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Review Not peer-reviewed version
Learning Challenges of Architectural
Education in early Twenty-first century:
A Systematic Literature Review
Abdulqadir Bayz Hammadamin * and Jestin Nordin
Posted Date: 25 January 2024
doi: 10.20944/preprints202401.1807.v1
Keywords: AE; learning approaches; technology innovation; sustainability; history
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Review
Learning Challenges of Architectural Education in
early Twenty-First Century: A Systematic Literature
Review
Abdulqadir Bayz Hammadamin 1,* and Jestin Nordin 2
1 School of Housing, Building, and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Penang,
Malaysia; abdulqadir.bayz@student.usm.my
2 School of Housing, Building, and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Penang,
Malaysia; jestin.nordin@usm.my
* Correspondence: abdulqadir.bayz@student.usm.my
Abstract: Architectural Education (AE), as a multidisciplinary field of knowledge, has been through various
learning forms, and several learning theories have been adapted to respond to progressive change in the
learning environment context and increasing demand for a sustainable built environment. However, it is
noticeable that there needs to be more research collaboration efforts among architecture schools and more focus
on practice sessions in AE. Therefore, this systematic literature review intends to synthesize the most dominant
challenges and examine trends in AE during the early decades of the twenty-first century. This study used the
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) as the review protocol. The
keywords have been identified and searched in Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases. The authors
analyzed ninety-six articles between 2000 and 2023 based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The analysis
of the relevant articles provided valuable insights into research intention. The review reveals the four main
themes in AE, namely (1) learning approaches, (2)technology innovation, (3) sustainability, and (4) history.
Furthermore, the researchers discuss experiential learning, blended learning, e-learning, and online learning
as the most used learning methods in architecture schools. More research on art, social context, and the physical
built environment seems crucial for enhancing AE. This study comprehensively reviews the state of the art on
AE by interpreting the most dominant architectural issues and learning challenges. The outcome is valuable
for improving the learning environment in architecture schools.
Keywords: AE; learning approaches; technology innovation; sustainability; history
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of AE
The AE begins with the history of human civilization and massive infrastructure construction
for protection purpose and community service. Although there are few artefacts of the records about
architecture education and practice, the remaining historical sites and monumental buildings are
extraordinary evidence of human skill development in arts and architecture. For instance, the
sculpture of the ancient Mesopotamian ruler of Lagash Gudea, who was one of the famous Neo-
Sumerian kings (2144-2124 before the Common Era), is one of the great pieces of evidence of
architecture practice and profession, as displayed in Figure 1 [1].The king was famous for his skills
in artwork and the design skills of religious buildings. In Figure 1, the building plan of the new
template can be observed beside the ruler and measurement tools.
The practice of architecture has been different among nations throughout history due to cultural,
weather, and social context factors. Guidelines have been drawn up for architecture education and
practice by professional architects. For instance, the Greek architect and writer Vitruvius
demonstrated the principles of architecture education and practice in his book "Ten Books of
Architecture"[2]. In his first book, Education in Architecture, he concluded that architects must be
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© 2024 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license.
2
skilled and knowledgeable in drawing skills, geometry, history, art, medicine, philosophy, physics,
music, mathematics, climate, and water[2].
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) The Sculpture of Gudea ruler of Lagash; (b) the plan for new religious building with
architectural drawing tools (adopted from Collections. Louvre [3]).
1.2. AE as Higher Education
The AE, the educational institution that started in Paris for the first time, was the Academie
d'Architecture in 1671[4]. Due to the French Revolution, the school was closed, followed by the
opening of the Ecole de Beaux Art and The Ecole Polytechnique, which significantly influenced the
architectural profession and AE globally [5]. The architectural practice known as atelier practice is
the dominant learning form in French architecture schools [4]. During the late nineteenth century and
the twentieth century, architecture schools were opened globally. In the 1930s, the Bauhaus teaching
methods were invented by German architecture groups [6]. The AE has been transformed from a
professional practice to a community academy[6]. Studio-based learning is the dominant learning
practice in Bauhaus architecture school. Since then, design studios have been the core subject for all
architecture schools worldwide. However, several researcher highlighted that design studios are
frequently isolated from everyday life and tends to focus on theory without experience [7]. Architects
and researchers have raised several ideas and theories in AE since the twentieth century.
The AE and architectural professionals have been influenced significantly during the twenty-
first century due to the rapid development of technology, global warming concerns, and social
reforms. Several community organizations provide guidelines for supporting AE. For instance, the
Union International Architecture (UIA) provides guidelines and fundamental principles for AE at the
international level. It encourages collaboration among architecture schools and constructivism
professionals on a broader scale [8].
The existing body of literature on AE has increased and diversified widely in recent years due
to the nature of architecture as a multidisciplinary field, and it is hard to have a clear and
comprehensive insights into AE. Hence, most current studies focus on the specific issues that directly
affect and contribute to AE. For instance, Ummihusna and Zairul [9] focused on the contribution of
immersive technology adaptation to the AE. In addition, Rice and Drane [10] investigated the most
common indicators of healthy architecture in the built environment.
Scholars, architects, and educationalists in architecture schools need to have considerable insight
into all matters and concerns that contribute to and have an influence on AE directly or indirectly.
Based on this assumption, the authors conduct this systematic literature review to provide insight
into current challenges in AE. The main aim of the review is to synthesize the existing literature on
AE and highlight the essential learning issues and approaches in AE.
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2. Methodology
2.1. The development and validation of the review protocol
This review explores the current state of learning and teaching challenges in AE. The first
objective of the research was to conduct a systematic review of the existing literature to identify the
sequence of the dominant learning issues in AE. To support this objective, a protocol was developed
using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement
[11]. The guideline was recently updated to the PRISMA 2020 statement, which has been designed
primarily for systematic reviews of studies that evaluate the effects of health interventions,
irrespective of the design of the included studies [11]. Notably, the PRISMA 2020 statement has a
27-item checklist.
2.2. The formulation of research questions
The authors formed the research question by adopting the Population, Intervention,
Comparison, and Outcomes (PICO) concept to construct a clear and concise review process[12]. The
current review aims to answer the following research question systematically: What were the most
dominant learning challenges and issues in AE during the early decades of the twenty-first century?
The results will be crucial for examining and enhancing the learning styles' effectiveness in AE and
identifying the strengths and limitations of each learning approach, especially for the design studio
sessions. Thus, by adopting the PICO formulation theory, populations were AE, the intervention of
interest-dominant issues. No restriction was placed on the control/comparator; the outcome was
learning and teaching challenges (as highlighted in Appendix A).
2.3. Systematic Searching Strategies
The systematic literature review follows the PRISMA protocol, which includes three main
processes: Identification, Screening, and Inclusion (Figure 2). That helps the authors to produce a
systematic literature review that is reproducible and transparent.
2.3.1. Identification
• Selection and enriching the selected keywords.
For the identification process of reliable sources of information that are helpful to answer the
research question, the authors developed the keywords and related synonyms of keywords based on
the research question. A search strategy was developed from inclusion criteria under the headings of
the PICO concept.
Learning, teaching, and AE are the main keywords for initial research. To enrich those
keywords, the authors sought their synonyms, related terms, and variations using an online
thesaurus. This includes thesaurus.com, referring to the keywords used by past studies and those
suggested by Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases. Based on this process, several keywords
like learning, teaching, schooling, studying, training, coaching, tutoring, guidance, instruction, and
reading were included. Furthermore, several synonyms of AE have been included, such as
architecture education, architecture curriculum, architecture pedagogy, architecture syllabus,
architecture modules, architecture studies, architecture schedule, architecture subjects, and
architecture educational programs as demonstrated in Table.1 . The combinations of these keywords
were processed using search functions, including field code functions, phrase searching, wildcards,
truncation, and Boolean operators in two databases: Scopus and WoS.
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Figure 2. PRISMA flow-for included studies in review.
The reviewers have developed the search string for references, as summarized in Table 2. The
authors identified and searched 707 initial sources in Scopus and the WoS database. However, after
applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, only ninety-six journal articles were included.
• Selection of databases
To find irrelevant journal articles, the reviewers searched two electronic biblio-graphic
databases, WoS and Scopus. Due to the multidisciplinary architecture, many articles have been
published by AE since the beginning of the twenty-first century. According to the Scopus database
statistics, there was a gradual increase in the re-sources in the AE from 1,044 sources in 2000 to 1,560
sources in 2010 and 2,009 sources in 2020.
Table 1. identify the keywords of the review.
Keywords Synonyms Related terms Variation
learning
Culture, information,
literature, research,
schooling, science,
study, training
Teaching process,
teaching styles, teaching
philosophy
Learn, learner, learning
teaching
Coaching, cultivation,
culture, discipline,
guidance, instruction,
learning, reading,
- teach, teacher, teaching
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schooling, training,
tutoring
Architectural
education
Architecture
Education,
Architecture
Curriculum,
Architecture curricula,
Architecture pedagogy
Architecture school,
architecture curriculum ,
Architecture syllabus,
architecture modules,
Architecture studies,
Architecture schedule,
Architecture subjects,
Architecture educational
programme
Architectural education,
Table 2. reveal search string used in the selected databases.
Databas
e Search string
Number
of
articles
Scopus
TITLE (("learn*" OR "teach*" OR "school*" OR "study*" OR "train*" OR
"coach*" OR "tutor*" OR "guidance" OR "instruction" OR "read*") AND
("Architectur* Education" OR "architecture curriculum" OR "architectur*
pedagogy" OR " architectur* syllabus" OR "architectur* modules" OR
"architectur* studies" OR "architectur* schedule" OR "architecture* subjects"
OR "architecture* educational program")) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND
PUBYEAR < 2025 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, "ar")) AND (LIMIT-TO
(LANGUAGE, "English")) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, "j")) AND (LIMIT-TO
(SUBJAREA, "SOCI") OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, "ENGI") OR LIMIT-TO
(SUBJAREA, "ARTS") OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, "ENVI") OR LIMIT-TO
(SUBJAREA, "MULT") OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, "PSYC"))
151
Web of
Sciences
Results for TI =(("learn*" OR "teach*" OR "school*" OR "study*" OR "train*"
OR "coach*" OR "tutor*" OR "guidance" OR "instruction" OR "read*") AND
("Architectur* Education" OR "architecture curriculum" OR "architectur*
pedagogy" OR " architectur* syllabus" OR "architectur* modules" OR
"architectur* studies" OR "architectur* schedule" OR "architecture* subjects"
OR "architecture* educational program")) and Architectural Education
(Should – Search within topic) and Architecture Education (Should – Search
within topic) and Article (Document Types) and English (Languages) and
2023 or 2022 or 2021 or 2020 or 2019 or 2018 or 2017 or 2016 or 2015 or 2014 or
2013 or 2012 or 2011 or 2010 or 2009 or 2008 or 2007 or 2006 or 2005 or 2004 or
2003 or 2002 or 2001 or 2000 or 1999 or 1998 or 1997 or 1996 or 1995 or 1994
(Publication Years) and Architecture or Education Educational Research or
Engineering or Environmental Sciences Ecology or Urban Studies or Science
Technology Other Topics or Art or Construction Building Technology or
Computer Science or Social Sciences Other Topics (Research Areas) and Open
Access
73
2.3.2. Screening process based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
The screening process was the second procedure in the systematic literature review according
to the PRISMA protocol, where articles were either included or excluded (with the assistance of the
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database or manually screened by authors) from the study based on a specific set of criteria, as
illustrated in Figure 2.
There were three main steps in the screening process: the first and second were performed using
the computer, while the third was done manually by reviewers. First, according to the research
question, only published articles were included between 2000 and 2023. Notably, to avoid confusion,
only those written in English were considered. Initially, by applying the previous inclusion criteria,
258 articles from Scopus and 172 from the WoS were automatically excluded. Second, due to the
diversity of topics related to AE, the study concentrated on specific subject and research areas, as
indicated in Table 3. In this step, fifty-two articles from Scopus and an article from WoS databases
are automatically excluded. Finally, the authors included only cited articles to understand the
dominant challenges in AE within the available data. In this stage, the reviewers removed the
repeated articles, non-cited articles, and non-related articles. Therefore, ninety-six articles have been
included to examine the eligibility process.
Table 3. demonstrates the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Criterion Inclusion Exclusion
Timeline 2000-2023 1990 and earlier
Document Type Cited Articles Non-cited articles, chapters in a
book, conference proceedings
Language English
Non-English such as Turkish,
Chinese
Subject Area
Scopus:
Social Sciences, Engineering, Arts and
Humanities, Environmental Science,
Multidisciplinary, Psychology
Computer Science, Energy,
Medicine, Material Science,
Mathematics, Psychology,
Chemistry, Health Professions,
Chemical Engineering, Decision
Sciences
Research Area
Web of Science:
Architecture, Education, Educational Research,
Engineering, Environmental Science Ecology,
Science Technology Other Topics, Art, Urban
Studies, Construction Building Technology,
Social Sciences Other Topics. Sociology
Chemistry, History, Sociology,
Archaeology, Linguistics,
Computer Science.
2.3.3. Eligibility
Two reviewers assessed studies for inclusion against eligibility criteria. They classified the
articles and constructed themes based on reading the titles and abstracts of selected articles. Themes
are specified for each category of articles, followed by subthemes—the review aimed to identify the
most common learning challenges in AE. Furthermore, this process was time-consuming for several
reasons, such as close relationships among themes. Note that some articles are related to more than
one theme concurrently. For instance, based on a real teamwork project among students from
multiple backgrounds on historical site documentation, Ward and Woodcock [13]discovered that
using innovative technology tools will decrease the architecture students' learning from the historical
context. The frequency of repeated themes has been notified and recorded for the synthesis and
interpretation process. The reviewers have used Microsoft excel programme for reviewing the
articles. Hence, the authors have removed the duplicate articles and non-related articles.
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3. Results
Search results are summarized in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1). Results from databases
identified n = 95 potentially relevant studies. These records were screened by title and abstract by the
first review and validated by the second reviewer.
Within the scope of this review, authors construct themes, and sub-themes of learning challenges
have been developed. Although there is overlap among construct-ed themes, ten themes were
identified to highlight the most raised issues and concerns in AE: learning approaches, technology
innovations, sustainability, history, , students' experience and performance, architectural design and
design studio, culture, community and society Concern, computer applications in AE, architecture
curriculum, and Building Information Modelling (BIM) (Table 4). Moreover, most articles
concentrated on learning approaches and methods adopting AE during the early twenty-first
century.
Table 4. reveals the main themes of the AE during the early twenty-first century based on a literature
review.
Number Main themes
Number of articles
in review Ratio
1 Learning Approaches 27 28.4 %
2 Technology Innovation 12 12.6 %
3 Sustainability 10 10.5 %
4 History 10 10.5 %
5 Students' Experience and Performance 9 9.5 %
6 Architectural Design and Design Studios 9 9.5 %
7 Culture, Community and Society Concern 7 7.4 %
8 Computer Application in AE 3 3.2 %
9 Architecture Curriculum 4 5.3 %
10 Building Information Modelling (BIM) 3 3.2 %
4. Finding and discussion
The diversity of existing literature on the AE is a direct reflection of architecture as a
multidisciplinary field of knowledge. The review findings have been categorized into ten themes
from the literature review data. The sequence of themes is illustrated in Table 4. Most of the articles
(27 articles) concentrate on learning approaches that have been used and testify to their effectiveness
in AE. Meanwhile, the second raised issue is related to technology innovation (12 articles) integration
into the AE. In contrast, some issues, such as materials, structure, and urban design, are least focused
on by researchers and have been excluded. In this study, the authors synthesize four main themes in
detail as follows.
4.1. learning Approaches
The reviewers identified eleven learning approaches that discussed, used, and testified their
effectiveness and significance in the AE globally (Table 5). Although the learning forms have shared
issues and features, the most common learning approaches are experiential learning, blended
learning, e-learning, and online learning. The reviewers describe three learning approaches that have
been adopted in AE.
Table 5. illustrates the most common learning approaches in AE.
Number Main learning themes
Number of included in the
review
1 Experiential learning 8
2 Blended Learning 3
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3 E-Learning and Online Learning 3
4 Project-based learning 2
5 Augmented Reality 2
6 Virtual Reality 2
7 Collaborative Learning 1
8 Aesthetic Cognition and visual skills 2
9 Expansive Learning 1
10 Integration of Technical course 2
11 Hybrid Learning 1
4.1.1. Experiential learning
Researchers, educationalists, and scientists debate learning from experience or using experience
as a learning method or medium. Some psychologist experts like John Dewey and Kurt Lewin [14]
have discussed the role of experience in the personal learning process. John Dewey set the "theory of
experience" to argue for human learning and development [14]. In addition, experiential learning
theory, as defined by Kolb (1984), posits that learning is a significant determinant of human
development and that how individuals learn shapes their personal development [15]. Experiential
learning is the most common learning method adapted to AE in general. As revealed in the Table 6,
the researcher adapted, used, and discussed several forms of experience learning, especially during
the second decades of the current century, such as live projects and students' experiences. The authors
demonstrated the positive influence of experiential learning on students' motivation [16] and learner
experience [7][17]. This learning approach provides great opportunities for architecture students to
learn from the surrounding urban context [18], shared activities with local communities [19], live
projects [7] and individual experience of a community member [17]. Hence, the qualitative research
methodology has been used in most of the studies (Table 6).
Table 6. reveals a thematic analysis of the experiential learning research approaches and outcomes.
Authors Research
method
Research
design
Deductive code Research outcomes
Mulligan et
al. (2018) Qualitative
Focus group
and
Individual
interview
Students' perception
of inclusive design.
Students are motivated to know
disability needs. Change of attitude
toward inclusive design[16].
Rodriguez
(2018) Qualitative Experiential
learning
Identification of live
project value
alongside studio-
based project.
Valuable insights into the
development of intellectual, physical,
and emotional dimensions through
these experiences[7].
Mackintosh
(2014) Qualitative
Ethno-
methodological
approach
Transformative
learning
The transformative
learning experience.
The development of a pedagogical
framework for AE[20].
Yazici and
Töre (2014)
Mixed
method
Case study
project -Open-
ended
questions
Students' use of urban
design information.
The students can carry the knowledge
and aspects of urban design to the
lower design scales [18].
Ņitavska et
al. (2016) Qualitative Interviews
We are bridging the
gap between the
planning process in
municipalities and
The university obtained a better
insight into the topical problems. The
local governments have scientific
substantiation for making more
appropriate decisions [19].
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landscape studies and
research.
Gregory
(2019) Qualitative
Service-
learning
courses.
Service-learning and
social justice in
architecture.
Students who took service-learning
courses that included social justice are
more able to reflect on the experiences
and obstacles of the person with
whom they are working [17].
4.1.2. Blended Learning
Recently, some researchers discussed the effectiveness of blending learning in architecture
schools by studying the learning context, as demonstrated in Table 7. For example, several
researchers employed number of specific research techniques to outline a new framework for
blending learning in AE during the COVID-19 [21]. Furthermore, Jasiołek et al. [22] proposed a new
hybrid mode of education based on the survey study results among architecture students at Polish
University. Other researchers identified blended learning as a strategy to overcome the limitations of
architecture education and students' perceptions [22]. Through studying two case studies in different
contexts that combined face-to-face interaction and distance learning in real projects, Rodriguez et
al.[23] concluded that student engagement could be reinforced, and students' motivation would be
increased significantly via a blended learning strategy. In addition, according to the analytic and
literature-based research by Rauf et al. , combining virtual reality with face-to-face real-world
experiences will enhance students' performance and engagement in the architecture education
process[24].
Table 7. illustrates a thematic analysis of the blended learning research approaches and outcomes.
Authors Research
method
Research
design
Deductive code Research outcomes
Megahed
& Hassan,
2022)
Mixed
method
Online surveys,
semi-structured
interviews,
observation
New hybrid mode A vision to reimagine post-
COVID-19 education and the
required Blended Learning
strategy to provide a theoretical
framework [21].
(Jasiołek
et al.,
2021)
Qualitative Survey
A range of criteria for a
new, effective mode of
AE with student input.
A new hybrid mode of education
[22].
Rodriguez
et al.,
2018))
Qualitative Two case studies
Distance learning in
real projects.
Students could successfully work
collaboratively and build
confidence in their abilities during
real project [23].
(Rauf et
al., 2021) Qualitative
Analytic and
literature-based
research
Combination of virtual
reality and face-to-face
world experience.
Enhanced students' outcomes and
engagement [24].
4.1.3. E-Learning and Online Learning
The development of the digital environment, advancement in the communication medium, and
the COVID-19 pandemic have accelerated the adaptation process of e-learning and online learning
globally in schools and higher education institutions. This is especially true at the beginning of the
third decade of the twenty-first century(Table 8). Therefore, the efficiency and challenges of those
forms of learning as alternative or supported forms of AE are targeted by several researchers.
According to experimental research outcomes by Xiberta et al.[25], adopting e-learning platforms
such as SAPIENS has beneficial consequences on students' performance. It contributes to creating
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equal opportunities for all students in AE.[25]. In addition, Milovanovic et al. [26] identified online
workshops as an innovative learning methodology during emergency disruption. The authors also
highlighted the learning potentials and limitations of using this methodology in architecture schools.
Furthermore, Olweny et al. [27] studied online AE in two different institutions in East Africa to
examine the accessibility, equality and adopted learning approaches. Based on students' experience
and attitudes toward online education, they proposed suggestions for improving the learning process
in the same context in the future[27]. In contrast, most current studies concentrate on the potential of
e-learning and online learning. It also demonstrates the difficulty of technical and administrative
issues, academic evaluation, and academic staff engagement. Thus, it is noticeable that those forms
of learning will be more integrated and valuable in architecture schools shortly.
Table 8. reveals the thematic analysis of the e-learning and online learning research method, and
outcomes.
Authors Research
method
Research
design
Deductive code Research outcomes
(Xiberta et
al., 2022) Quantitative Questionnaire
SAPIENS tool
application in AE.
There was a significant difference
among test forms, and groups
responded differently. There was no
effect of individual experience on test
scores[25].
(Milovanović
et al., 2020))
Mixed
method Questionnaire
Online Workshops
in AE.
Challenges as an application of
research by designing methodology
and problem-based learning. The
second question was answered
through the educators' constant
awareness and endeavor to be
informed about essential global topics
and to convey profound insights from
research and practice to education in
emergency architecture[26].
(Olweny et
al., 2023) Quantitative Questionnaire
Online
architectural
education.
Provided a set of recommendations
for adopting online learning[27].
4.2. Technology Innovation
The challenges and opportunities of technology innovation within the architecture learning
process have been discussed recently from several perspectives, such as communication facilitators
and learning tools. The articles that concentrate on technology innovation ideas and tools are the
most cited sources that reflect the ongoing discussion within the architecture discipline (Table 9).
According to Wang [28] , the integration of information and communication technology into AE
effectively supported the collaboration work among the architecture schools globally. Similarly,
Schnabel and Ham [29] clarified that the social network cloud adaptation approaches to architecture
curricula will enhance learners' engagement and performance. In addition, Saghafi and Crowther
[30] highlighted the role of technology subjects integrated into design studio sessions in improving
students' outcomes and practical skills. Furthermore, the shortage of innovative digital design
courses has been recognized by Abdullah and Hassanpour [31] during the analysis process of the
curriculum for a couple of architecture schools in Cyprus.
Technology innovation tools and concepts have been applied to building envelopes and built
environment for investigation purpose and performance improvement. Martinez et al. [32]
emphasized the significance of numerical modelling and analysis in determining the structural
performance and vulnerability conditions in monumental historical buildings. Moreover, Sahai and
Varshney [33] discovered a typical geometrical form and size of plasmonic nanoparticles for the
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performance optimization of organic-inorganic halide perovskite solar cells. In addition, Song et al.
[34] highlighted the significance of 3D printing technology in design studios and identified the
limitations of using this technology in AE through practice-based research [34].
Table 9. illustrates the thematic analysis of technology innovation researches in AE.
Author Research
method
Research
design
Deductive
code
Research outcomes
(Angulo,
2007)
Mixed
method
Case
studies
Digital media
role in AE
Identify the opportunities and challenges
we foresee shortly based on the
implementation of multidisciplinary
integration and the development of
multimodal and media-rich design
environments [35].
(Wang, 2009) Qualitative
A brief
literature
review
Information
and
communication
technology
Particular attention is given to the
increased potential for collaborative work
and exercises of the interests of students
and teachers and how this maximized use
will benefit AE [28].
(Schnabel &
Ham, 2014) Qualitative Case
study
The Social
Network
Learning
Cloud (SNLC)
The paper proposed ways of applying
SNLC in other curriculum learning and
teaching areas and concluded with
directions on how SNLC may be
employed in professional settings [29].
(Jiménez-
Montano &
Ortiz-Rivera,
2014)
Qualitative
Case study:
Undergraduate
course
Digital
photography
The results helped establish new
educational strategies for developing
visual skills [36].
(Song et al.,
2018) Qualitative The practice-
based research
3D Printing
technology
Limitations were identified before the
making process based on the investigation
into the current state of 3D printing
technologies in education [34].
(Fortenberry,
2019) Qualitative
Structured
collection of
case studies
Digital
media
The paper stated conclusions and
identified the opportunities and challenges
we foresee soon based on implementing
multidisciplinary integration and
developing multimodal and media-rich
design environments [37].
(Higuera-
Trujillo et
al., 2020)
Mixed
Method
A two-phase
study:
Qualitative
and
quantitative
Multisensory
stress
reduction
The beneficial effect of a combination of
environmental satisfaction sources [38].
(George &
Park, 2020)
Qualitative
study
a department-
wide drone
programme
Drone
technology
While the programme has been
demonstrated to be both successful and
sustainable, several hurdles have had to be
addressed to achieve this success[39].
(Sahai &
Varshney,
2021)
Quantitative Case study Solar
absorbance
The maximum enhancement can be
attained by including spherical
nanoparticles of 70 nm radii placed at the
film's center [33].
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(Saghafi &
Crowther,
2021)
Qualitative
A case study
approach
based on
document
analysis
methods.
Integrating
technology
subjects
Overall, in both programs, the aim is for
students to develop architectural
knowledge and skills. However, the
Iranian programme has a stronger focus
on knowledge; the Australian programme
has a stronger focus on applying
knowledge and skills, particularly within
design studio projects [30].
(Abdullah &
Hassanpour,
2021)
Qualitative Two case
studies
Digital Design
courses
The current structures of architecture
education curricula cannot match the
innovative challenges and social demands
of architecture in the digital age [31].
(Martínez et
al., 2022) Quantitative Case
study
Numerical
Modelling and
analysis
The development of this kind of model is
the basis for simulating the structural
behavior of heritage buildings under
different load conditions and assessing
their vulnerability[32].
4.3. Sustainability
Sustainability integration in architecture curricula is among the most discussed challenges,
particularly at the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century, due to the development
of strategies toward global sustainability. Hence, several researchers and academic staff in
architecture schools discussed the appropriate approaches and methods for adopting sustainability
in AE (Table 10). For example, Amer [40] highlighted the contribution of the Biomimetic Approach
in raising student awareness of sustainability through biomimetic projects. In addition, Xie et al. [41]
identified the value-belief-norm theory's positive influence in enhancing the sustainability learning
process in South China universities.
Several researchers have evaluated the student's experience and expectations of sustainability
issues[42], assessment system[43], and simulation tools[44]. Other researchers discussed the
integration approaches and theories of adapting sustainability courses and issues into architecture
pedagogy. Moreover, some researchers state that more effort is essential to integrate sustainability
into the architecture curriculum[42,43].
Table 10. reveals the thematic analysis of the sustainability researches in AE.
Author Research
method
Research
design
Deductive
code
Research outcomes
(Michael &
Phocas, 2012 Qualitative Case
study
Discussion of
respective
pedagogical
approach in
AE.
Highlighted the benefits of the
comprehensive environmental
approach [45].
(Pektaş et al.,
2015) Qualitative Survey
Geen Building
Approach.
Revealed a gap between students'
general learning about green building
in a developing and a developed
country and suggested that a
collaborative project experience may
facilitate bridging the gap and
exchanging technical and cultural
information related to sustainability
[43].
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(Rieh et al., 2017) Mixed
method
An
exploratory
study
Sustainability-
related course
in AE
Sustainability education is organized in
diverse ways according to contents,
intensity, and sequence [46].
(Amer, 2019) Quantitative Questionnaire Biomimetic
approach.
A positive effect of biomimetic
approach in professional practice [40].
(de Gaulmyn &
Dupre, 2019) Qualitative Case study
Essay
Approach for
Sustainable
and
Environmental
Design as
Simulation
Tool.
Results suggested that individual work
was unconvincing, whereas success was
met during group work [44].
(Al Khalifa, 2019) Mixed
method
Survey,
interview,
and focus
group
Incorporation
of active
learning
pedagogy.
The students' involvement in the hands-
on project increased their curiosity and
enhanced their ability to understand
complex philosophical ideas related to
architecture and urbanism [47].
(Parra-Martínez
et al., 2021) Qualitative Case study Gender
equality
Gender equality is crucial for the co-
education of future architects, who will
play a central role in defining new
practices and policies related to space
and materials [48].
(Brzezicki &
Jasiolek, 2021)
Mixed
method Survey
Students'
Expectations
vs. Experience
of
Sustainability
Issues.
There is a significant disproportion
between students' expectations and
experience regarding sustainable and
ecological design [42].
(Xie et al., 2021) Quantitative Survey
The value-
belief-norm
theory- Green
building
The biospheric and altruistic values
could directly affect students'
motivation to learn green building [41].
(Guerenabarrena-
Cortazar et al.,
2021)
Qualitative Documentary
Analysis.
Integration of
sustainability
The results did not invite optimism:
curricular transformation is slow and
insufficient, and its results are still
incomplete [49].
4.4. History
The current historical articles in literature concentrate on investigating structural stages and
details of religious buildings and historic structures(Table 11). Those studies can be classified into
three categories based on research purpose: First, the investigation of previous structural elements
and functional changes of the building. For instance, Gil Delgade [50] identified a synagogue and
mosque's structural architectural element during the restoration process of the Santa Maria la Blanca
church in Sevilla city. Furthermore, Samol et al. [51], while examining the conservation works of the
tower-lighthouse in Gdansk, have confirmed that the tower has been constructed over six time
periods. Moreover, Blanke [52] has noted the changing structure of the central bathroom in Gerasa
from large public bathing areas to small individual washing spaces. Those former investigations by
researchers have been conducted parallel to, or during the archaeological and restoration of the
historical construction.
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Second, the dissemination of the uniqueness of architectural and design elements of the
historical built environment. Drancolli [53]documented the past and present of the Koca Sinan Pasha
Mosque to emphasize its structural values and interior details. Similarly, Hagras [54], in this study
of Xi'an Daxuexi Alley Mosque in China, stated that Chinese Islamic architecture blends Islamic
culture and context with local Chinese heritage. Third, discussing the appropriate framework to
study vernacular architecture. Davidson [55] examined a formal study framework to study
vernacular architecture by investigating the works of scholars in the architecture discipline.
Furthermore, Smith [56] discovered the need for more effectiveness in adapting the storytelling
approach as a research methodology in studying vernacular environments.
Table 11. illustrates the thematic analysis of the research purpose and outcomes of historical
challenges in AE.
Author Purpose of method Deductive code Research outcomes
(Carletti &
Giometti,
2003)
To present and discuss several
wooden statues in the number
of churches in Pisa city-Italy
Medieval wood
Sculpture
Unlike stone sculptures, wooden
ones have always had a specific role
within the liturgy, particularly in
Sacred Representation[57].
(Erciyas &
Çinici,
2010)
To identify the functional and
historical context of the
hexagonal basin at Komana
Architectural and
arachnological
study of the
hexagonal basin at
Komana.
Only one of these interpretations
seemed probable at the end of our
research effort: a pool in a Christian
Basilica, although this is not
certain[58].
(Smith,
2011)
To discuss the possibility of
using the role and contribution
of storytelling in vernacular
architecture study
Narrative Prospect
Despite its prominent attractions,
the storytelling approach can be
complex and inefficient[56].
(Davidson,
2013)
To illustrate, the answers to
vernacular architecture study
future pathways lie in
understanding the intellectual
history underpinning its
origins.
Framework for
Vernacular
Architecture
The article first situated this
contradiction within the context of
Euro-American architectural history
and theoretical discourse; second, it
brought together the work of
academics who have, at some time
in the past, advocated for the
abolition of the word "vernacular"
and the erasure of categorical
differences that effect on the formal
study of what is considered as non-
architectural surroundings; and
lastly, it established the framework
within which curriculum for studies
of global architects should be
developed [55].
Gil
Delgado,
2013)
To reveal the evidence of
previous usage of the building
after the church's restoration
Investigating the
historical structures
The present article graphically
described and documented the
vestiges of the two earlier
structures[50].
(Blanke,
2015)
To examine the architectural
development of the Central
Bathhouse.
Investigating the
historical structures
The development reflected a
changing attitude from communal
bathing in large basins to washing in
individual basins [52].
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(Dan &
Herles,
2017)
To examine the architectural
structures discovered over the
years in some archaeological
sites of the kingdom of Urartu.
Identification of
architectural
'module' in Urartian
culture
Identified the specific architectural
module [59].
(Hagras,
2019)
The objective of this paper is to
explore the characteristics of
the design and architecture of
Chinese mosques.
Case study: XI'AN
DAXUEXI ALLEY
MOSQUE
Chinese mosques are characterised
by architectural forms different from
Islamic world architecture. Chinese
Islamic architecture blends Islamic
culture and content with traditional
local Chinese heritage [54].
(Samól &
Hirsch,
2021)
To identify the constructional
stages of the tower in
Wisłoujście Fortress, in
Gdańsk, during the
conservation works.
Investigating the
historical structures
Discovered six main stages of the
structural construction[51].
(Drançolli,
2022)
To identify the challenges that
the mosque faced during its
existence, as well as changes in
the structures of the building
and its decorations.
Religion Building:
Koca Sinan Pasha
Mosque
The study is accompanied by
architectural visualization and
photographs of the mosque's
exterior and interior. The paper
aimed to help study, promote, and
display the mosque's value to a
broader audience[53].
5. Conclusions
There is an increasing diversity of learning challenges and a continuing debate about AE,
reflecting architecture's nature as a multidisciplinary field. Those learning challenges have an
expected effect on AE as a multidirectional learning process and on architectural professionals and
provide a lens to respond effectively to changes in the built environment context. Furthermore, the
systematic literature review demonstrates the most dominant challenges and prominent AE themes
reported by architects, researchers, and intuitional communities during the first quarter of the
twenty-first century.
The findings highlighted four key themes that are the most discussed: learning approaches,
technology innovation, sustainability, and history. Notably, experiential learning, blending learning,
e-learning, and online learning are the most studied learning approaches researchers have examined
in architecture schools. However, more studies are recommended regarding integration of art skills,
live projects, and social context within AE.
As the number and frequency of discussed learning approaches in AE increased notably, there
is a need to appraise a particular learning framework in various contexts to determine its effectiveness
and applicability. In addition, it is also essential to highlight the significance of collaboration among
architecture schools at the national and international levels. This is with the aim to uniformly and
directly direct the efforts to develop and strengthen the architecture curriculum globally and prepare
competent architects.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding
author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Appendix A
Search strategy
Population: Architectural education
Intervention/exposure: dominant issues of learning and teaching
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Comparison: Not restricted
Outcome: learning and teaching challenges
Generic* search syntax:
Population Intervention Comparison Outcome
Architectural
education
Dominant learning and
teaching challenges
And
[Any] Learning and teaching issues
Generic * search filters:
Study design language Date range Publication type
Journal articles English 20/12/2023 Peer-reviewed journals
*Searches conducted 20th December 2023.
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