Information and psychological warfare in the context of the war between Azerbaijan and Armenia

Abstract

The purpose of the paper is to highlight the development of information-psychological warfare, its history, concepts, technologies and methods, which are one of the most important areas of work in the field of international relations. The concept of ‘information warfare’ has concentrated a number of phenomena from the sphere of mass communications and during the 20th century was called various terms, such as ‘disinformation’, ‘propaganda’, ‘psychological warfare’, ‘psychological operations’. Within the scope of the study, the importance of psychological warfare in today’s context has been examined using the example of Azerbaijan and Armenia. It has been emphasized how Armenia effectively employed psychological warfare tactics and propaganda to gain an advantageous position in the late 20th century. In the early 21st century, the significance of Azerbaijan gaining a superior position in psychological warfare and using propaganda effectively has been discussed. Additionally, the article delves into the importance of using white propaganda during psychological warfare and the drawbacks of black propaganda within the context of the psychological warfare between Azerbaijan and Armenia. The novelty of the paper lies in a comprehensive analysis of information and psychological warfare and operations in the context of the Azerbaijan-Armenian conflict. Conclusions. In the 20th century information and psychological warfare and operations became part of the military policy of states. Now, due to the current situation on the world stage, the methods and means of conducting information warfare are changing and every year they are reaching a higher level. It can also be stated that in the 21st century, information wars have become more widespread. In summary, the historical context and evolution of information warfare demonstrate its enduring significance as a tool for states to achieve their strategic and political goals. As technology and global politics continue to evolve, information warfare is likely to remain a key component of statecraft and international relations.

Full text

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 231
УДК (UDC) 94 : 327.5 : 32.019.51] (479.24+479.25) “19/20”
DOI: DOI: https://doi.org/10.33782/eminak2023.4(44).684
INFORMATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE
IN THE CONTEXT OF THE WAR BETWEEN AZERBAIJAN AND ARMENIA
Elvin Talishinsky
Azerbaijan University (Baku, Azerbaijan)
e-mail: elvintalishinsky@gmail.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5318-5537
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the paper is to highlight the development of information-
psychological warfare, its history, concepts, technologies and methods, which are one
of the most important areas of work in the field of international relations. The
concept of ‘information warfare’ has concentrated a number of phenomena from the
sphere of mass communications and during the 20th century was called various terms,
such as ‘disinformation’, ‘propaganda’, ‘psychological warfare’, ‘psychological
operations’.
Within the scope of the study, the importance of psychological warfare in today’s
context has been examined using the example of Azerbaijan and Armenia. It has been
emphasized how Armenia effectively employed psychological warfare tactics and
propaganda to gain an advantageous position in the late 20th century. In the early
21st century, the significance of Azerbaijan gaining a superior position in
psychological warfare and using propaganda effectively has been discussed.
Additionally, the article delves into the importance of using white propaganda during
psychological warfare and the drawbacks of black propaganda within the context of
the psychological warfare between Azerbaijan and Armenia.
The novelty of the paper lies in a comprehensive analysis of information and
psychological warfare and operations in the context of the Azerbaijan-Armenian
conflict.
Conclusions. In the 20th century information and psychological warfare and
operations became part of the military policy of states. Now, due to the current
situation on the world stage, the methods and means of conducting information
warfare are changing and every year they are reaching a higher level. It can also be
stated that in the 21st century, information wars have become more widespread. In
summary, the historical context and evolution of information warfare demonstrate its
enduring significance as a tool for states to achieve their strategic and political goals.
As technology and global politics continue to evolve, information warfare is likely to
remain a key component of statecraft and international relations.
Keywords: information warfare, psychological warfare, information aggression,
propaganda, information operations, media

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ІНФОРМАЦІЙНО-ПСИХОЛОГІЧНА ВІЙНА
У КОНТЕКСТІ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСЬКО-ВІРМЕНСЬКОЇ ВІЙНИ
Ельвін Талішинський
Азербайджанський університет (Баку, Азербайджан)
e-mail: elvintalishinsky@gmail.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5318-5537
АНОТАЦІЯ
Метою роботи є висвітлення розвитку інформаційно-психологічної війни, її історії,
концепцій, технологій і методів, які є одним із найважливіших напрямів роботи у сфері
міжнародних відносин. Поняття «інформаційна війна» сконцентрувало низку явищ зі
сфери масових комунікацій і протягом ХХ ст. називалося різними термінами, такими як
«дезінформація», «пропаганда», «психологічна війна», «психологічні операції».
У рамках дослідження на прикладі Азербайджану та Вірменії розглядається
важливість психологічної війни у сучасному контексті. Було підкреслено, як Вірменія
ефективно використовувала тактику психологічної війни та пропаганду, щоб отримати
вигідну позицію наприкінці 20 ст. На початку 21 ст. обговорювалося значення здобуття
Азербайджаном переваги у психологічній війні та ефективного використання
пропаганди. Крім того, у статті розглядається важливість використання білої
пропаганди під час психологічної війни та недоліки чорної пропаганди у контексті
психологічної війни між Азербайджаном та Вірменією.
Новизна роботи полягає у комплексному аналізі інформаційно-психологічних війн
та операцій у контексті азербайджансько-вірменського конфлікту.
Висновки. У ХХ ст. інформаційно-психологічні війни та операції стали частиною
військової політики держав. Зараз, у зв’язку зі сформованою ситуацією на світовій
арені, методи та засоби ведення інформаційної війни змінюються і з кожним роком
виходять на все більш високий рівень. Також можна констатувати, що у ХХІ ст.
інформаційні війни набули все більшого розмаху. Таким чином, історичний контекст та
еволюція інформаційної війни демонструють її незмінне значення як інструменту
досягнення державами своїх стратегічних і політичних цілей. Оскільки технології та
глобальна політика продовжують розвиватися, інформаційна війна, ймовірно,
залишатиметься ключовим компонентом державного управління та міжнародних
відносин.
Ключові слова: інформаційна війна, психологічна війна, інформаційна агресія,
пропаганда, інформаційні операції, ЗМІ
INTRODUCTION
Currently, information problems are one of the most popular and frequently studied
scientific problems. Information problems are of interest to specialists in almost all
branches of science, and scientists of various specialties are engaged in its research. It
should be noted that information is a global problem of our time, since the
development of society depends on it. In addition, information interaction between
different groups of humanity is the most important form of social interaction. Social
progress depends on this. The information factor has caused serious revolutionary
changes in recent years. Now the entire scientific world is included in a single
information system, and it actually works in real time. The importance of information
for humanity is not only a condition, but also an incentive for further action, and
disinformation and information chaos cause a feeling of uncertainty and powerlessness.

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 233
The degree to which the need for information is satisfied also plays a major role in the
well-being of society. In an unhealthy society, as a rule, there is a feeling of information
hunger1.
Today humanity lives in an information society. This is a new type of society in
which the possession of information is the driving force of its transformation and
development. Information rightfully changes humanity and influences the course of
world events. The information space today is becoming an important system for
conducting state policy. The significance of the state’s ability and ability to conduct
geostrategic information warfare to achieve geopolitical success is steadily increasing.
Thus, the main axiom of the 21st century has become the long-known truth: “who owns
the information, owns the world”.
All this determines the relevance of studying the problem of information warfare
within the framework of political science. Contradictions and conflicts between states
in today’s conditions have moved into the information space, and this has now become
a reality. The importance of public information in resolving political issues has
increased and, as a result, the regulation and publicity of the scope of policy has
increased. The growing importance of information is a historical fact that is based on
the ideas of the information society. Increasingly, information confrontation is a
continuation of state policy. Thus, the purpose of the paper is to highlight the
development of information-psychological warfare, its history, concepts, technologies
and methods, which are one of the most important areas of work in the field of
international relations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The fundamental and very first work on the topic under study was the book of the
American political scientist and psychologist Paul Linebarger, ‘Psychological Warfare:
International Propaganda and Communications’ in which the author summarized the
experience of his work in US propaganda institutions engaged in waging psychological
wars. In the first edition of the book, published in 1948, the author explores the forms
and methods of psychological warfare during the two world wars of 1914-1918 and
1939-1945. The second edition in 1954 was expanded to include an analysis of
propaganda campaigns during the Korean War, 1950-19532.
It is noteworthy that in the work ‘Psychological Warfare: International Propaganda
and Communications’ P. Linebarger analyzes methods of processing the enemy’s mass
consciousness using various historical examples – from wars in Ancient Greece to civil
strife in Ancient China, from military conflicts in the medieval Europe to the epochal
conquests of Genghis Khan, from the civil protests of the English Revolution to the anti-
monarchist uprisings of the French Revolution.
It should be especially noted that in his work the author used hundreds of original
documents (including secret ones) from the archives of the intelligence services,
ministries of defense, various government agencies and departments of the United
States and Great Britain, to which he had access during the years of his military
service3.
1 Талышинский Э.Б. Современные информационные войны и Азербайджан. Баку: Мутарджим,
2016. C. 11.
2 Linebarger Paul M.A. Psychological Warfare: International Propaganda and Communications, 1948.
Revised second edition, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1954. 318 p.
3 Psychological Warfare Division – SHAEF, The: An Account of its Operations in the Western European
Campaign, 1944-1945. Anon. U.S. Army, 1945. 48 p.

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In the preface to the first edition, P. Linebarger wrote: “I discussed psychological
warfare with a variety of people – from Mao Zedong in Yan’an and Ambassador Joseph
Davis in Washington to a corporal in the Army Corps of Engineers in New Zealand and a
janitor at American headquarters in Chongqing. I learned from all these people and
tried to make this book a reflection of the collective experience… I also owe a lot to the
officers of the General Staff of the Ministry of Defense, who introduced me to the details
of psychological warfare. The circumstances for the United States were very fortunate –
this work at the headquarters was led by intelligent, conscientious and gifted people,
and I was very lucky that I served under their command from 1942 to 1947…”4. All this
proved that almost all methods, forms and technologies of psychological warfare in the
United States were developed by teams of military personnel and scientists who had
specialized training in the field of human psychology, political psychology, applied
psycholinguistics, psychology of propaganda and mass communications.
Some works by scientists highlight general and specific concepts of propaganda and
psychological wars: among them we can note, for example, the historians Philip Taylor
and Scot MacDonald. P. Taylor, in his work ‘Munitions of the Mind: War propaganda
from the ancient world to the nuclear age’5 emphasizes that the inextricable connection
of propaganda with war determines its moral character. The scientist traces the
beginning of the propaganda process to the stone steles of ancient Mesopotamia,
depicting the power of warlike rulers. The author continues to explore the
development of propaganda techniques in Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and the
Middle Ages, analyzing how the art of persuasion functioned in conflicts such as the
Thirty Years’ War and the English Civil War.
S. MacDonald’s book ‘Propaganda and Information Warfare in the Twenty-First
Century’6 analyzes the history of the manipulation of visual means that were used in
psychological warfare. The author provides an informative history of both
psychological operations and military disinformation techniques and examines how
images can be doctored and distorted to carry out such operations. For example, a
number of examples show how staged photographs can lie or mislead. In the age of
digital media, altered images can easily be distributed over the Internet and serve as
tools for visual propaganda.
The topic of psychological warfare attracted dozens of researchers from different
countries in the post-war period. Most of the works are devoted to the analysis of various
operations of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition against Nazi Germany during the
World War II. Among them are the British scientist Ellick Paul Howe7; a former combat
liaison officer in the Psychological Warfare Branch Edward Boehm8; English historian
and civil servant Michael Balfour9, et al. Also important is scholar Allan Winkler’s10, in
which the author reveals issues of the organization of American propaganda.
4 Military Review. Geoeconomics by Col. John F. Troxell // The professional journal of the U.S. Army,
2018. Vol. 98. № 1. Р. 9.
5 Taylor Ph.M. Munitions of the Mind: War propaganda from the ancient world to the nuclear age. Patrick
Stephens Ltd., 1990. 224 p.
6 MacDonald S. Propaganda and Information Warfare in the Twenty-First Century. London: Routledge,
2007. 204 p.
7 Howe E. The Black Game: British Subversive Operations Against the Germans During the Second World
War. London: Michael Joseph, 1982. 276 p.
8 Boehm E. Behind Enemy Lines: WWII Allied/Axis Propaganda. New York: Wellfleet Press, 1989. 203 p.
9 Balfour M. Propaganda in War 1939-1945: Organizations, Policies and Publics in Britain and Germany.
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979. 520 p.
10 Winkler A.M. Politics of Propaganda, The Office of War information, 1942-1945. Yale University Press,
1978. 230 p.

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 235
Some Azerbaijani and Russian scientists touched upon the topic under study,
namely the issue of information-psychological war between Azerbaijan and Armenia.
For example, S. Fedorchenko analyzed “techniques of information warfare between
political actors for dominance over representatives of the political identity of Karabakh.
He comes to the conclusion that the largest political actors trying to influence the
conflict are not only regional interests, but also Russia and the United States”11. It
should be noted that S. Fedorchenko in his work pays more attention to political
identity, which acquires special weight for those territories whose fate is inextricably
linked with recent military conflicts, controversial, unresolved international problems.
In turn, A. Gordievich examines the regional conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, analyzing
the key features and methods of information warfare as part of this conflict, based on
an analysis of the events of 2020. In work ‘Information War as an integral part of the
strategy of the parties to the Karabakh conflict’12, he defines the methods of
information warfare between the parties to the conflict for dominance over its intra-
country, regional and global assessments.
The information actions of Armenia emanating from Azerbaijan were studied by the
Azerbaijani scientist Chingiz Mamedov and divided them into special groups13. The
expert noted that the Republic of Armenia, in order to manipulate public opinion, uses
the media, the global information network Internet, as well as open information
resources. He points out that the information that Armenia sends towards Azerbaijan,
and Azerbaijan sends towards Armenia, acts as an information or physical domain.
Also worth mentioning is Nikolai Krylov, who in his article14 explores the role of the
media in the information-psychological war of Azerbaijan and Armenia. The author
especially notes that the Armenian-Azerbaijani war became a new step in the
development of media technologies of confrontation. It should be noted that, unlike
most military operations of the last 10 years, in this case there was not a rebel struggle
against the central government or a civil war, as in Syria, Libya or other countries, but a
full-fledged armed confrontation between two states. Therefore, almost exclusively
state media resources were involved in the war, opposing each other, which is the
uniqueness of this conflict.
Interest in the topic of information and psychological warfare in conditions of
interstate conflict has recently intensified among Ukrainian researchers15. This is due to
11 Федорченко С.Н. Нагорный Карабах в ракурсе информационных войн // Постсоветские
исследования. 2018. T. 1. № 2. С. 209.
12 Гордиевич А.А. Информационная война как составная часть стратегии сторон Карабахского
конфликта // 78-я научная конференция студентов и аспирантов Белорусского государственного
университета: материалы конф. Ч. 2, Минск, 10-21 мая 2021 г. Минск: БГУ, 2021. С. 512-515.
13 Мамедов Ч. Информационная война Армении против Азербайджана // Интерфакc-
Азербайджан: информационное агентство. 2016, 6 мая. URL: https://interfax.az/view/671699
14 Крылов Н. Информационное противоборство в нагорно-карабахском конфликте // Новости
ВПК. 2020, 22 декабря. URL: https://bit.ly/3ROA9Le
15 Кучмій О., Фролова О. Використання соціальних медіа як інструменту сучасної гібридної війни
// Acta De Historia & Politica: Saeculum XXI. 2023. Вип.: Special Issue. C. 93-104. DOI:
10.26693/ahpsxxi2023.si.093; Калінічева Г. Використання інформаційно-психологічної зброї в
умовах російсько-української війни // Acta De Historia & Politica: Saeculum XXI. 2023. Вип. 6. С. 53-
65. DOI: 10.26693/ahpsxxi2023.06.053; Звездова О. Психологічна війна як гібридна загроза сучасній
системі міжнародної безпеки // Acta De Historia & Politica: Saeculum XXI. 2023. Вип. 5. С. 63-71. DOI:
10.26693/ahpsxxi2023.05.063; Кравченко Н. Інформаційна складова як ключовий аспект гібридної
війни // Acta De Historia & Politica: Saeculum XXI. 2022. Вип. 4. С. 106-118. DOI:
10.26693/ahpsxxi2022.04.106

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the Russian-Ukrainian war, and its hybrid nature. The theoretical developments of
Ukrainian political scientists can be used in further studies of hybrid wars and the use
of information and psychological warfare.
CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO THE CONTENT OF INFORMATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
In almost all wars that have occurred from the past to the present, psychological
warfare techniques have been used. Before examining these wars and the techniques
used in them, it is necessary to explain what psychological warfare means as a concept.
An individual or group employs psychological warfare techniques to influence their
enemy and sustain that influence. Throughout history, nearly all nations in conflict have
used psychological warfare techniques. Taking a comprehensive look at psychological
warfare in general complicates the understanding of this concept. In this context, Prof.
Dr. Nevzat Tarhan, in his book ‘Psychological warfare’16 categorizes the concept of
psychological warfare into four headings. According to him, psychological warfare can
be divided into four types: ‘strategic psychological warfare’, ‘tactical psychological
warfare’, ‘reinforcement psychological warfare’, and ‘provocation-type psychological
warfare’. Examining psychological warfare within this framework will facilitate a
clearer understanding of the concept.
Strategic psychological warfare is applied against everyone within the enemy’s
control and within the enemy’s operational area. This type of psychological warfare is
carried out taking into account the enemy’s sphere of influence. The target here is not
only the soldiers fighting on the enemy’s front lines. Also, non-combatant soldiers,
partisan or neutral communities, and civilians residing in that country are the targets.
During strategic psychological warfare, propaganda is used against the opposing
side. The preferred type of propaganda here is ‘white propaganda’ because the source
of white propaganda is clear, and it always provides the public with true information. In
this type of propaganda, the source being officially known and reliable is important.17
Taking these considerations into account, the most logical type of propaganda to be
used during strategic psychological warfare is white propaganda.
According to Tarhan, the propaganda used during strategic psychological warfare is
crucial in reaching the target. According to him, if gray or black propaganda is used
instead of white propaganda, individuals, groups, or states will not be able to achieve
their desired outcome. Tarhan explains this situation in his book ‘Psychological Warfare’
as follows: “Friend, foe is directed at all communities. The rear of the battle lines is
primarily planned. White propaganda is preferred. Credibility increases as the news
turns out to be true. The public does not listen to the radio they do not believe in, does
not read the newspaper they do not believe in, and if they do, they greet the information
with skepticism. Hitler’s use of black propaganda eventually failed and backfired; the
public began listening to radios they believed in, and British and U.S. broadcasting
organizations produced trustworthy broadcasts. As a result, the course of World War II
changed. In the Korean War, UN forces conducted radio propaganda against the Mig 15-
17 aircraft attack. The propaganda that $100,000 in American dollars would be given to
the Korean pilot who brought the Mig aircraft reduced the number of raids”18.
16 Tarhan N. Psikolojik Savaş. İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 1996. 352 s.
17 Erkiş I.U., Summak M.E. Propaganda ve Dış Politika // Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Meslek
Yüksekokulu Dergisi. 2014. Vol. 14 (1-2). S. 301.
18 Tarhan N. Psikolojik Savaş… S. 25-26.

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 237
As Tarhan stated, other types of propaganda, other than white propaganda, are of
little use during strategic psychological warfare.
Another type of psychological warfare is tactical psychological warfare. The purpose
of tactical psychological warfare is to provide direct short-term support to military
units fighting against the enemy19. The objectives of this type of psychological warfare
can be described as increasing obedience within society and raising the fear factor to
prevent negative reactions, directing and misleading the international public opinion,
and creating a rift between the local government and the people. Generally, one of the
goals of tactical psychological warfare is to deceive the enemy’s military units both
before and after the war. Many states in history have used tactical psychological
warfare methods.
One of the types of psychological warfare used in wars is reinforcing psychological
warfare. Reinforcing psychological warfare is typically planned for the post-war period.
This type of psychological warfare is often used to reassure people after conflicts and
make them feel secure. It is also employed to prevent any potential uprisings or
rebellions. The scope of this psychological warfare type includes assisting in the
protection of transportation lines and aiding military governments in establishing law
in occupied or liberated areas. It also involves collaborating with civilians and assisting
in post-war reconstruction efforts in war-torn areas, as well as helping establish places
like newspapers, television, and printing presses, as well as local governance20.
The examples provided by Tarhan, who is an expert on the subject, in his book on
reinforcing psychological warfare are quite remarkable.
During the Russian-German war, the Germans treated the Soviet population very
poorly. They took away herds of sheep and dismantled factories, earning the hatred of
the people. Initially, the population harbored resentment primarily towards Stalin and
his army. However, due to the Germans’ harsh treatment, they were forced to assist
Stalin’s army. Before the war, the Russian people viewed the Germans as liberators. But
as a result of the mistreatment they witnessed, they changed their views, cut off supply
routes, and contributed to the defeat of the German army. The Germans, who
considered themselves a pure, noble, and superior race, mistreated the Russian people,
and they paid the price for it21.
In this example, Tarhan draws attention to the damage that a strategic mistake
made by the Germans caused them. Another case given by Tarhan is about Turkey.
A similar application of psychological activities in peacetime can be observed in
Turkey during the 1940s. Turkey, which had not entered the war, managed the
significant task of staying out of it. However, during this period, the population was
treated very poorly, and people were marginalized through a second-class citizen
treatment. People wearing traditional clothing like ‘potur’ and ‘çarık’ were not allowed
to enter the city by the governor of Ankara at the time, Nevzat Tandoğan. Even playing
the saz (a traditional musical instrument) was prohibited, and practicing and teaching
their beliefs were under pressure. People were even prohibited from entering the
beaches. The oppression was so severe that on days when beach access was allowed,
the public would storm the beaches. The next day’s newspaper headlines would read,
19 Lord C. The Psychological Dimension in National Strategy // Frank L. Goldstein, Benjamin F. Findley
(Eds.). Psychological Operations: Principles and Case Studies. Alabama: Air University Press, 1996. P. 77.
20 Güneri Münir. Psikolojik Savaşın Önemi ve Yöntemi. İstanbul: K.K.K. Askerî Basımevi, 1967. S. 307.
21 Tarhan N. Psikolojik Savaş… S. 26-27.

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‘The public arrived, and citizens were left out’. In the free elections held in 1950, the
Democratic Party surprisingly secured the majority, defying the pressure groups22.
When paying attention to the examples provided by Tarhan, it is clear how
important a type of warfare supplementary psychological warfare is.
The last type of psychological warfare is provocation-type psychological warfare.
This type of psychological warfare emerges suddenly and is carried out with the aim of
attacking the opposing side. Individuals who want to provoke during rallies, funerals,
and demonstrations blend into the crowd and make provocative statements on
sensitive issues. Provocation-type psychological warfare generally affects uneducated,
unhappy, unemployed, and impoverished groups. The statements of provocateurs who
use this method are not only false but also have no basis.
The tension between Greece and Turkey, both on the international and national
levels, has been turned into a form of provocation-type psychological warfare by
Greece. In 1992, Greek Prime Minister Mitsotakis visited Turkey. Even the Greek Prime
Minister’s visit to Turkey was portrayed in the public eye by his political rival, the
Pasok party, and the Greek media with the headline, ‘Rise up, the Prime Minister is
selling everything’23.
Jean M. Domenach’s definition of propaganda is quite explanatory. Propaganda is an
initiative aimed at influencing the views and behaviors of people in the societal sphere
to encourage them to adopt a particular view or behavior24. Historically, states, political
organizations, and other actors have used propaganda to steer society and gain their
support. This can take various forms, involving media, communication tools, and the
manipulation of information. Propaganda can be used to shape the perspective of
society, support policies, or guide society in a specific direction.
Propaganda is a conscious form of communication aimed at influencing people’s
thoughts and behaviors. Unlike other forms of propaganda, white propaganda seeks to
use accurate and reliable information. In this type of propaganda, the aim is for
accurate information to create the desired effect25. White propaganda always sources
its information from specific, reliable, and official sources, which enhances its
credibility. This type of propaganda aims to use real and accurate information,
preventing the dissemination of false or misleading information to the public. White
propaganda seeks to debunk the enemy’s claims by informing the public with accurate
and reliable information, thereby exposing the falsehood or deception of the opposing
side.
White propaganda aims to guide the thoughts and behaviors of the target audience
with accurate information, with the goal of consciously informing society. In white
propaganda, false or suspicious information is not included. If such information is
included, it can damage the reputation of the propagandist and diminish the
effectiveness of the propaganda. White propaganda aims to assist people in making
their own informed choices by presenting information openly and honestly. Unlike
other forms of propaganda, white propaganda is based on a foundation of greater
transparency and honesty. However, the concept of propaganda itself should be
22 Ibid. S. 27.
23 Özsoy O. Propaganda ve Kamuoyu Oluşturma. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları, 1998. S. 215.
24 Domenach J.-M. Politika ve Propaganda. İstanbul: Varlık Yayınları, 2003. S. 17.
25 Avcı Ö. Propaganda Çeşitleri // M. Karaca & C. Çakı (Eds.). İletişim ve Propaganda. Konya: Eğitim
Yayınevi. 2018. S. 77.

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 239
handled carefully since it can have an influential impact on many people’s thoughts and
behaviors.
The type of propaganda that has the power to influence people’s thoughts and
behaviors and can steer society is gray propaganda. In this type of propaganda, the
information source is not officially known. For this reason, it is not entirely clear
whether the information provided is true or false. According to Nevzad Tarhan: “The
goal of gray propaganda can be to present something flawed, incomplete, or ambiguous
as complete and sufficient. Alternatively, it aims to cast doubt on something that is
already complete, sufficient, and clear, thereby shadowing or devaluing it. All kinds of
contradictions are skillfully employed in this method. Even if there is no contradiction,
it is acted as if there were, thus arousing the desired questions in people’s minds”26.
Another type of propaganda that influences societal structure is black propaganda.
In this type of propaganda, the source is entirely uncertain. However, those who use
black propaganda attempt to make the source appear reliable. Furthermore, the target
audience is directed to believe that the information is obtained from their own sources.
The most important characteristic of black propaganda is that society is unaware that
this information comes from the opposing side and is a form of propaganda. According
to Nevzad Tarhan, in black propaganda; “It aims to alter the facts, shake beliefs, and stir
up public opinion. When the source is understood, it loses its effect and rebounds. It
leads to an increase in hostile feelings”27.
THE CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE
In the 20th century, information wars became part of the military policy of states.
During the First World War, the so-called War Propaganda Bureau was created in Great
Britain (1914), which was later renamed the Office of War Information. In France,
under the second department of the General Staff of the Ministry of Defense, a
department of the Military Propaganda Service was created (1915). Thus, the main task
of the military propaganda department was to influence the enemy with the help of
leaflets. Each French army had an aircraft for distributing printed materials with
information and psychological influence. Both institutions were engaged in
disseminating propaganda among the military and civilians of other states.
In 1917, a psychological section was created in the United States at the intelligence
service of the headquarters of the expeditionary forces. The main means of conducting
information warfare at that time were leaflets, postcards, newspapers. The Russian
army used loudspeakers as technical means28. Other countries, to one degree or
another, tried to exert information and psychological influence on the enemy troops
and population, but the influence of this influence was significantly inferior to that of
England and France.
In Germany, until August 1918, it was prohibited to publish and distribute leaflets,
since, in the opinion of the country’s leadership, this was contrary to the rules of war. Of
the informational and psychological influence materials, only the newspaper ‘Gazette
des Ardennes’, published in French for the population of the occupied areas, was
allowed, which was distributed behind the front line using balloons.
26 Tarhan N. Psikolojik Savaş… S. 37.
27 Ibid. S. 38.
28 Медовкина Л.Ю. Эволюция информационных войн от древности к современности // Известия
Тульского государственного университета. Гуманитарные науки. № 3. С. 16.

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When the ban was lifted and Germany began mass publishing leaflets on American,
British and French troops, time was lost and it failed to achieve any tangible results
before the end of the war.
During the World War I, informational and psychological influence was exerted
through printed propaganda. The main types of printed propaganda materials were:
leaflets, brochures, letters from prisoners of war, postcards, posters, fake ration cards,
etc. These materials were distributed using aviation and balloons. One balloon was
used to deliver 2 kg of printed materials (500 to 1000 copies of leaflets).
Immediately after the World War I, interest in information warfare increased.
Works on psychological methods of warfare began to appear in many countries around
the world29. The generalized experience and accumulated theoretical knowledge in the
field of military propaganda in the West were combined into a single theory, which the
German scientist Fuller in 1921 called the theory of psychological warfare.
The English psychological warfare researcher P.G. Warburton wrote: “In modern
times, the main task in war is not to destroy the enemy’s armed forces, as it was before,
but to undermine the morale of the population of the enemy country as a whole to such
a level that it forces its government to make peace. An armed clash between armies is
only one of the means to achieve this goal”30.
Thus, the theory of information and psychological warfare began to be developed
during and after the World War I. Before World War II, there was active propaganda of
the regimes: in Germany 1933-1941 – Nazi propaganda, in the USSR – communist and
anti-capitalist, in the USA and Great Britain – capitalist and anti-communist. During the
World War II, the emphasis quickly shifted towards anti-Nazi propaganda. During
World War II, state propaganda agencies were already functioning.
After World War II, the theory of psychological warfare was enriched. Against the
backdrop of the confrontation between the USSR and the USA during the Cold War, as
well as in the local wars that took place at that time, information wars began to take on
new shapes. Thus, in 1950, the Department of Psychological Warfare was created in the
United States, which conducted an active propaganda campaign (including with the
help of so-called ‘propaganda shells’) during the Korean War. In turn, the propaganda
organs of the Korean People’s Army and the People’s Liberation Army of China, with
the support of the propaganda apparatus of the USSR Armed Forces, produced a large-
scale psychological impact on the military of South Korea and the United States, and
more successfully31. US propaganda agencies used new developments during the
Korean War, Vietnam War, Gulf War in 1991, in Yugoslavia, etc32. Thus, information
warfare in the 20th century often accompanied real military conflicts, being an integral
part of them.
29 Фролов Д.Б. Информационная война: эволюция форм, средств и методов // Социология власти.
2005. № 5. C. 132-133.
30 Cit. for: Медовкина Л.Ю. Эволюция информационных войн… С. 16; Медовкина Л.Ю. История
возникновения информационных войн // European journal of law and political sciences. 2016. № 3.
С. 11.
31 Колесов Э.Е. Информационная война в военных конфликтах второй половины 20 столетия:
исторический аспект. Киев: Национальная академия обороны Украины, 2007. C. 98-109.
32 See more details: Медовкина Л.Ю. Эволюция информационных войн…; Медовкина Л.Ю. История
возникновения информационных войн…; Колесов Э.Е. Информационная война в военных
конфликтах второй половины 20 столетия…; Волковский Н.Л. История информационных войн.
Т. 2: XX век / Под ред. И. Петрова. Санкт-Петербург: Полигон, 2003.

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 241
According to L. Medovkina, “In the modern era, politics is an integral component of
the dynamism of processes in society, which are expressed in a rapidly changing
environment, in the ambiguity, unforeseenness and paradox of both social processes
and their outcome. In turn, globalization, large-scale computerization, and the
improvement of modern information technologies have served as a source of
prosperity for information warfare in politics”33.
In the 21st century, we can already talk about ‘information confrontation’, which is
part of the political confrontation both in peacetime and against the backdrop of war.
Information is a powerful tool that directly affects the mental state of people. Today, the
role of information in manipulating human consciousness is very great. This process
occurs mainly due to the media. The media influences the psyche of people, their
personality and mass, introducing psychological techniques into the subconscious,
which is reflected in their behavior. In accordance with the impact that the means of
disseminating information, as subjects of electrical manipulation, limit society in
obtaining current, objective and necessary information for normal existence34.
New information systems and technologies – electronic media, the Internet, mobile
communications, global navigation – have further increased the possibilities of
information impact during the war. This allows such industrial states as the USA and
Japan to significantly strengthen their political, economic and military advantage
through leadership in the field of information, as well as to establish global information
control over other countries of the world, thereby establishing their own rules in the
real world. In addition, geocultural technologies play a significant role in propaganda,
as they are a way of disseminating culture and values that are beneficial to the
initiator35. This fact worries less developed countries, because their identity,
independence and sovereignty are under threat.
In the age of information wars, when the main task of any aggressor is not the
physical destruction of the enemy, but his reprogramming, the media act as weapons of
mass destruction. After all, the creation of specific media material is somewhat
reminiscent of the design of a weapon of mass destruction. They try to make the
number of fragments from each word, from each plot as large as possible, and the
radius of destruction as wide as possible. This means that the effect of these messages
is aimed at affecting as many elements and connections between them as possible in
the information system, which is influenced by the media. But there is a significant
obstacle to messages that are sent in all directions: the perception of a message
requires the joint concepts and categories contained in it and the recipient of this
message. Otherwise, the message will not reach its addressee, so the task of media
personnel is to produce messages that cover the level of their target audience as widely
as possible.
With the advancement of technology in today’s world, the importance of
psychological warfare has significantly increased. Technology serves as a crucial tool in
achieving the goals of psychological warfare. Parties utilizing psychological warfare
techniques have made significant progress through technological devices such as
33 Медовкина Л.Ю. Эволюция информационных войн… С. 18-19.
34 Talishinsky Bahruz E. Manipulation as a form of information-psychological war // Universidad Y
Sociedad. 2023. Vol. 15 (5). P. 143-150. URL: https://rus.ucf.edu.cu/index.php/rus/article/view/4060
35 Vysotskyi O., Holovko I. Vysotska O. Theory of geocultural technologies in international relations //
Journal of Geology, Geography and Geoecology. 2023. Vol. 32 (2). P. 430. DOI: 10.15421/112338

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newspapers, radio, television, and computers. This is because technology has made it
easier to access information and disseminate it to people. Parties involved in
psychological warfare employ various propaganda techniques and strategic maneuvers
to achieve their objectives.
With the evolving world, the boundaries of psychological warfare have expanded.
Starting from the 20th century, technological elements have taken a prominent role in
psychological warfare. The emergence of the internet and social media has further
widened the boundaries of psychological warfare. In today’s world, people are exposed
to a vast flow of information through various social media platforms. Among this
information, there is a significant amount of false and provocative content. Propaganda
is carried out on both national and international platforms on important issues. This
situation not only increases information pollution but also manipulates people.
The influence of the media in society was quickly noticed by the United States. In
addition to using various propaganda technologies in war-torn territories, military
circles in the United States began to develop strategies for manipulating consciousness
through the press, using rather crude methods: bribery, blackmail, threats, the use of
various non-material incentives, etc.
It is also worth paying attention to the fact that the main goal of information warfare
in politics is to discredit a political opponent, the political force that is most often in
power in the state, by forming a ‘convenient’ public opinion. Whatever state wages an
information war, it always aims to gain psychological superiority over the enemy. We
often have to talk about how certain states a win victories or suffer crushing defeats. In
both cases, information warfare plays a significant role.
AZERBAIJAN AND ARMENIA: INFORMATION-PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE
The ongoing tensions between Azerbaijan and Armenia, which remain relevant
today, contain many elements of psychological warfare. Each party uses all
communication channels to continue their psychological warfare. This highlights how
technology and the digital age have opened up new avenues for the use of psychological
warfare techniques, making it even more crucial to critically evaluate the information
we encounter and remain aware of the potential manipulative tactics employed in the
information sphere.
The tension between Azerbaijan, an important country of the South Caucasus, and
Armenia did not continue only in the form of a frontal war. Various propaganda
techniques were used to conduct psychological warfare before and after the First and
Second Nagorno-Karabakh wars. The historical roots of this tension date back to the
late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Armenian terrorist organizations that have emerged throughout history have
carried out horrifying massacres against the Azerbaijani people. The Armenian
terrorist organizations include the Armenakan Committee, Hunchak Committee,
Dashnak Committee, and ASALA. The Armenakan Committee, Hunchak Committee, and
Dashnak Committee, which were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
were responsible for numerous massacres. The ASALA (Armenian Secret Army for the
Liberation of Armenia) terrorist organization, on the other hand, was founded on
January 20, 1975, in Beirut36. The general focus of these organizations’ acts of terrorism
36 Çanakçı D. Geçmişten Günümüze ASALA ve PKK Terör Örgütü Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi // Orta
Doğu ve Orta Asya-Kafkaslar Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi. 2022. sy. 2 (2) (Kasım). S. 6.

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 243
was directed against the Turks. Their objective was to establish a Greater Armenia. In
particular, the Dashnak Committee considered the ‘Greater Armenia’ project to be its
most important goal37. One of the prominent members of the Dashnak Committee,
Mikaelyan, delivered a significant speech at the Committee’s inaugural congress. In his
speech, Mikaelyan stated: “During such a time, personal interests should be set aside,
and all Armenians should unite for the sake of national interests. Therefore, the
‘Armenian Revolutionary Societies’ should gather under one flag. All Armenians should
come together to declare war against the Ottoman government and fight for their
political and economic independence in Turkey, even if it means sacrificing their last
drop of blood for freedom”38. As can be understood from this speech, the Armenian
terrorist organizations that they established targeted Turkish populations and resorted
to all kinds of massacres in their efforts to create Greater Armenia.
The Armenians conducted terrorism activities against Azerbaijanis during 1903-
1905, 1917-1920, and the First Karabakh War. As a result of the massacres committed
by Armenians between 1903 and 1905, more than 10,000 people lost their lives, and
approximately 100,000 people were forced to leave their homes39. By March 1918,
Armenians had destroyed 199 Azerbaijani villages in Erivan, and by 1919, they had
ravaged 62 villages in the Echmiadzin district. Armenian terrorists killed 600 civilians
in the village of Güzeldere near Erivan on March 20-21, 1918, and between August 17
and 31, they destroyed 50 villages. As a result of these terrorist acts, 50,000 civilians
were displaced. Between December 1917 and March 1918, Armenian terrorists
attacked 199 Azerbaijani villages, subjecting 135,000 people to brutal torture40.
Armenians used these terrorist acts as propaganda material during and after the
First Karabakh War. They portrayed these actions not as acts of terrorism but as a
struggle for independence and utilized them as propaganda material both at the
national and international levels.
The activities of the Armenians were not limited to these events alone. In the late
20th century, during the First Karabakh War, they occupied 20% of Azerbaijani territory
and committed massacres against the civilian population. The First Karabakh War
resulted in horrifying massacres in Nagorno-Karabakh and its surrounding seven
districts, which were an essential part of Azerbaijan. Among these acts of terror against
civilians, the most brutal was the massacre of Khojaly on February 26, 1992. During
this massacre, Armenians subjected the civilian population, including women, children,
the elderly, and the sick, to severe torture. Some of the victims’ bodies were mutilated.
As a result of this Armenian genocide against the Azerbaijani people, 613 people,
including 63 children and 160 women, were killed, 1,275 people were taken captive,
and 150 people went missing41.
The acts of terrorism carried out by Armenians against Azerbaijanis since the early
20th century have indeed generated a sense of defeat among the Azerbaijani population
and, conversely, a sense of triumph among the Armenian population. Armenians have
37 Uras E. Tarihte Ermeniler ve Ermeni Meselesi. İstanbul: Belge Yayınları, 1987. S. 445.
38 Rzayev R. Azerbaycan’a Karşı Yönelmiş Ermeni Terörizminin Mahiyeti, Nedenleri ve Sonuçları. Yüksek
Lisans tezi. İstanbul: İstanbul Aydın Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2019. S. 37.
39 Nazim M. İrəvan quberniyasında azərbaycanlıların soyqırımı: 1918-1920. Bakü: Bilim Yayınları, 2017.
S. 24.
40 Rzayev R. Azerbaycan’a Karşı Yönelmiş Ermeni Terörizminin Mahiyeti… S. 64-65.
41 Allahverdiyev T. Azerbaycan ve Ermenistan Arasındaki Karabağ Sorunu. Yüksek Lisans tezi. Bursa:
Uludağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2010. S. 88.

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used this situation as a psychological warfare tactic. Utilizing communication channels
such as the media and social media, Armenians conducted both domestic and
international black propaganda campaigns, achieving an advantage until the Second
Nagorno-Karabakh War that began on September 27, 2020.
However, during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, the Armenians suffered defeat
and lost a significant portion of the occupied territories, reversing this situation. The
victorious Azerbaijani people have shaken off their sense of defeat and have become
more resilient in facing their adversaries.
In the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia used Azerbaijan’s defeat as a
propaganda tool. This continued until the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Armenians
presented themselves as a victorious people who had won the war, displaying a strong
stance both to their own community and to Azerbaijanis. It’s important to note that
there were various factors contributing to Armenia’s victory.
Indeed, Armenia received crucial support from Russia and didn’t hesitate to employ
various forms of terrorism to secure victory in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.
Furthermore, the weakness of Azerbaijan, a newly independent state following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union, and its inability to receive support from any other
country, worked in favor of Armenia. Up until the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War,
Armenia used psychological warfare tactics to project itself as a stronger state than
Azerbaijan, both on the national and international stage. They effectively utilized radio,
television, newspapers, and the internet for this purpose. Their black propaganda
efforts instilled confidence and courage among their own people.
Armenia did indeed use black propaganda effectively, not only leading up to the
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War but also during the conflict itself. During the 44 days of
the war, which ended with Azerbaijan’s victory, Armenia continued to employ
manipulation through various communication channels. During the Second Nagorno-
Karabakh War, Armenia propagated misinformation about ethnic groups living in
Azerbaijan, claiming that they did not want to fight and were deserting the army. They
particularly spread false information regarding the Talish and Lezgian populations in
Azerbaijan, alleging that they were eager to leave the military and didn’t want to engage
in conflict with Armenia. However, the Azerbaijani side swiftly intervened, clarifying
that this information was disinformation42. Armenia indeed used propaganda tactics to
spread many false news stories during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Throughout
the conflict, Armenia attempted to manipulate both its own population and the
opposing side through psychological warfare tactics but ultimately failed to achieve its
objectives. After officially losing the war on November 10, 2020, the Armenian people
began to criticize Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan harshly and demanded his
resignation. Some Armenians even labeled Pashinyan as a traitor to the homeland43.
During the First Karabakh War, Armenia had gained a superior position, but it lost it
during the Second Karabakh War. The psychological warfare techniques it had used to
influence both its own society and Azerbaijanis lost their effectiveness after the Second
Karabakh War. Consequently, from the date of its defeat in the war, the Armenian
people rose up, organized protests against the existing government, and called for the
42 Salamoğlu E. Ermənilərin iflasa uğrayan təxribatı – Talış zonasının ziyalılarından və ləzgi deputatdan
sərt reaksiya // Yeni Müsavat. 04.11.2020. URL: https://bit.ly/3S0DBUs
43 Konular İ. Ermenistan’da ordu Başbakan Paşinyan’ın istifasını istedi: Siyasi kriz bu noktaya nasıl geldi?
// BBC. Turkce. 25 Şubat 2021. URL: https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-56193035

СУЧАСНА ІСТОРІЯ 245
prime minister to resign. This is because the propaganda techniques that had been used
to influence their own people until the Second Karabakh War had lost their impact. The
people had become aware of the black propaganda conducted by the government and
rebelled against the existing regime.
As for Azerbaijan, thanks to the Second Karabakh War, Azerbaijanis they have
overcome their sense of defeat and have begun to stand more firmly against the enemy.
Azerbaijan’s vulnerable position during the First Karabakh War disappeared with the
Second Karabakh War. The main reason for this is Azerbaijan’s surpassing its opponent
in the crucial field of information-psychological warfare tactics, which is one of today’s
most significant issues. Compared to Armenia, Azerbaijan is not only better at utilizing
information-psychological warfare tactics, but also more effectively controls
communication channels and social media. Furthermore, one of Azerbaijan’s major
advantages is that they have never used gray or black propaganda during the war.
Using white propaganda tactics in all circumstances, Azerbaijan has gained a significant
advantage over Armenia.
CONCLUSIONS
Analyzing the above, we note that, over time, a transformation of information wars
took place, but their main goal of the war remained to show the advantage of the army
and the state through propaganda. It should be noted that in the 20th century,
information-psychological wars became part of the military policy of states. Now, due
to the current situation on the world stage, the methods and means of conducting
information-psychological warfare are changing and every year they are reaching a
higher level.
It can also be stated that in the 21st century, information-psychological wars have
become more widespread. In summary, the historical context and evolution of
information-psychological warfare demonstrate its enduring significance as a tool for
states to achieve their strategic and political goals. As technology and global politics
continue to evolve, information-psychological warfare is likely to remain a key
component of statecraft and international relations.
Modern information warfare is an aggressive action of one country or a whole group
of countries in relation to others using not only military power, but also a whole set of
other resources (economic, informational, ideological, etc.) that make it possible to exert
massive pressure in order to influence behavior enemy and achieving certain goals.
If the use of conventional weapons and means of warfare by countries in relation to
each other is sufficiently fully regulated by international law (protection of individual
rights; the right of parties to choose means and methods of war; prohibition of the use
of weapons capable of causing unlawful destruction or excessive suffering to people;
the need for respect and protection of the rights of the wounded, sick, prisoners and
civilians; a ban on attacks on objects on which the survival of the civilian population
depends; any types of torture and ill-treatment of people, hostage-taking, etc.), then
modern information-psychological wars are conducted in the complete absence
compliance with international legal (which have not yet been developed) and moral
and ethical standards.
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Надійшла до редакції / Received: 07.10.2023 Схвалено до друку / Accepted: 01.12.2023