.
2.2.1.ExperimentalAnalysisData
Thedatausedinthisstudyincluderemotesensingdataandexperimentaldataob-
tainedthroughfieldsurveys,experimentaltreatments,andquestionnaires.
2.2.2.RemoteSensingImageProcessingData
RemotesensingdatacomefromtheGaofen-2satellitedataofChina,whichare0.8m
four-bandbundledata.WeobtainedRSimagesofFNWPfor31August2022,thedata
wereacquiredwithdataprocessinglevel1A,andthereisnocloudcoverage;thedata
qualityisgood.Toimprovethevisualizationofremotesensingimages,wepre-processed
withatmosphericcorrection,topographiccorrection,colorleveling,fusion,andcropping.
Additionally,weusedImageEnhancementProcessingtomakethelandscapeofthestudy
Water2024,16,4104of16
areamorevisibleinthepicture,aidinginidentifyingandfurtherclassifyingthestudy
area,andremovingunimportantorirrelevantimageinformationtohighlightthekeycon-
tentsofthestudyarea[49].
2.3.Methods
2.3.1.SoilPhysicalandChemicalParameters
Sixquadrantswereselectedindifferentwetlandtypes,andatotalof18soilsamples
werecollectedtomeasurethephysicalandchemicalpropertyindicesofthesoil(Figure1),
includingpH,organicmattercontent,totalnitrogen(TN),andtotalphosphorus(TP).
2.3.2.Wat erQuality
Wesetup20monitoringsites(Figure1)includingfarmlandditches,naturalwetland
locations,andentranceandexitgates.pH,SecchiDepth(SD),dissolvedoxygen(DO),and
Chlorophyll-a(Chl-a)weremeasuredinsituwithYSI6920equipment(YSI,Yell ow
Spings,OH,USA).
LaboratorymeasurementsincludedTN,TP,biochemicaloxygendemand(BOD5),and
chemicaloxygendemand(CODMn),andweredeterminedaccordingtotheChinesenational
standard“EnvironmentalQualityStandardforSurfaceWater”(GB3838-2002)[50].Further-
more,surfacewaterqualitywasclassifiedintofivelevels:I,II,III,IVandV[50].
Inordertotransformtheeutrophicationevaluationstandardvalueintoanevaluation
resultthatiseasyforthepublictounderstand,thecomprehensivetrophiclevelindexTLI
(∑)[51–53]wasusedtoestimatethedefinitewatertrophicstate.
TLI∑W
TLI𝑗
whereTLI(j)isthetrophiclevelindexofjandWjisthecorrelativeweightforthetrophic
levelindexofj.
2.3.3.WetlandWaterfo wl
FNWPplaysasignificantroleasakeystopoverpointalongtheEastAsian–Austral-
asianbirdmigrationroute.Asitservesasacriticalbreedingandmigratoryhabitatfor
numerousprotectedavianspecies,thejudiciousselectionofbirdindicatorsbecomesim-
perative.BirdmonitoringwasconductedfromMarchtoSeptember2022,coveringas
muchofthesurroundingagriculturallandaspossible(Figure1)[54,55].Withthehelpof
binocularsandmonocularsinopenhabitats,wedirectlyrecordedthebirds’species,num-
ber,location,anddistribution.TheShannon–Weinerdiversityindex(H’),Margalefspe-
ciesrichnessindex(D),andPielou(J)evennessindexwereusedtoassessthespeciesdi-
versityofbirdcommunitiesinFNWP.
2.3.4.WetlandAreaandLandUse
Thechangesofthewetlandareawereobtainedbytheinterpretationofremotesens-
ingimagesfrom2017to2022.Basedontheresultsofremotesensingimpactclassification
derivedfromArcGIS10.8,theratioofnon-wetlandarea(farmland,buildinglandand
shelterbelt)tothetotalareawascalculatedasthelanduseintensityofFNWPwetlands.
2.3.5.LandscapeIndices
Inthisstudy,patchdensity(PD)andShannon’sdiversityindex(SHDI)wereusedto
indicatethedegreeoftheecologicalfragmentationofwetlandsandthedegreeofthehet-
erogeneityofwetlandlandscapes,respectively[56,57].Thesetwoindiceswereselected
basedontheclassificationresultsofArcGIS10.8,convertedtorasterdataandthenim-
portedintoFragstats4.2softwareforcalculation.
Water2024,16,4105of16
Patchdensitycanshowtheoveralldegreeofpatchdifferentiationandfragmentation
ofawetlandlandscape,whichiscalculatedasfollows:
𝑃𝐷𝑁𝐴
Here,PDindicatesthepatchdensity,whichistheratioofthetotalnumberofwetland
landscapepatchestothetotalwetlandarea.
Shannon’sdiversityindexreflectsthediversityofwetlandlandscape,whichiscalcu-
latedasfollows:
𝑆𝐻𝐷𝐼𝑃ln 𝑃
Here,SHDIindicatesShannon’sdiversityindexandPiistheratiooftheareaoccupiedby
landusetypeitothetotallandscapearea.
2.3.6.IndicatorSystemEstablishment
Basedonthelong-termmonitoringofwetlandecologicalcharacteristicsandusing
previousresearchasareference,18indicatorsincludingwetlandsoil,waterquality,bird
diversity,landscapestructure,andsocialvaluewereselectedtoconstructtheFNWPwet-
landecosystemhealthevaluationsystem.ThespecificindicatorsareshowninTable 1.
Tab le1.Hierarchicalchartofwetlandecosystemhealthassessmentindicators.
Level-1IndicatorLevel-2IndicatorDataSourceFrequency
Soil
SoilpH
Experimentalanalysis1timeperyear
Organicmattercontent
TP
TN
Hg
Water
WaterpH
Experimentalanalysis3times(spring,summer,
andautumn)
DO
BOD5
CODMn
Thecomprehensivenutritiveindex
WetlandwaterfowlWaterfowlspeciesandpopulationsSamplingthelinetransector
samplingsites’datastatistics1timeperyear
Landscapeindices
Changerateofwetlandarea
Remotesensingimage
processing1timeperyear
Land-useintensity
Largestpatchindex
Patchdensity
Shannon’sdiversityindex
SocietyTourismvalueQuestionnaire1timeperyear
Scientificresearchvalue
2.3.7.Questionnaire
Wecollecteddatabyrandomlydistributingsurveyquestionnairesaroundthestudy
area.Atotalof50questionnairesweredistributed,and48validquestionnaireswerecol-
lected.Thequestionnaireadopteda5-pointscale,whichconsistsof5integersranging
from1to5.Thehigherscore,thestrongerpeople’swillingnesstoplayarole,andthe
higherthevalueofsciencepopularizationandeducationintheresearcharea.
2.3.8.Indices’WeightandAssessmentMethods
Water2024,16,4106of16
Theevaluationprocessconsistsofseveralkeysteps:(1)Utilizinglong-termmonitor-
ingdata,alongwithreferenceliterature[50,58–60]andexpertguidance,eachindexwithin
theindexlayerwasassignedascore,andtheseindiceeswerethencategorizedintofive
levelsandassignedstandardizedscoresof5,4,3,2,and1(Table2).(2)Therelativeim-
portanceoftheevaluationindicesateachlevelwasassessedusingtheexpertscoring
method,resultinginarelativeimportancematrix.Theweightofeachindexwasdeter-
minedusingthehierarchicalanalysismethod.(3)Theecosystemhealthindex(EHI)was
selectedtocalculatethewetlandecologicalhealthindexscoreforFNWP,enablingthe
assessmentofthelevelofthewetland’secologicalhealth(Table3).
Tab le2.Indicatorsofwetlandecologicalhealthassessmentsystemandclassificationstandards.
OverallNormalizedScore54321
SoilpH7–86–7,8–95–6,9–103–5,10–120–3,12–14
Organicmattercontent(%)>43-42-31-2<1
TP(g/kg)>1.00.7–1.00.4–0.70.2–0.4<0.2
TN(g/kg)>2.01.5–2.01.0–1.50.5–1.0<0.5
Hg(mg/kg)<0.050.05–0.10.1–0.150.15–0.2>0.2
WaterpH6–95–6,9–103–5,10–122–3,12–130–2,13–14
DO(mg/L)≥7.5≥6≥5≥3≥2
BOD5(mg/L)≤3≤3≤4≤6≤10
CODMn(mg/L)≤15≤15≤20≤30≤40
Thecomprehensivenutritiveindex(TLI)0–3030–5050–6060–70>70
Waterfowlspeciesandpopulations>43–42–31–2<1
ChangerateofwetlandareaFirstSecondThirdForthFifth
Land-useintensity<0.20.2–0.40.4–0.60.6–0.8>0.8
Largestpatchindex(LPI)80–10060–8040–6020–400–20
Shannon’sdiversityindex(SHDI)>0.80.6–0.80.4–0.60.2–0.4<0.2
Patchdensity(PD)<22–1010–2020–40>40
Tourismvalue4–53–42–31–20–1
Scientificresearchvalue4–53–42–31–20–1
Tab le3.Classificationstandardofwetlandecosystemhealth[61].
LevelExcellentGoodFairPoorVeryPoor
EHI4~53~42~31~20~1
Weusedtheanalytichierarchyprocess(AHP)methodtoanalyzeandcalculatethe
appropriateweightofeachfactor.TheAHPisamature,multi-objectiveanalysismethod
introducedanddevelopedbySaaty[62].Itviewsacomplexproblemwithmultipleobjec-
tivefactorsasanintegratedsystem.Itinvolvesbreakingdowntheoverarchingobjective
intomultipleindices,subsequentlyestablishingorganizedandinterconnectedhierar-
chies.Thismethodnotonlyformulatesinherentlyintricateproblemsintoahierarchical
structurebutalsoallowsfortheconsiderationofdiversequalitativeandquantitativecri-
teriawithintheproblem-solvingframework[63–66].TheAHPiscurrentlywidelyusedto
solvethedifficultyindirectlyandaccuratelyquantifyingdecisionresults,takingad-
vantageofitsstrongsystematicity,easyuse,andsmallerquantitativedatarequirement
[65].Atthesametime,thismethodhasthedisadvantagesofbeinghighlysubjective,hav-
ingtoomanyfactors,andahighnumberofpairwisecomparisonsrequired[67,68].
Theelementsoftheupperlevelareusedascriteriaandhaveadominantrelationship
withtheelementsofthenextlevel.Theimportanceoftherelevantcomponentsonthis
levelandtheupperleveliscomparedinpairs,andthecomparisonresultsareexpressed
quantitativelyfrom1to9(Table4).Afterconstructingthejudgmentmatrix,themaximum
eigenvalueλmaxofthematrixiscalculatedandtheeigenvectorobtained.Theeigenvector
Water2024,16,4107of16
isusedastheweightvectorW,andthenaconsistencytestisperformed.Theconsistency
indexisdefinedbytheequationCI=
,CR=CI/RI,whereλmaxisthelargesteigen-
valueofapreferencematrixandnisthenumberofparameters[69–71].WhentheCRis
lessthan0.10,itmeansthatthematrixhaspassedtheconsistencycheck,otherwisethe
matrixneedstobereconstructed.
Tab le4.ThefundamentalscaleofabsolutenumbersinAHP[71,72].
Intensityof
ImportanceDefinitionExplanation
1EqualimportanceTwocriteria/sub-criteriaareequallyim-
portant
2Weak
3ModerateimportanceOnecriterion/sub-criterionisslightlyfa-
voredoveranother
4Moderateplus
5StrongimportanceOnecriterion/sub-criterionisstronglyfa-
voredoveranother
6Strongplus
7Ver ystrongOnecriterion/sub-criterionisvery
stronglyfavoredoveranother
8Ver y, verystrong
9Extremeimportance
Evidencefavoringonecriterion/sub-cri-
terionovertheotheristhehighestpossi-
b
leorderofaffirmation
Reciprocalsof
theabove
Ifactivityiisthejudgement
valuewheniiscomparedwith
activityj,thenjhasareciprocal
valuewhencomparedwithi
Areasonableassumption
Theecosystemhealthindex(EHI)isaneffectiveshort-termmonitoringindex.Ahigher
EHIindicatesamorefunctionalecosystem,whereaslowervaluesindicatethattheecosys-
temisapoorlyfunctioninglandscape[73].Itscalculatedusingthefollowingformula[74]:
𝐸𝐻𝐼𝐸𝑊
whereEHIrepresentstheecosystemhealthindex,nrepresentsthenumberofevaluation
indicators,Eirepresentsthestandardizedvalueofthei-thevaluationindicator,andWi
representstheweightofthei-thevaluationindicator.
Thederivedwetlandecologicalhealthindexwasalsovalidatedbythemulti-objective
linearweightingfunctionmethod[75],withthevalidationequation[60]
𝐸𝐻𝐼𝐸𝑊
𝑊
whereEHIrepresentstheecosystemhealthindex,Eirepresentsthegradedevaluation
valueofthei-thevaluationindicator,Wbirepresentstheweightofthei-thindicatorrelative
tothecriterionlayerBinasingleranking,Wirepresentsthetotalrankingweightofthei-
thindicator,andnrepresentsthenumberofevaluationindicators.
3.Results
Water2024,16,4108of16
3.1.RestorationofWetlan dEcologicalHealthIndicatorCharacteristics
3.1.1.SoilPhysicalandChemicalParameters
ThemainphysicochemicalpropertiesoftherestoredwetlandsoilsintheFNWPwere
determinedthroughthelaboratorytestingof18soilsamples(Figure2).In2022,theaver-
agepHofthewetlandsoilswas8.01,indicatingaslightalkalinecondition.Theorganic
carbon(TOC)contentrangedfrom1.31%to2.88%,thetotalnitrogen(TN)contentranged
from671.03mg/kgto1769.98mg/kg,thetotalphosphorus(TP)contentrangedfrom
394.68mg/kgto659.40mg/kg,themercury(Hg)contentrangedfrom0.037mg/kgto0.104
mg/kg,andtheiron(Fe)contentrangedfrom26,794mg/kgto34,688mg/kg.Thesevalues
donotmeetthestandardsfortypicalwetlands[60,76],indicatingthatthebasicstructure
andinternalcomponentsofthesoilwerestillinastateofgradualrecovery.
(a)
(b)(c)
Figure2.SoilphysicochemicalcharacteristicsinFNWP.((a)SoilpH,TOCandSOM,(b)TNand
TP,(c)FeandHg)
3.1.2.Wetla nd WaterQuality
Byconductingexperimentalanalysesonsamplescollectedfrom20watermonitoring
pointsintheFNWP,wefoundthattheaveragewaterpHvalueoftherestoredwetlandin
2022was6.45,indicatinganeutralcondition(Figure3).TheaverageTLIwas56.34,indi-
catingamildeutrophicstate.
Water2024,16,4109of16
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure3.ThewaterqualityindicesoftheFNWP.((a)SD,(b)Wate rpH/COD
Mn
/BOD
5
/DO/Chl-a,
(c)TNandTP).
3.1.3.Wetla nd AreaChangeRateandLandscapeIndices
Thewetlandarea(swampandwater )wasextractedbyacquiringremotesensingim-
agesoftheFNWPfor2017,2020,and2022.Briefly,theFNWPwetlandareashowedaslow
increasingtrendcombinedwithamaximumwetlandareaof910.73hain2022(Table5).
TheFNWPwetlandlandscapepatternindexwascalculatedbasedontheclassification
results,andtheresultsareshowninTab le4.Theland-usetypesoftheFNWPwetlandsin
2022includefivecategories:swamp,water,farmland,building,andshelterbelt(Figure4).
Marshhasthelargestarea,accountingfor69%ofthetotalarea.Thenon-wetlandareawas
110.43ha,andthecalculatedland-useintensityfortheFNWPis0.096(Table5).
Water2024,16,41010of16
Figure4.Land-useclassificationmapofFNWP.
Tab le5.Statisticsofwetlandlandscapepaernindex.
Farmland(ha)Building
(ha)
Shelterbelt
(ha)Land-UseIntensityLPIPDSHDIWetlandArea
(ha)
88.2912.1959.9450.09653.4082.090.986910.73
3.1.4.BirdDiversity
Atotalof33birdspeciesbelongingto7ordersand14familieswererecordedin2022.
CommonspeciesincludedAnasformosa,Fulicaatra,Podicepscristatus,Chlidoniasleucoptera,
Anasplatyrhynchos,Larusridibundusandsoon,mostofwhicharewadingbirds.Thesea-
sonalvariationintheFNWP’sbirddiversityisshowninTabl e6.TheMeanShannon–
Winnerdiversityforbirdsin2022was1.66,thePielouevennesswas0.50,andMargalef
speciesrichnesswas2.76.
Tab le6.BiodiversityindicesofbirdsindifferentseasonsinFNWPwetlandin2022.
SpringSummerAutumn
Shannon–Winnerindex1.51.821.65
Margalefindex2.562.623.10
Pielouindex0.460.560.48
3.2.WetlandEcologicalHealthIndex
Inthisstudy,wedeterminedtheweightoftheevaluationindicatorsbasedonthe
ecologicalmonitoringresultsoftherestoredwetlandandexpertopinions,takingintoac-
countoftheactualsituationofconstructionandmanagementintheFNWP.Weightjudg-
mentmatriceswereconstructedforthecriterionlayerandindicatorlayer.TheEHIscore
forthewetlandintheFNWPisshowninTable7.TheresultsoftheEHI(3.68)indicated
thattherestoredwetland’sstateisata“good”level.Furthermore,thewetlandexhibited
apronouncedtrendinitslandscapepaernandremotesensingimagesin2022.Inthe
Water2024,16,41011of16
year2022,althoughthecomprehensivephysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthewet-
landsoildidnotyetmeetthestandardssetfortypicalwetlands,therestoredwetland
providedeffectivewaterqualitypurificationandbirdbiodiversitycapabilities.
Tab le7.TheAHPweightoftheevaluationindexoftheFujinwetland’secologicalhealth.
Level-1IndicatorLevel-2IndicatorWeightEHIScore
Soil(0.184)
pH0.073
3.68
Organicmattercontent0.045
TP0.031
TN0.022
Hg0.013
Water(0.382)
pH0.019
DO0.116
BOD50.057
CODMn0.037
Thecomprehensivenutritiveindex0.153
Wetlandwaterfowl(0.114)Waterfowlspeciesandpopulation0.114
Landscapeindices(0.243)
Changerateofwetlandarea0.056
Land-useintensity0.056
Largestpatchindex0.088
Patchdensity0.031
Shannon’sdiversityindex0.013
Society(0.077)Tourismvalue0.052
Scientificresearchvalue0.026
4.Discussion
4.1.WetlandLandscapePaern
Thelandscapepaernindexisanimportantindextomeasurethespatialstructure
characteristicsofalandscape.Itisamanifestationoflandscapeheterogeneityasaresult
ofvariousecologicalprocesses,includingdisturbance,actingatdifferentscales.Fromthe
perspectiveoftheentirewetlandlandscape,swampaccountsforthelargestproportion,
followedbywater.Intermsofthelandscapepaernindex,theLPIhasthelargestweight
ofthelandscapeindices,andtheSHDIhasthesmallestweight(Table5).Insimilarstudies,
Liuetal.developedalandscape-basedmulti-metricindex(LMI)toassessthecondition
ofthePoyangLakewetland;theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatahigherLPIvalueis
associatedwithabeerhealthstatusandahigherSHDIvalueisassociatedwithapoorer
healthstatus[77],whichisconsistentwiththeresultsofthisstudy.From2017to2022,the
wetlandareaofFNWPgraduallyincreased(876.72ha,910.73ha),whilethenumberof
patches(NP)andPDshowedadecreasingtrend(Table8).ThesignificantincreaseinLPI
indicatedthatthefragmentationofwetlandareahadbeendecreasingyearbyyear,and
thelandscape’sresistancetodisturbancehadincreased.SHDIreflectsthediversityand
heterogeneityofthelandscape[57,78].From2017to2022,theSHDIofthewetlands
slightlydecreased,indicatingaslightdecreaseintheheterogeneityofthewetlandland-
scape.Thefragmentedpatchesweregraduallyreplacedbywetlands,indicatingthatthe
landscapepaernofthewetlandswasgraduallyandslowlyrecovering.
Tab le8.Calculationresultsofwetlandlandscapeindicesin2017–2022.
YearNPPDLPISHDI
201744654.3837.941.16
202030302.9025.931.39
202224082.0953.410.99
Water2024,16,41012of16
4.2.EcologicalIndicators
Wetla ndwaterqualityandsoilareimportantindicatorsthatcharacterizetheeffec-
tivenessofwetlandrestorationandhaveahugeimpactonwetlandecologicalhealth.The
resultsofthisstudyindicatethat,in2022,thesoilTNandTPintheFNWPwetlandde-
creasedcomparedto2017.Themeanconcentrationofheavymetalmercury(Hg)inthe
soilsurfacewas0.06mg/kg,andtheiron(Fe)contentwas32,053mg/kg,whichweresig-
nificantlylowerthanthevaluesin2017(Hg:0.198mg/kg,Fe:35,497mg/kg)[60].These
findingssuggestedthatthewetlandsoilwashealthierandundergoingrecovery.Thismay
beduetotheincreaseinthewetlandarea,theriseofthewaterlevel,theaccelerationof
thereleaseratesofHgandFefromthesoil,andthereductioninfertilizeruseinthesur-
roundingfarmland[79,80].
Theresultsofthisstudyindicatedthat,in2022,theDOandCODMninthewaterof
theFNWPwetlandmetthenationalClassIwaterstandard(≥7.5,≤15).Theoverallcon-
centrationofBOD5waswithintheoptimalrange(3~4mg/L),suggestingthatthewater
qualityoftheFNWPwasgenerallygood[50].Wetlandshaveeffectivelyplayedtheirrole
inpurifyingthewaterquality.TheoverallwaterqualityofwetlandsintheFNWPin2022
wasmildlyeutrophic,withavalueof56.1,whichwasconsistentwithpreviousstudies
[43].Thismaybeaributedtothecontinuousaccumulationofnutrientsinfarmland
drainageditchesandtheincreaseinorganicmaercontentinthewaterbodies[53,81,82].
Asoneofthemostsensitiveindicatorspeciesofwetlands,wetlandbirdscancharac-
terizethediversityofspeciesandreflectthehealthofwetlands[83].Meretaetal.found
thatenvironmentalfactorsandanthropogenicdisturbanceswerethemaininfluencingfac-
torsonbirddiversity,whilespatialfactorsplayedanunimportantrole[84].Inthisstudy,
theShannon–WinnerdiversityandPielouevennessofbirdsin2022werefoundtobethe
highestinsummer,withvaluesof1.82and0.56(Table6),respectively,possiblyduetothe
abundanceoffoodinthemarshduringthisseason.Additionally,thelushgrowthof
plantssuchasreedsandirisesprovidebirdswithsuitablehidingconditions[54,55].
4.3.AnalysisoftheFNWPWetland’sHealthStatus
Theassessmentofecosystemhealthisaneffectivemethodforunderstandingthese-
curitystatusofecosystems,whichcanprovidebasicsupportforthehealthydevelopment
andplanningmanagementofecosystems[85].Inthisstudy,weutilizedfieldsurveys,on-
sitemonitoring,remotesensingtechnology,andlandscapepaernindicestoconstructan
ecologicalhealthevaluationsystemfortherestoredwetlandsintheFNWP.Weemployed
hierarchicalanalysistodeterminetheweightsofthevariousindicesandcalculatedthe
EHI,andthentheeffectivenessofthewetlandrestorationcouldbeinitiallyassessedbased
onitsEHIscore.Inapreviousstudy,Lietal.developedasystemtoassesstheeffective-
nessoftheFNWPwetlandrestoration,consideringfactorssuchaswatersupplyfunction,
waterquality,soilresources,speciesdiversity,landscapeadaptability,andparkconstruc-
tion,andtheresultsshowedthattheFNWPwetlandEHIscorewas3.5[60].Finally,the
FNWPwetlandwasconsideredtoberecoveringatasatisfactorylevel,whichalignswith
thefindingsofthisstudy,albeitwithaslightincrease(3.68).Accordingtothefinalassess-
mentofthewholeecosystem,theFNWPwetlandecosystemwasin“good”condition,this
resultismainlyaffectedbythewetlandwaterquality(Table6).Thisresultsuggeststhat
theecosystemmaintainsgoodnaturalconditions,itsstructureisreasonableandcomplete,
itsresilienceisstronganditsfunctionisnormal,theoutsidepressureonitissmall,its
restorationabilityisstrong,andabnormalphenomenadonotappearinsystem[61,86].
Thisstudyconstructedaswampwetlandecologicalhealthevaluationsystemforwet-
landsthatwereconvertedfromfarmlandtowetland,andappliedthissystemtothelater
healthevaluationofswampwetlands.However,duetolimitedresources,obtainingdata
forsomeindicatorsremainschallengingandthesystemisnotcomprehensiveenough.
Therefore,wewillcontinuetoconductin-depthresearchinthefuture,focusingonsup-
Water2024,16,41013of16
plementingandexpandingthesystemtoenhanceitsscientificnatureanduniversalap-
plicability.Intermsofwetlandsupervisionandmanagement,itiscrucialforrelevantgov-
ernmentdepartmentstoenhancepublicawarenessandeducation,increasepeople’s
awarenessoftheprotectionandsustainableutilizationofwetlandresources,andreduce
theuseofpesticides.Additionally,themanagementandconstructiondepartmentsre-
sponsiblefortheparkshouldprioritizethedevelopmentofecologicalandenvironmental
protectionfacilities.Duringtheconstructionprocess,carefulconsiderationshouldbe
giventowhetherthelevelofwetlandresourcesandecologicalutilizationrequirements,
aswellastheneedsofthecommunity,areultimatelyachievingaharmoniousbalance
betweenwetlandprotection,economicdevelopment,andsocialprogress[87,88].
5.Conclusions
TheecosystemhealthindexscoreoftherestoredwetlandintheFNWPis3.68,and
thewetlandecosystemisin“good”condition.Themainfactorsaffectingthehealthof
wetlandecosystemsarewetlandwaterquality,landscapestructure,andsoilproperties.
Theresultsofthisstudycanprovideascientificreferencefortheprotectionandmanage-
mentofrestoredwetlands.Inthefuture,weaimtoprocureamorecomprehensivedataset,
facilitatingthedevelopmentofascientificallyrigorousevaluationframework.
Aut ho rContributions:R.C.:conceptualization,methodology,investigation,software,formalanal-
ysis,writing—originaldraft,writing—reviewandediting.J.W.:conceptualization,methodology,
investigation,formalanalysis,writing—originaldraft,writing—reviewandediting.X.T.:supervi-
sion,conceptualization,datacuration,writing—originaldraft.Y.Z.:methodology,software,super-
vision,writing—reviewandediting.M.J.:datacuration,methodology,supervision,visualization.
H.Y.:fundingacquisition,projectadministration,visualization,resources.C.Z.:conceptualization,
fundingacquisition,supervision,resources.X.Z.:formalanalysis,investigation,software.Allau-
thorshavereadandagreedtothepublishedversionofthemanuscript.
Funding:ThisworkwassupportedbytheNationalNaturalScienceFoundationofChina(42001112).
DataAvailabilityStatement:Thedatapresentedinthisstudyareavailableonrequestfromthe
correspondingauthor.
ConflictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterest.
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