ROLE OF MENTAL TRAINING IN SPORTS PERFORMANCE: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL

Abstract

Mental training is very much in vogue, yielding sterling results in sports and athletic performances.A growing body of research in this area constantly exemplifies that mental training is becoming an indispensable part in athletic preparation programme, particularly when physical training inevitably becomes more and more one-sided approach to build a complete athlete. The main objective of this review article is to investigate and understand the role of mental training in sports performance. Studies that matched and fulfilled the primary objective of the article were considered, reviewed, presented systematically and interpreted critically. Different types of mental technique such as self-talk, imagery, goal setting, physical relaxation, biofeedback, mindfulness training, yoga based mental training and cognitive training have been reported as instrumentalto enhance sports performance. Mental training develops an athlete's different psychological skills such as recovery skills, volitional skills, arousal regulation skills, copping skills, motivational skills, perceptual cognitive skills, motor control skills, self-skills and life skills. These skills help an athlete to overcome different difficult situations in the competition and motivate to set a high aspiration. This review study unfolds some fundamental concepts of mental training and its application to nurture and prepare an athlete for better performance.

Full text

International Journal of Research Padagogy and
Technology in Education and Movement Sciences
2023 Volume 12 Number 03 JUL-SEP
E-ISSN:2319-3050
Review Article
Mental Training and Performance
Publisher
www.theuniversityacademics.com
Role of Mental Training in Sports Performance: A Critical Appraisal
Pramanik P1†, Chatterjee S2*†
DOI:https://doi.org/10.55968/ijems.v12i03.379
1† Palash Pramanik, PhD Research Scholar, Department of Physical Education, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
2*† Sridip Chatterjee, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
Mental training is very much in vogue, yielding sterling results in sports and athletic performances.A
growing body of research in this area constantly exemplifies that mental training is becoming an
indispensable part in athletic preparation programme, particularly when physical training inevitably
becomes more and more one-sided approach to build a complete athlete. The main objective of this
review article is to investigate and understand the role of mental training in sports performance.
Studies that matched and fulfilled the primary objective of the article were considered, reviewed,
presented systematically and interpreted critically. Different types of mental technique such as self-
talk, imagery, goal setting, physical relaxation, biofeedback, mindfulness training, yoga based
mental training and cognitive training have been reported as instrumentalto enhance sports
performance. Mental training develops an athlete’s different psychological skills such as recovery
skills, volitional skills, arousal regulation skills, copping skills, motivational skills, perceptual
cognitive skills, motor control skills, self-skills and life skills. These skills help an athlete to overcome
different difficult situations in the competition and motivate to set a high aspiration. This review
study unfolds some fundamental concepts of mental training and its application to nurture and
prepare an athlete for better performance.
Keywords:
Corresponding Author How to Cite this Article To Browse
Sridip Chatterjee, Associate Professor, Department of
Physical Education, Jadavpur University, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India.
Email:
Pramanik P, Chatterjee S. Role of Mental Training in
Sports Performance: A Critical Appraisal. IJEMS.
2023;12(03):121-130.
Available From
https://ijems.net/index.php/ijem/article/view/379
Manuscript Received Review Round 1 Review Round 2 Review Round 3 Accepted
2023-02-16 2023-04-06 2023-05-17 2023-05-24 2023-05-30
Conflict of Interest Funding Ethical Approval Plagiarism X-checker Note
Nil Nil Yes 13
© 2023by Pramanik P, Chatterjee Sand Published by The University Academics. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ unported [CC BY 4.0].
2023;12(03)121

Introduction
A gold winning performance oftentimes is at delta
difference from a silver winning act. If we dig deep
into the phenomenon of this differentiating enigma
beyond an esoteric explanation, a huge Mexican
wave in the gallery, flashes ofcameras and an
intense nerve of the epic moment, we will find a
gold winning top performance is pillared upon few
logical, scientific and progressive training methods
(Figure 1), among them “mental training” is one of
the most crucial and instrumental preparations
towards a definingmoment of achievement. With the
passing of time, modern contemporary spots
psychology is underlining time over again the
importance of body mind resonance. In sports,
while achieving a flow or a peak performance, a
well-developed physical body is sometimes of less
use compared to a fiery, one-pointed, concentrated
and aliened mind and for preparing such mind
construct, mental training as a toolhas to be taken
care of with critical importance. Here we make an
attempt to summarize the research studies related
to mental training and its effect on sports
performance.
Fig. 1. Scientific and Progressive Training Methods
for Top Performance
Enclosed as Annexure 01
Overview of Mental Training
The idea of using mental training in sports was first
systematically introduced in Soviet Union in 1950s.
Later in the 1970s and 1980s, other Eastern Bloc
countries, including East Germany and Romania,
systematically applied mental training to sports. In
1938, American sport psychologist Coleman Griffith
was assigned to the Chicago Cubs professional
baseball team to develop the players’ performances.
In the 1950s, David Tracy was hired as a mental
training consultant for the St. Louis Browns
professional baseball team. He used relaxation
techniques, self-talk, thought- stopping, and
hypnosis to help athletes perform. Richard M. Suinn,
an American clinical psychologist, evaluated the
usefulness of mental training (relaxation, imagery,
and behavioural rehearsal) in elite skiers. By the
1980s, mental skills training was promising to
become a major focus for research and practices in
North American sportpsychology. Today, the
application of mental training in sports is growing
widely around the world.
Scientific Exposition of Mental Training in Exercise
and Sports Science
Mental training is the preparation of an individual’s
mind to improve and reach their peak performance.
Sports psychology considers mental training as an
integral part of athletic performance, with a specific
focus on helping athletes to break through the
mental stigmas that are keeping them from putting
forth their peak potential.
Different Techniques of Mental Training
To improve one’s peak performance in sports, a
number of mental training methods such as self-
talk, imagery, goal setting, physical relaxation,
mindfulness training, biofeedback, yoga-based
mental training, and cognitive training have been
proposed by various scholars.A number of research
studies have shown only one mental technique
practice to increase sports performance, where
some other studies have suggested a group of
mental technique practices for maximum
performance.
Interrelation between Mental Technique,
Psychological Skill and Performance Outcome
Mental techniques develop an athlete’s different
psychological skills such as recovery skills relating
with minimizing the prevalence of injury, volitional
skills relating with overcoming fatigue and pain,
arousal regulation skills concerning with regulating
stress and fear, motivational skills, perceptual
cognitive skills, motor control skills, self-attitude
and adjustment skills. These skills help an athlete to
overcome different difficult situations in the
competition and empowered them to enhance their
performance as given in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. The Relationship between Mental,
Physiological Skill and Performance Outcomes
Enclosed as Annexure 02
Self-talk and Sports Performance
Self-talk is a widely appreciated mental technique to
enhance sports performance. It is an individual’s
soliloquy, an interpretation of his/her own thoughts
rationally or just reading one’s own thoughts aloud
as a form of self- counselling. Athletes use “self-
talk” or “trigger words” as cues to motivate
themselves or manage their nerves. In addition,
Self-talk builds Self-confidence
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2023;12(03)122

That leads to elite performance. This silent cognitive
activity, or “self-talk” can be positive (e.g., “I’m
ready”, “I feel good”), negative (e.g.,“I’m too tired
to continue”), instructional (e.g., “look at the ball”)
and motivational (e.g., “Yes! Come on, let’s go!”).
Successful Olympians manage their thoughts
effectively, making sure they are their best friend at
the top of the slope or out on center ice. For
example, British Olympian Paula Radcliffe, who won
the 2007 New York City Marathon, reported that she
silently counted her steps to try to stay focused
during the race. As she explains: “I count to 100
three times, that’s one mile. It helps me focus on
the moment and not think about how many miles I
have to go. I focus on breathing andstepping and I
go into myself”.15So here are some affirmation
statements used by athletes in different sporting
situations are given in table 1
Table 1. Examples of Self-affirmation Statements to
be used by athletes
Enclosed as Annexure 03
Some review reports which established the efficacy
of self-talk on sports performance are discussed
here. In a descriptive study, Hardy et al., (2001)
examined the four W’s (i.e., where, when, what, and
why) of self-talk and reported that well-planned,
effective self-talk leads to skill acquisition and
betterperformance in athletes. Research indicates
that national standard skiers using positive self-talk
significantly improved their cross-country skiing
performance compared to a control condition. For
another instance, skilled university level tennis
players improved their volley performance at the
net after using the triggering words ‘split’ and ‘turn’.
It has been documented that female youth soccer
player tend to use well-constructed self-talk as a
treatment to increase their low-drive soccer
shooting performance. Researchers have also
shownthat talented athletes use self-talk in a more
planned and balanced manner than less talented
athletes, who tend to think reactively.
Hatzigeorgiadis et al., (2004) hasorganized a study
to assess the efficacy of self-talk on thought content
and performance on water-polo tasks.For this study,
two experiments were performed with a precision
task and another power task. Two different types of
self-talk were used, namely instructional and
motivational. Results indicated that different types
of self-talk can be helpful in improving different
types of performance (e.g., precision vs. power
Tasks). Research has also substantiated that a self-
affirmation intervention can improve psychological
states (i.e., somatic state anxiety, self-confidence,
self-optimization, and self-efficacy) and sports
performance of junior athletes. Moreover, Park et
al., (2020) has also shown that self-talk is useful in
motivating shooting athletes and encouraging
effortful behaviour.
Imagery Training and Sports Performance
Imagery is a strategy that can positively influence
the sports performance. Vealey and Greenleaf
(2001) defined imagery as a creation or recreation
of experience or visual image in the mind that
seems to be real by using one’s senses. For
example, Kayla Jean Harrison, an American
professional mixed martial artist and former
Olympic and world champion judoka, who is seeking
to defend her Olympic judo title at the Rio Games,
spends time daily imagining success at the Olympic
Games. As she explains: “Every night I visualize
myself wining the Olympics… I picture myself
bombing the girl in the final and standing on top of
the podium and watching the flag go up and feeling
the gold medal go around my neck and hugging my
coach. I visualize all of that every night.” Sport
psychology today suggests visualizing the positive
outcome and what you want from a game or match.
This can help to boost athletes’ confidence and
outlook before sport setting.Imagery has five key
characteristics: modality, perspective, angle, agency
and deliberation are given in table 2.
Table. 2.Key Characteristics of the Imagery Process
Enclosed as Annexure 04
Hall et al., (1998) categorized five types of imagery
used by athletes: cognitive specific, cognitive
general, motivational specific, motivational general
arousal, and motivational general mastery.
Research has proved that successful athletes use
imagery more enormously and more scientifically
than less successful athletes shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3. Summary of Research Support for the
Effectiveness of Imagery.
Enclosed as Annexure 05
However,Evens et al., (2004) has made a strong
argument that 14 weeks of imagery training can
improve sports performance (i.e.,clarity, control
over anxiety, activity and motivation
Role of Mental Training in Sports Performance: A Critical Appraisal
2023;12(03)123

Levels, self-confidence, and playing abilities) of a
23-year-old elite rugby union player.Cumming & Hall
(2002) has shown thatprovincial and national level
athletes use significantly more imagery, regardless
of function and physical and technical training, than
regional level athletes.In addition to these facts,
researches have substantiated that imagery
associated with coping strategies significantly
affects the sports performance. After an overall
estimation it can be said thatplayers use imagery
for a variety of reasons related to skill
improvement, strategy development and practice,
competition preparation, adaptation with venues
and psychologicalpreparations, and improving
mental skills, as well as coping with several
sportingcomplications, such as injuries,
hardtraining, and distractions
Goal Setting and Sports Performance
Goal setting is the cornerstone for elite athletes to
great sports performance. Researchers have defined
a goal simply as ‘what an individual is trying to
accomplish; it is the object or aim of the action’.
Goal-setting is directly linked up with motivation
that effectively empowers athletes to become more
productive and effective. Research indicates that
there are three main types of goals: (a) process
goals, (b) performance goals, and (c) outcome
goals. Athletes should use all three to maximize
their goal-setting effectiveness as shown in figure 4.
Fig. 4. Athletes should focus on Combination of
outcome, Performance, and Process Goals
Enclosed as Annexure 06
A through study and researches indicate that the
goal-setting method is effective for enhancing task-
specific acts on-field behaviour in male rugby union
players aged 21-24 years. O’ Brien (2009) also
shown that the goal-setting intervention is effective
in consistent improvement in goal-directed
behaviour, easier interpretations of anxiety
symptoms, and greater self-confidence ofelite
boxers whereas in inconsistent patterns of non-elite
boxers.In addition, enhancement of sports
performanceGould (2001) has used three phases of
goal-settingfor coaches including planning, meeting,
and follow-up/evaluation phases. Burton and
Naylon(2002) have developed a seven-stage model
for applying goal setting to athletes’ sports
performance.
Physical Relaxation and Sport Performance
Physical relaxation technique is an effective
technique to enhance sports performance. Specially
athletes use progressive muscle relaxation (PMR)
and autogenic training to reduce anxiety and to
better performance. Progressive relaxation depends
on dynamic contraction and relaxing of muscles,
where autogenic training depends on feelings
associated with the limbs and muscles of the body.
Research has found that regular use of relaxation
techniques helps to control athletes’ physical
energy. Ortiz &Grange (2006) have shown that
women golfers’ sports performance has been
greater improved through a 3 months progressive
relaxation intervention when compared to control
group.In addition, Parnabas et al., (2014) claimed
that progressive muscle relaxation techniques are
effective in improving athlete’s sports performance.
In a noteworthy studyLiang et al., (2021) concluded
that one-monthof progressive relaxation training
(PRT) has been effective in pre competition anxiety
and sports performance among college student
athletes.However, research has found that
compared to a classical training condition, 6-week
classical training plus autogenic training showed a
greater improvement in terms of standing stability
control while shooting in the French Biathlon, a
winter sport. Furthermore, it is also noted that a
progressivemuscle relaxation (PMR) and autogenic
relaxation (AGR) intervention can regulate the mood
of young soccer players.
Mindfulness Training and Sports Performance
Mindfulness training is a key performance-
enhancing strategy and is part of the canon of
sports psychology. The concept of mindfulness
originated from Buddhist meditation practices and
has been further developed and modified by various
scholars. A key element of mindfulness is, indeed,
the non-judgmental focus of one’s attention on
experience as it occurs in the here and now.
Cottraux (2007) defined mindfulness as “a mental
state resulting from voluntarily focusing one’s
attention on one’s present experience in its
sensorial, mental, cognitive, and emotional aspects,
in a non-judgmental way.”
Some prominent sports scientists and researchers
have conducted several research studies to
investigate the relationship between mindfulness
training and sports performance. Recent
researchsuggests that mindfulness training
Role of Mental Training in Sports Performance: A Critical Appraisal
2023;12(03)124

May be more effective than other psychological
skills training methods for improving athletic
performance. Mindfulness-based training can
develop physical health, mental health, cognitive
and affective outcomes, and interpersonal outcomes
as shown by Creswell (2017). Research also
indicates that 6 weeks mindfulness traininghad a
great effect on the players’ flow state, which also
enhanced performance. In a prospective event-
related study Nien et al., (2020) has shown that 5-
week mindfulness training program could increase
the level of awareness, endurance performance and
multiple cognitive functions, including executive
functions and they suggest that mindfulness training
can also reduce conflict monitoring in neural
processes. In addition,Chen & Meggs(2020)
presented an intervention study to observe the
efficacy of a Mindful Sports Performance
Enhancement (MSPE) program on the mindfulness
and flow of sixteen competitive adolescent
swimmers. For this study, they were divided into
MSPE (n = 9) and relaxation training (RT) (n = 7)
groups. At the end of eight weeks, the intervention
study revealed significant improvement in global
trait flow and action awareness fusion and clear
goals subscales for the MSPE group compared to the
RT group.The study ofCherup&Vidic., (2019) has
made a strong argument that mindfulness training
positively affects the factors that enhance athletic
performance, such as mindfulness, dispositional
flow, and perceived stress among Division-I female
gymnasts.Another study byBuhlmayer et al., (2017)
has substantiated that mindfulness-based
intervention can improve athletic performance.
Biofeedback and Sports Performance
The application of biofeedback arose in the late
1960s from the field of psychophysiology. It is one
of the most important methods for improving
performance in sports.Biofeedback (BFB) is the use
of specialized electronic devices with electrodes and
sensors to assess, monitor, and provide feedback on
an individual’s psychophysiological information. The
basic idea of BFB is to provide the individual with
information about his/her body’s or mind’s reactions
to different situations.
Figure 5 represents the role of Biofeedback training
(BFB) in athletic performance enhancement.It has
been shown that competition stress (1) is usually
associated with changes in physiological parameters
such as increased heart rate, blood pressure,
Muscle tension and respiration (2). Based on the
psychophysiological principle, physiological changes
are associated with the physical and mental state of
the athlete. The BFB training process involves
learning and improving self-monitoring and self-
regulation skills in different BFB modalities (3). The
end result is an improvement in the athlete's ability
to self-regulate (4), leading to an increase in
performance (5) under competitive stress.
Fig. 5. Biofeedback training and performance
enhancement
Enclosed as Annexure 07
Research indicates thattwo months of biofeedback
training can help to stabilize emotional arousal of a
20-year-old male athlete, which leads to desired
success in sports. Bar-Eli & Bblumenstein
(2004)have claimed that biofeedback training has
beensignificantly effective in improving performance
of Israeli 16–18-year-old pre-elite swimmers.Paul et
al., 2012 studied the biofeedback of basketball
players (18-28 years old) in optimizing the
psychomotor activity. 30 basketball players for this
study (Male: Female- 16:14) were included from
Amritsar. The participants were randomized into
three equal groups. Experimental group underwent
heart rate variability biofeedback for 10 consecutive
days of 20 min. and placebo group underwent
motivational video for 10 continuous days for 10
min. where control group had no training. Research
shows that biofeedback training can help train
stressed athletes to control their
psychophysiological processes related to sport. A
gamut of researchessuggeststhat an integrated
program of biofeedback and psychological skills
training (e.g., relaxation, imagery, self-talk,
concentration, breathing, readinessreaction time,
relaxation to music) can enhance athletic
performance of Canada’s Olympic short track speed
skating team.
Yoga Based Mental Training and Sports
Performance
In modern era, yoga based mental training specially
dharana (concentration) and dhyana (meditation) is
an evolving tool to facilitate sports performance.
“Peak performance is meditation on motion” is a
revealing quote from Olympic champion diver Greg
Louganis that perfectly encapsulates the important
role of meditation in “making the mind quite” for
many athletes. Novak Djokovic,
Role of Mental Training in Sports Performance: A Critical Appraisal
2023;12(03)125

A Serbian professional tennis player explained
“Meditation is really important to me; it is one of
the main points in my day to day, not only in
training or in my tennis career”.In yoga based
mental training athletes find spark. Joseph William
Namath, a well-known American athlete who have
engaged the practice of Transcendental Meditation
to achieve top performance in sports competitions.
Some prominent sports scientists have done some
researches on the effect of yoga-based mental
training on sports performance, the gist is discussed
as follows:
Solberg et al., (1996) conducted an experimental
study of the effects of meditation on shooting
performance. 25 elite shooters (men: 21 and
women: 4) aged 18-46 years were enrolled in this
study. After the initial test shooting, the subjects
were divided into two groups: experimental group
(n=13) and a control group (n=12). The
experimental group underwent ACEM meditation 1
day/week (30 minutes) for 7 weeks, and the control
group received no mental training. After the
intervention, the authors showed that the score
differences between 1992 to 1993 were significantly
better in the meditation group as compared to
control group (P<0.05). There was no significant
difference in test shooting between the two groups
before and after the intervention.Colzato & Kibele.
(2017) has made a strong argument that the
distinction between focused attention meditation
(FAM) and open monitoring meditation (OMM)
seems to be beneficial when considering different
types of sports, such as closed-skills sports (i.e.,
archery, gymnastic) and open-skills sports (i.e.,
soccer, sailboarding). In addition, researchers have
found a positive correlation (P < .01) between the
use of meditation and sports performance. The
practice of meditation not only relaxes the mind and
body, but also enhances concentration. These help
athletes increase their performance levels in sports.
However, it is noted that the practice of trataka
(yogic visual concentration) has great impact on
shooting performance of children at district level.
Cognitive Training and Sports Performance
In the field of sports psychology, cognitive training
has been widely recommended by athletes and
coaches as a performance enhancement strategy.
This technique focuses on the athletes’ thoughts
and perceptions. Cognitive
Training includes different types of techniques such
as cognitive restructuring, mental rehearsal,
cognitive appraisal, and self-efficacy.
A systematic review and meta-analysis by Slimani
et al., (2016) haveshowed that the cognitive
training hasgreat effect on soccer performance.In
addition, recent research has shownthat cognitive
strategies may enhance the athletes’ strength
performance during competition and training.
However, De Witt., (1980) hasreported that
cognitive and biofeedback training can reduce
stressof university athletes.
Conclusion
All the psychosomatic trainings in sports constitute
a successful sports career and among them, the
invisible yet most visible aspect of sport is
structured with the faculty of mind. Here in this
research study a thorough scientific probing has
been made into the corridors of the mind, seeking
the answer to the question, “how an athlete can
attain peak performance?” and this question is dealt
by a systematic, scientific approach where the
aspect of mental training has much to say.
Annexure
Annexure 01
Annexure 02
Annexure 03
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Annexure 04
Annexure 05
Annexure 06
Annexure 07
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