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Deer: Family Cervidae
The Family Cervidae contains the true deer. Two main groups are recognized, the Cervinae, or Old
World Deer, and the Capreolinae, the New World Deer. The most distinctive feature of deer are
the antlers, which males bear. The only species not to have antlers is the Chinese Water Deer. Deer
are grazers and browses. Deer have a wide distribution and are found throughout the world.
PLEASE CITE AS:
Walker, M.D. The Hoofed Animals of the World. Sheffield, U.K.: Sicklebrook publishing, 2024.
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Old World Deer: Subfamily Cervinae
The old world subfamily of deer, the Cervinae, contains species that are often thought of as being
‘typical’ deer. These include the Red Deer and the Fallow Deer. These species are all pretty similar
in appearance, tending to be medium sized, with slender bodies and long thin necks. All these
species are plesiometacarpal, this means only the bottom parts of the metacarpals remain. The sole
of the toe has evolved into a hard hoof that points forwards. However, the Pére David’s Deer is an
exception, and varies from the typical deer in a number of ways, so has been placed in its own
genus.
Since molecular research in the 2000's, the Muntjac have also been placed in this subfamily, previ -
ously been organized seperately.
Tufted Deer
Elaphodus cephalophus
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 110-160 cm
Shoulder height: 50-70 cm
Tail length: 7-15 cm
Weight: 17-50 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Similar in appearance to the Muntjac, but somewhat larger. The
Tufted Deer takes its name from the distinctive ‘tuft’ of long hairs seen on its forehead. These
hairs can be up to 17 centimeters in length, and are darker in color than the rest of the pelage. The
coat is course with spine like hairs; the upper parts are a dark gray to a deep chocolate brown color.
The underparts are paler. The head and neck are gray. There are often distinct white markings
around the eyes. The tips of the ears, underside of the tail, and the lips are all white. There are three
recognized subspecies, the Western Tufted Deer (E.c.cephalophus), the Habei Tufted Deer
(E.c.ichangensis), and the Eastern Tufted Deer (E.c.michianus). The antlers are simple spikes, but are
much shorter than those seen in the Muntjac. They are often completely hidden by the tuft of hair
on the forehead. The bony pedicles are not as long or as ridged as those seen in the Muntjac. Males
have long upper canines, which protrude below the upper lip like fangs and can be up to 2.5 cen -
timeters in length.
DISTRIBUTION: The Tufted Deer occurs in western China and northern Burma. The subspecies
of Western Tufted Deer are found in southern China an Burma, while the other two subspecies
live in central China.
HABITAT: The Tufted Deer is found in mountainous forests and in high forested valleys. It oc-
curs at elevations of 300 to 4,500 meters. They are mostly found close to water.
DIET: They eat a variety of forest fruits, grasses, mosses, and bushes.
LIFESPAN: The lifespan of the Tufted Deer is unknown for wild animals, but zoo animals can
live for up to 15 years.
REPRODUCTION: The mating season occurs in the autumn. The gestation period is 180 days,
and usually a single fawn is born in late spring. The fawns are colored like the parent, but have a
row of white spots along each side of the mid-line of the back. These spots fade as the fawn grows.
Sexual maturity is reached from 18 months of age.
BEHAVIOUR: The Tufted Deer is a solitary living deer, although it does sometimes live in pairs.
They are territorial and possess distinct home ranges. Both sexes have a ‘bark’ like call which is
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used during the breeding season, and when they are alarmed. Throughout their home range they
have a crisscross of well worn tracks and runs. They are mostly active at dawn and at dusk, when
they feed on a variety of forest grasses, leaves and fruits. When alarmed it will run with its tail held
high, exposing its bright white underneath.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Not threatened.
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Giant Muntjac
Megamuntiacus vuquangensis
MEASUREMENTS:
Shoulder height: 60-70 cm
Weight: 30-50 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Giant Muntjac is the largest of the muntjac species being one
and a half to two times larger than the other species. It is similar in appearance to other muntjac.
Its coat is a grizzled red color.
DISTRIBUTION: The Giant Muntjac was first discovered in 1994 in the Vu Quang area of
Northern Vietnam. Its current range and status are still uncertain. It is thought to occur along the
Truong Son Mountains of Vietnam and Laos, and also in parts of eastern Cambodia. The Giant
Muntjac appears to be under threat due to overhunting and the destruction of its native habitat for
logging purposes.
HABITAT: The Giant Muntjac lives mostly in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, at elevations
of between 500 and 1,200 meters.
DIET: Feeds mainly of food found on the forest floor such as the leaves of bushes, fruits, and
grasses.
LIFESPAN: The Giant Muntjac has a reported maximum lifespan of up to 12 years.
REPRODUCTION: Little is yet known about the breeding behavior of the Giant Muntjac, al-
though it is probably similar to that of other muntjac species.
BEHAVIOUR: The Giant muntjac is reported to be a solitary living animal, although females are
accompanied by their young.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Critical.
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Truong Son Muntjac
Muntiacus truongsonensis
MEASUREMENTS:
Weight: about 15 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Truong Son Muntjac is the smallest species of muntjac, being
about half the size of the Common Muntjac. Its antlers are extremely short, being simple short
spikes that are barely visible. Both males and females possess long canine teeth.
DISTRIBUTION: The Truong Son Muntjac was found in 1997 by surveying scientists. It was
found in the Truong Son mountain range of West Quang Nam Province of central Vietnam. Little
is yet known about its range and numbers. It may be threatened due to local hunting.
HABITAT: Lives in forests which have dense undergrowth, found at elevations of 400 to 1,000
meters.
DIET: The Truong Son Muntjac feeds on grasses, leaves, tender shoots found among its forest
home.
LIFESPAN: The lifespan of this species is unknown.
REPRODUCTION: Little is yet known.
BEHAVIOUR: Its small size allows it to move with ease through the thick forest undergrowth, al -
lowing it to evade detection by predators. Little is yet known about its way of life, hopefully basic
research will be conducted in the near future.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Data Deficient.
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Indian Muntjac
Muntiacus muntjac
MEASUREMENTS:
Weight: 15-20 kg
Shoulder height: 20-22 inches
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The most noticeable feature of the Indian Muntjac are the long
pedicles which instead of growing at the top of the head, as they do in other species of muntjac,
grow instead along the forehead. These are covered with skin and are black in color. They appear
like ‘ridges’ above the eyes. They give the Indian Muntjac its alternative name of the ‘Rib-faced
Deer’. The antlers themselves are just simple unbranched spikes that are short in length. The
pelage varies in color from a bright chestnut to a dark brown color on the upper parts, while the
underparts are white. It walks with a slight but distinct hunch. The males have elongated upper ca -
nine teeth that are used in combat with other males. Like most muntjac species the tear glands are
well developed.
DISTRIBUTION: The Indian Muntjac is a common deer found throughout India, Nepal and
southern China.
HABITAT: It lives in areas of dense forest, preferring areas with a dense thick understory where it
can easily hide.
DIET: It feeds on grass, leaves, and buds which are found within its forest home.
LIFESPAN: About ten years.
REPRODUCTION: Breeding and mating can take throughout the year. The gestation period is
about 210 days long. Normally a single young is born in dense vegetation, where it remains hidden
until it is capable of following the mother. The young are weaned at about two months of age, and
reach sexual maturity from 12 months of age onward.
BEHAVIOUR: A solitary animal, rarely being seen in groups greater than two. It is normally active
at dawn and dusk, spending most of the day resting. Males will fight for access to females, both
antlers and the tusks are used in these fights, but the tusks are preferred and are the most effective.
The Indian Muntjac rarely ventures out of its thick forest home. When startled it emits a typical
‘barking’ call, which it will give out for a long time, even after the danger has passed.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
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Fea’s Muntjac
Muntiacus feae
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Feae Muntjac, Roosevelt’s Barking Deer,
Roosevelt’s Muntjac.
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: about 88 cm
Tail length: 23 cm
Weight: 18-21 kg.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Fea’s Barking Deer or Fea’s Muntjac is similar in appearance to
other muntjac deer, possessing the characteristic deep tear glands. The pelage is soft and short, be-
ing a dark brown color above, while the underparts are paler. The bottoms of the legs are darker,
being almost black towards the hooves. The tail is white underneath, and there are white stripes
running down the front of the hind legs. The face is dark brown with long black stripes running
from the eyes to the base of the antlers. The antlers are short and have two branches, the front
branch being shorter than the hind one. The males have long elongated canines.
DISTRIBUTION: They are found in China, Laos, Myamar, Thailand and Vietnam. In China they
are found in the Yunnan Province. They occur in the Tanaosri Mountains along the Thai-Burmese
border. In Thailand they are found west of Tak, Ratckburi, and Surat Thani. The Fea’s Muntjac is
quite rare, but may never have been very abundant. It has been classified as endangered by the
IUCN, but its current status and population numbers are unknown because of a lack of data. It is
threatened because of hunting and the destruction of its mountain habitats.
HABITAT: The Fea’s Deer is found in thick evergreen forest in mountainous areas. It is found at
altitudes higher than 2,500 meters. They prefer open spaces along a source of water. They are un-
able to adapt to habitat changes, and this is the main reason they are threatened.
DIET: The Fea’s Muntjac feeds on foods found in its forest home, including grasses, leaves,
shoots and fruits.
LIFESPAN: Its lifespan is unknown.
REPRODUCTION: Unknown, probably similar as other muntjac in being able to breed through-
out the year, and producing a single young after a 200 day long gestation period.
BEHAVIOUR: It is a solitary living deer. It is diurnal. Little is yet known about its behavior or
breeding, although it is probably similar to the other species of muntjac in living in a small well de-
fined territory.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Data Deficient.
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Bornean Yellow Muntjac
Muntiacus atherodes
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 90-100 cm
Shoulder height: up to 50 cm
Tail length: 14-20 cm
Weight: 13-18 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Bornean Yellow Muntjac is so named because its coat is a yel -
lowish-orange color, although there is a patch of darker brown fur which runs in a line down the
spine from the neck to the end of the tail. The underparts are a paler yellow or whitish in color.
The tail is brown above and white underneath. The antlers carried by the males are rarely shed, and
are only very short spikes no more than 4.5 centimeters in length. The pedicles, from which the
antlers grow, are actually longer than the antlers, being up to nine centimeters in length.
DISTRIBUTION: It is found only on the Indonesian island of Borneo. It is not threatened and is
thought to be fairly abundant where it occurs. It is hunted for its skins and meat.
HABITAT: It inhabits areas of moist rainforest.
DIET: It feeds on a variety of leaves, fruits and seeds.
LIFESPAN: Unknown.
REPRODUCTION: Little is yet known about its reproductive behavior. The gestation period is
seven months. A single young is born, which is weaned at two months of age, and which reaches
sexual maturity from 12 months of age onward.
BEHAVIOUR: The behaviour of the Bornean Yellow Muntjac has not been studied in detail, al-
though it is thought to lead a similar lifestyle as the other muntjac species. It is diurnal. It has the
muntjac characteristic loud bark, which is used as an alarm call. It probably lives either alone, or in
breeding pairs, within a small-defended territory.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Not threatened.
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Reeve’s Muntjac
Muntiacus reevesi
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Chinese Muntjac, Barking Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 90-110 cm
Shoulder height: 40-55 cm
Tail length: 15 cm
Weight: 10-20 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Reeve’s Muntjac gets its name from John Russell Reeves, an of-
ficial with the East India company who introduced the deer into Britain. The Reeve’s Muntjac is a
small diminutive deer with a rounded back, short legs and a small head. The summer coat is a
glossy red brown color, the individual hairs being darker at their tips than at their roots, giving
them a banded appearance. The underparts are a light buff color. The inside legs are paler and
there is often a white chin patch. The underside of the tail is white, which can be seen when the tail
is raised in alarm. In September they molt into their thicker winter coats, which is a duller gray-
brown color. During the winter the legs are black. They molt into their summer coat in April and
May. The females have a black marking on their foreheads, which is not seen in the mature bucks.
The bucks have very short backwards-pointing antler spikes, which grow up to eight centimeters in
length. These are cast between May and June, but are fully regrown by the following November in
time for the winter rut. The antler pedicles are present permanently. The antlers are not used for
fighting, the bucks preferring to use their elongated upper canines. These form ‘tusks’ of up to
three centimeters in length, which project below the upper lip and are clearly visible.
DISTRIBUTION: They are found throughout southeast Asia, including the countries of China,
India and Malaysia. They are also found living in the wild in Britain, escapees from private collec-
tions having established breeding populations. Mostly they have a localized distribution in southern
England, although they are also found in isolated pockets further north.
HABITAT: This species prefers dense deciduous woodlands, which have a well developed under
story of vegetation.
DIET: Browses on fruits, nuts, fungi and leaves. It rarely eats grasses, except during spring and ear-
ly summer.
LIFESPAN: It is reported to have a maximum lifespan of up to 16 years, although the average is
much lower.
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REPRODUCTION: Muntjac are able to breed all the year round, and have no fixed breeding peri-
od. Males breed with females within their home ranges, but may have to compete with neighboring
males. Normally a single fawn is born after a gestation period of 210 days. The fawns are chestnut
brown with spots, these spots fade with age, disappearing by the time the fawn is two months old.
The fawns suckle for four months. When they are fully grown they are forced to leave their parents
home range. The does become sexually mature at ten months of age, the buck somewhat later.
BEHAVIOUR: Like most muntjac species the Reeve’s Muntjac tends to be mostly solitary living.
It is mostly seen at dusk and dawn, although it can be active throughout the day and night. Their
small size allows them to move quickly over the forest floor. They have distinct home ranges, those
of the males overlapping several female home ranges. They communicate with a short bark. The
territories are well marked with scent from the eye glands, urine, feces, and with vegetation scrap -
ings. Males will fight fiercely with rival males who enter their territory, using their fangs to bite and
stab their opponent until he retreats.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
The Leaf Deer or Leaf Muntjac
Muntiacus putaoensis
Little is yet known about this diminutive species of muntjac,
which was only discovered in 1997 by the biologist Alan Ra-
binowitz. It was found in remote mountains in northern Myan-
mar, and was confirmed as a new species through analysis of
its DNA sequence. The Leaf Muntjac is similar in appearance
to other muntjac species. It is the smallest species of deer
standing at only 50 centimeters high at the shoulders, and
weighing only between 10 and 12 kilograms. The Leaf Muntjac
was discovered during a field expedition in Myanmar and it
was found in the mountainous regions north east of Putao and
south of the Nam Tami branch of the Mai Hka River. Its exact
range and distribution is currently unknown, as is its conserva-
tion status. It lives in dense tropical vegetation. It is thought to
be a solitary fruit eater. Hopefully further research will shed
light on its lifestyle and habits.
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The Gongshan Muntjac
Muntiacus gongshanensis
The Gongshan Muntjac is found in Tibet, northern Burma
and the Yunnan Province of China. It lives in forested areas.
As this species was only described in the early 1990's, little is
yet known about its biology and behavior. The mating season
is in the autumn, and the gestation period of about six
months. There numbers appear to be dropping due to hunting
by local people, but because of lack of research they are listed
as being Data Deficient by the IUCN.
The Black Muntjac
Muntiacus crinifrons
Also known as the Hairy-Fronted Muntjac, the Black
Muntjac is found in eastern central China, in the provinces
of Jiangsu, Anhui and Zhejiang. It inhabits mixed forest
and scrub, at altitudes of 200 to 1,000 metres. It is similar
in appearance to the Indian Muntjac. The coat is a dark
brown, with darker legs, and a lighter head and neck. The
antlers grow to about 6.5 centimeters in length. There are
less than 5,000 remaining and numbers are thought to be
continuing to decline. The main threat is from hunting, as
it is hunted by the local population for its meat and hide.
Little is known about its current status. They are classified
as being vulnerable by the IUCN.
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White Lipped Deer
Cervus albirostis
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Thorold’s Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 190-200 cm
Shoulder height: 120-130 cm
Tail length: 10-12 cm
Weight: 130-140 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The White Lipped Deer is one of the largest members of the deer
family, but also one of the least well known. It was first described and named as a separate species
by the famous biologist Przewalski in the 1880's. Later it was placed in its own subgenus called
Prezewalskium in his honor, although this subgenus is not universally accepted. The coat is thick
and course. During the summer the coat is a dark brown color, becoming lighter during the winter
months. The fur of the winter coat is twice as long as that of the summer coat. There appears to be
a ‘saddle mark’ on the center of the deer’s back, where the hairs lie in the opposite direction to the
rest, and this can give the deer a slightly humped back and hunched appearance. The insides of the
legs, underbelly and rump are a creamy white color. The legs are long. The hooves are particularly
large and solid, being ideally suited for climbing over rough and mountainous terrain. The dew-
claws are well developed. The hooves make a clicking noise when the deer walks, similar to the
sound the Caribou makes when it moves. The head is short and the muzzle short and broad. The
deer gets its name from the characteristic white markings seen on its muzzle. There are also white
markings around the eyes and throat. Females have a tuft of hairs between their ears. The ears are
long and narrow. The antlers grow to a length of 130 centimeters. They have a thick beam, which
normally carries five or six tines, but individuals with up to 10 tines have been seen. The antlers are
unusual in that they are white in color.
DISTRIBUTION: Occurs in eastern and northern Tibet, and the upper reaches of the Yangtze
River and Nan Shan in China. Populations have declined mainly due to hunting. The antlers and
various other body parts have uses in oriental medicine. Habitat destruction is also increasingly a
problem. In 1993 there were an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 left remaining in the wild. Some are
kept on farms in China, and there is a small zoo population.
HABITAT: They are found on high hills and mountains usually above 3,500 meters, but rarely
higher than 5,000 meters. They live in areas that have a mixture of forest, rhododendron and high
open meadow. They prefer areas with little human influence. Populations are highly fragmented
both because of the terrain in which they live, and also because of hunting pressure.
DIET: Has a diet made up mostly of grasses and leaves.
LIFESPAN: A maximum of 15 years.
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REPRODUCTION: The rutting time is between October and November. During this time the
male herds mingle with those of the females, forming much larger herds of up to 300 animals. The
males compete among themselves for access to females. The gestation period is about 270 days;
with normally a single fawn being born between May and July. The fawn is able to walk and follow
the mother within an hour of being born. The young suckle for about ten months, before becom-
ing independent. Young females remain in their mothers herds, but the young males leave to join -
ing adult male herds. The females reach sexual maturity at three years of age; males are fully grown
by five years of age.
BEHAVIOUR: The White Lipped Deer is mostly active during the day. Outside of the rutting pe-
riod the males and females live separately in small herds of five to 30 animals. They feed mostly in
the early mornings and late afternoons.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
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Philippine Spotted Deer
Rusa alfredi
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Visayan Spotted Deer, Alfred’s Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 120-130 cm
Shoulder height: 60-80 cm
Tail length: 8-13 cm
Weight: 40-60 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Philippine Spotted Deer, or Visayan as it is otherwise known
as, was only recently elevated to species level, previously being thought of as being a subspecies of
either C. unicolor or C. mariannus. Although it is similar to these species, it possesses distinctive char-
acteristics which are sufficient for it to be considered separately. It is a small, short-legged deer,
similar in stature to the Luzon Sambar. However, it differs from this species and other rasine deer
in that its pelage is particularly dense and fine and is also spotted. In color, the upper parts are dark
brown, almost being black, while the underparts are buff in color. Large white spots are scattered
along its flanks, but become smaller and fade away towards the shoulders. A regular row of smaller
spots is seen alongside the dark dorsal strip. The legs are paler in color than the upper parts. The
tail is short, being white underneath. The ears are small and whitish in their insides. There is a
white chin patch. The eyes are dark, but with paler edges. Compared to other species in the rusa
subgenus the skull is narrow. The antlers of the males are short and bumpy with a small brow tine.
The antlers grow to about 20 centimeters in length.
DISTRIBUTION: Originally found on a number of islands in the central Philippines collectively
known as the Visayan Archipelago. However, due to hunting and habitat loss it became extinct on
many, and is currently only found on Leyte, Negros, Panay, and Sambar. Its survival is uncertain.
HABITAT: Originally an inhabitant of dense tropical forest, it is now restricted to steep and rocky
forested slopes because of human encroachment on its former habitats.
DIET: Eats a variety of grasses, buds, leaves, new shoots.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of up to about 15 years of age.
REPRODUCTION: Little is known about the breeding behavior of this species and little research
has been carried out. The male has a bark like rutting call. The rutting period is between November
and December. Young are born eight months later in May or June.
BEHAVIOUR: Little is known. It is thought to feed mainly at night.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered.
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Barasingha
Rucervus duavauceli
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Swamp Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: up to 180 cm
Shoulder height: 115 cm
Tail length: 12-20 cm
Weight: 180-230 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Barasingha Deer get their name from the Hindu word for ‘12
horns’, and the 12 pointed antlers are indeed their most distinctive feature. The Barasingha is a
medium sized deer, somewhat smaller than the Sambar Deer. The head is slender and the neck
long, the legs are long, and the ears broad and rounded. The coat is thin and sleek, and in color is a
deep red. The males are slightly darker than the females. During the summer months the coat is
lighter in color, and white spots can be seen on their sides. Along the spine is a dark stripe that is
occasionally bordered with white spots. The winter coat is darker in color, and longer in length, es -
pecially around the neck. The face has a dark mask, and has prominent scent glands. The underside
of the tail, and the underparts are paler. The antlers are long and can be up to a meter in length.
The antlers are branched, with one branch pointing forwards and the other arching backwards.
There are usually 12 points, but there can be as many as 15. The antlers are lost in February. Three
subspecies of Barasingha are recognized, the North Indian Barasingha (C.d.duvauceli), the Middle
Indian Barasingha (C.d. branderi), and the Ranjutsinii Barasingha (C.d.ranjutsinii).
DISTRIBUTION: Formerly they were found throughout the rive r basins of the Indus, Ganges
and the Brahmaputra, as well as across much of central India. However because of habitat loss be -
cause of the increasing demands of agriculture, their populations have declined significantly. It is
now only found along the Nepal/Indian border, and in smaller isolated pockets within India. There
are substantial numbers in zoos.
HABITAT: They are found in a wide range of habitats, but prefer areas of marshes, and areas of
grassland close to water. It is often aquatic. They are found also in a variety of forest types, such as
mangroves. They are found only at low elevations.
DIET: Barasingha feed mainly of types of wetland plants but also graze on various grasses.
LIFESPAN: Barsingha can live for up to 20 years.
BEHAVIOUR: For much of the year Barasingha live in mixed sex herds of 10 to 20 animals. In
winter larger groups form. Barasingha are active both during the day and at night. They live at den -
sities of 0.2 per square kilometer. They are active by day, except during the hottest times when they
rest. They have a loud barking call which is similar to a Roe bucks. They have a number of preda-
tors including tigers and leopards. Barasingha are very nervous highly-strung animals, which are
very sensitive to disturbance.
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REPRODUCTION: The rutting season is between September and April each year. The Barasing -
ha is the only deer species known to be monestrous, that is, the females only come into heat once a
year. During the rut males gather females into harems of up to 30 females. The males fight with
each other to establish a dominance hierarchy, with the highest-ranking males having access to fe-
males and able to hold a harem. The male has a loud characteristic rutting call which is made up of
two syllables. The fighting between rival males is impressive and highly ritualized. The male opens
his preorbital glands as he faces his opponent, lowers his antlers, and lowers the ears, then he
scrapes the ground with his hooves before finally running at the opposing male and joining antlers
in combat. A similar ritualized behavior is seen when males are threatened. The gestation period is
about 240 to 250 days. A single young is born between August and November, with most being
born in September. The young are weaned at six to eight months of age, and become sexually ma-
ture at about two years of age.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
17
Red Deer
Cervus elaphus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Wapiti
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 165-260 cm
Shoulder height: about 120 cm
Tail length: 12-20 cm
Weight: 100-350 kg. Males: 255kg on average.
Females: 150 kg on average.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Red Deer is a majestic creature. It is the second largest species
of deer found in Europe after the Elk. The Red Deer has a medium long head, a long square rump
and long but sturdy legs. The summer coat is short but sleek, the upper parts being a red -
dish-brown, while the underparts are a lighter brown or grayer color. The thick winter coat grows
from September to December and is a duller dark brown in color. The winter coat begins to be
molted in April or May, with older animals and those in prime condition molting first. Molting nor-
mally begins at the legs and rump before progressing to the rest of the body, and is normally com -
plete by July. During the winter the males have shaggy manes around their throats that helps to
emphasize the thickness of the neck and thus male strength during the rut. The rump patch is a
buff color. The tail is short and brown. The eyes are black, and the ears are short, being creamy
white on their insides but brown on the outsides. Females are smaller and less heavy than the
males.
Stags grow new antlers each summer. They are cleaned of velvet in August and are hardened in
September. The antlers are cast after the rut in March or April. The antlers can be up to a meter in
length and weigh over three kilograms. They are branched with a main beam, and have a number
of branching tines. There are often more than 12 tines. The size of the antlers and the number of
tines is not only related to age, but is more dependent on the quality of the habitat in which the
deer lives in. In good habitats with quality foods male calves may even begin to grow antlers. But in
poorer habitats mature young males may not grow antlers at all; these individuals are known as
hummels or notts. The antlers develop to their maximum size when the males are between 12 and
14 years of age.
DISTRIBUTION: The Red Deer has a very wide distribution, being found across the whole of
temperate Eurasia and North America. In Europe it is most common in the east, and there are iso -
lated populations in Scotland and southern Norway. A number of subspecies have been described,
but their validity is questionable, as Red Deer can be extremely variable in color, size, antlers struc -
ture etc. A number of North American subspecies are not thought to be the same as the standard
Red Deer. Recognized subspecies include, the Hangul (C.e.hangul) from Kashmir, the Altai Wapiti
(C.e.sibircus) from Siberia, and a form of Red Deer found in the Atlas Mountains (C.e.barbarus), and
this is the only deer found at all in Africa.
18
HABITATS: Originally the Red Deer was a species of open deciduous woodland, being found
along woodland margins, and in open meadows and clearings, but it has become more adaptable in
its needs and can now be found on grasslands, moorlands and scrub lands.
DIET: The Red Deer eats a variety of foods. In woodlands it eats leaves, twigs, bark and ferns. On
grasslands it feeds on grasses and sedges.
LIFESPAN: The Red Deer can live to between 12 to 18 years of age.
REPRODUCTION: Rutting occurs in autumn between August and October. Stags travel to tradi -
tional rutting grounds and then bellow to attract females. Stags attempt to round up females into a
harem. Young stags rarely form harems; only dominant stags over the five years of age are normal -
ly successful. There are a number of mating rituals that the stags show, such as antler thrashing,
and wallowing in muddy pools. Rival stags challenge a harem leader first by walking beside him;
they then undergo pushing matches with their antlers to decide which one is stronger. The gesta-
tion period is about 230 days. A single calf is born the following May or June and weighs about 6.5
kilograms at birth. They are able to move around only a few hours after birth. Calves are red-
dish-brown in color with spots; these spots fade within the first two months of life. The calves are
weaned at between six and 12 months of age. They are fully independent by a year of age. The first
antlers develop at between seven and 14 months of age, and grow to a length of only 25 centime -
ters. These first set of antlers are lost at two years of age. The next pair of antlers to grow are
branching, the antlers increase in size and complexity with each year of age.
BEHAVIOUR: During the summer months they live in small herds composed of two to eight
hinds and their young. Males form separate small bachelor herds. Older males tend to be more
solitary. Larger herds form in the winter and in spring. In the female herds there is a matriarchal
dominance hierarchy in which a dominant hind leads the group. They roam over a home range of
200 to 2,400 hectares, depending on the quality of the habitat they are on.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
19
Thamin
Rucervus eldi
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Brow Antlered Deer,
Eld’s Deer, Dancing Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 150-180 cm
Shoulder height: 105-130 cm
Tail length: 10-30 cm
Weight: 80-150 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Thamin or Brow Antlered Deer is very similar in appearance to
the Barasingha. It is a long legged, slender deer, with a long neck and head. The coat is long and
thick in winter, being shorter and thinner during the summer months. Stags are dark brown or
blackish in color, while the hinds are much lighter. There are often pale spots along the back. Dur -
ing the summer months the coat tends to be paler. The mature males have a thick mane of long
thick hair around their necks. The hooves are elongated and broad. The nose and eyes are black,
and there are deep lacrimal pits. The antlers are similar to those seen in the Barasingha, possessing
a total of 12 points, six on each antler, however the antlers are differently shaped than the Baras-
ingha. They curve outwards and inwards, rather than upwards, and this gives the antlers a distinc -
tive bow shape. The antlers can grow to over a meter in length. Three subspecies are recognized,
one of which is extinct. They are the Burmese Thamin (C.e.thamin), the Sangai or Manipur Thamin
(C.e.eldi), and the extinct Siam or Thailand Brow-antlered Deer (C.e.siamensis).
DISTRIBUTION: The population of Thamin have suffered due to overhunting and habitat loss.
Originally the Burmese Thamin was found in Burma, Thailand and the Malay Peninsula but only
between 2,000 and 3,000 remain. Few of the Sangai remain and it is found only in an isolated
pocket of Keibul Lamjao National Park in Manipur, Burma. The Thailand Brow-Antlered Deer
was found in Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
HABITAT: The Thamin is mainly a swamp living deer, found on woodland edges close to rivers
and flooded areas. It avoids areas of dense undergrowth and forest, preferring more open habitats.
DIET: Thamin feed grasses, leaves and shoots, as well as wetland living plants.
LIFESPAN: Up to 16 years.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting season is between February and May. The gestation period is
about 240 days. Normally a single young is born per litter, and it weighs about five kilograms at
birth. Weaning takes place from six to seven months of age. Sexual maturity is reached from 18
months of age.
BEHAVIOUR: Little is known about the lifestyles and behavior of the Thamin, as few studies into
its way of life have been conducted. Its habits seem to be similar to that of the Barasingha. Herds
of up to 50 females may occur, with the males living more solitary lives. The males only join the fe-
20
male herds during the mating season. Although the exact status of the Thamin subspecies in the
wild is unclear due to the difficult habitat in which it lives, it may still have a widespread distribu -
tion and could still be abundant in Burma. Populations of Thailand Brow-Antlered Deer may still
occur in remote locations in Cambodia. Some are kept captive and may be used for breeding pur -
poses. The other subspecies are also kept in captivity.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered.
21
Philippine Sambar
Rusa mariannus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Philippine Brown Deer, Luzon Sambar
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 100-150 cm
Shoulder height: 55-70 cm
Tail length: 8-12 cm
Weight: 40-60 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Philippine Sambar is similar in appearance to other sambar
species, but is smaller and more compact with shorter antlers. The pelage is a ruddy brown color,
with the upper parts being darker than the underparts. The tail is white underneath and is shorter
than is seen in other sambar species. The antlers are short and simple with usually only two to
three tines, and they are about 20 to 40 centimeters in length.
DISTRIBUTION: The Philippine Sambar is found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Mindanao,
and other associated small islands of the eastern Philippines. There are thought to be four sub-
species. The Philippine Sambar is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN; there have been popu -
lation declines in recent decades. Little is known about Philippine Sambar as little research has
been conducted, so its exact status is uncertain. The Spanish colonizers of the Philippines intro-
duced this species to Guam and Rota Island, where they were first described. They are now extinct
on these two islands. An introduced population may still survive on Ponape Island in the Carolines.
HABITAT: The Philippine Sambar inhabits forested mountain slopes to heights of 3,000 meters.
DIET: This species mostly feeds on various types of grasses and herbaceous plant.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of about 14 years.
REPRODUCTION: Little is known about breeding behavior in this deer, though it is thought to
be similar to the Philippine Spotted Deer. Newly born calves weigh 2.6 kilograms.
BEHAVIOUR: Little is yet known about the way of life of the Philippine Sambar, although it
probably has a similar lifestyle as other Sambar species. They lead mostly solitary lives. They are
nocturnal, waiting for dusk to fall before beginning to feed.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
22
Sika Deer
Cervus nippon
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Japanese Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: Males 138-149 cm.
Females 134-145 cm.
Shoulder height: Males 83-95, Females 74-89
Tail length: 12-15 cm
Weight: Males 64 kg. Females 41 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Sika Deer is a medium sized deer, being smaller in size than the
Red Deer to which they are closely related. In summer the coat is a rich chestnut-brown color, and
is speckled with white spots. The winter coat is darker and a gray-brown, the spots either fade away
during the winter, or are not as distinct under the longer winter coat. Molting occurs twice a year,
normally around May, and once again in October. There is often a black stripe running down the
spine. The rump and upper surface of the tail are white, and are edged with black, making them
conspicuous. These remain white in both sexes throughout the year. The neck is long, and the head
is thin and graceful. There are often white markings around the muzzle and the eyes. The ears are
rounded. On the hind legs are prominent white patches, showing the presence of the hock glands.
Only the males have antlers. The antlers have a maximum of eight tines. These are cast in April or
May, and regrow again by the following September. The Sika is a particularly hardy deer, able to
withstand the severest of winters. There are Japanese, Manchurian and Formosan subspecies.
DISTRIBUTION: The Sika Deer occurs in eastern Asia, being found in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, the
Ussuri region of Russia, and the province of Manchuria in China. It is under threat in these places,
mainly from habitat loss. The Japanese subspecies has been introduced in to a number of countries
including Australia, New Zealand, Britain, France, Germany, and Denmark. In Europe its distribu -
tion is rather scattered, with approximately 5,000 or so thought to be wild living, and a greater
number being found in parks. In its native range it has a widespread distribution.
HABITAT: A deer of deciduous and mixed woodlands, it prefers habitat with thick undergrowth
and a well developed understory. It is often found in woodland clearings and along woodland
edges. It also is sometimes seen on cultivated land. It is often kept as a parkland deer.
DIET: Sika deer feed on a variety of grasses, sedges, herbaceous plants, shoots and berries. It is
better able to digest poor quality fibrous food than the Red Deer.
LIFESPAN: The Sika Deer has a lifespan of 12 to 15 years.
REPRODUCTION: Temperate living Sika Deer rut between November and December. The
males will mark out and defend a territory, and then gather and protect a harem of hinds, in a simi-
lar way as Red Deer. The Stags mark out territory by thrashing vegetation with the antlers, which
leaves circular patches along its boundary. The stag has a distinctive rutting call, which sounds like
a whistle. The stags often fight during the rut. The gestation period is seven months, with normally
a single calf being born between the months of May and June. The calves have white spots on their
23
coat, which disappear a few months after birth. At birth the calves weigh about three kilograms.
The young are weaned at six to eight months of age, and become sexually mature at 16 to 18
months of age. The young leave their mother when another young is born.
BEHAVIOUR: Sika Deer are active throughout the day and night. The live in small herds of six to
eight animals, usually composed of females and their young. Males live separately either singly or in
small bachelor groups. The males only join with the females during the rut. Sika Deer are able to
interbreed with Red Deer. It is feared that this could affect the purity of Red Deer.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
24
Schomburgh’s Deer
Cervus schomburgki
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 180 cm
Shoulder height: 104 cm
Tail length: 10 cm
Weight: 100-120 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION- The Schomburgh’s Deer was similar in appearance to the Barasing-
ha, and by some authorities is considered as a subspecies of the animal. It differed though, it that it
was small and possessed antlers that are more complex than those seen in the Barasingha. The up-
per parts were a uniform chocolate brown color, while the underparts were lighter. The legs and
forehead had a reddish tinge. There was a short tail, which had a white underside. The antlers have
been described as being ‘basket like’, with much branching and numerous tines. Each antler had at
least five tines and could have over 30 in some animals. The length along the outside curve of the
antlers was 32 to 83 centimeters.
DISTRIBUTION: The last wild specimen was shot in 1932. The last captive animal was killed in
1938. Its original range was in central Thailand, especially along the Chao Phya River Valley. The
species may also have been found in Yunnan and Laos, but this is unknown for certain. Although
considered extinct, there are rumors of its continued existence in isolated rural areas. The popula-
tion declined because of the increase in large-scale commercial rice production in the late 19th cen-
tury, which resulted in habitat loss. It also suffered from overhunting. Its tendency to congregate
on small islands during times of flooding made it easy prey for hunters.
HABITAT: This deer lived on open grassland plains. It disliked dense vegetation.
DIET: Its diet was made up predominately of various types of grasses.
LIFESPAN: The lifespan of this species is unknown but is probably similar as in other Cervus
species at about 10 to 16 years.
REPRODUCTION: Nothing is known about the reproductive habits of the Schomburgh’s Deer,
although it may have had a similar reproductive cycle as the Barasingha.
BEHAVIOUR: Normally rested during the day, emerging to feed in the early evening or at night.
Lived it small family groups composed of a single male, a few females and their young.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Extinct.
25
Sunda Sambar
Rusa timorensis
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Rusa Sambar, Rusa
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 130-210 cm
Shoulder height: 80-110 cm
Tail length: 10-30 cm
Weight: 50-115 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Sunda Sambar, or Rusa Sambar as it is otherwise known as, re-
sembles the Indian Sambar, but is smaller in size, and the coat is longer and much more shaggy. In
color the pelage is a grayish-brown, while the underparts and the legs are slightly paler. The legs are
relatively short in length, which gives it a rather stocky appearance. The neck of the male is particu -
larly shaggy with long hairs. The head is long and slender. Sometimes a white patch is found below
the lower lip. The eyes are black but are edged with paler fur. The ears are hairy, and in shape are
broad and rounded. The antlers of the male have three tines and are lyre shaped. The antlers are
usually between 60 and 75 centimeters in length, but lengths of over one meter have been recorded
in some animals. Unlike the Indian and Philippine Sambar, the backwards tine of the antlers is larg -
er in the Sunda Sambar than the two frontal tines. The eye glands are large.
DISTRIBUTION: The Sunda Sambar was probably originally found on Java and Bali, but has long
been introduced to numerous other Indonesian islands. They have been introduced more recently
to Borneo, New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, Mauritius, New Britain and New Caledonia.
HABITAT: The Sunda Sambar is able to live in a variety of habitats, but is mostly found in forests,
plantations and open grasslands.
DIET: Its diet includes grasses and leaves. It is also reported to eat seaweed.
LIFESPAN: The Sunda Sambar has a maximum lifespan of 16 to 20 years in the wild. The average
is probably much lower.
REPRODUCTION: The Sunda Sambar is able to breed throughout the year, but the peak-breed -
ing season occurs between June and August. The males have a shrill roar that can be heard during
the mating season, and they will adorn their antlers with grass and twigs to enhance their appear-
ance. The gestation period is eight months, with most calves being born in March or April. The
calves are not spotted at birth. The young calves stay with their mother after being born. Weaning
of the young occurs at between six and eight months. Sexual maturity is reached at between 18 and
24 months of age. Normally a single calf is born per litter, but occasionally there are two.
BEHAVIOUR: The Sunda Sambar is different from the other Sambar species in that it is more
gregarious in its habits, living in small groups, while the other species of Sambar are predominantly
26
solitary. Separate groups of about 25 animals are formed, with the male groups living separately
from the female groups, except during the breeding season. The Sunda Sambar is also unusual
among the deer in not raising its tail when fleeing. When alarmed they have a short whistle which
acts as an alarm signal to alert other animals. The main predators of the Sunda Sambar include the
dhole, python and the crocodile. They are mostly active at night, feeding during the hours of dark -
ness and resting through the day.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
27
Indian Sambar
Rusa unicolor
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 170-270 cm
Shoulder height: 120-150 cm
Tail length: 22-35 cm
Weight: 150-300 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Indian Sambar is one of the largest species of deer, being
strongly built and sturdy. It is an impressive animal, with high long legs, a solid body, and a sturdy
strong head. It is the largest species of deer found on the Indian subcontinent. The coat is course
and shaggy. The males have a mane around their necks and throats that is made up of longer hairs.
In color the pelage is usually brown with a grayish tinge. The females are slightly lighter in color
than the males. Stags become darker, almost black with age. The tail is broad and bushy. The size
and coloration of the Sambar varies somewhat according to geographical location. Generally Indi-
an Sambar found in central India are larger than those found in other locations. There are normally
three tines to each antler, one backwards tine, and two frontal tines. The backwards-pointing tine is
smaller than the frontal tines. The antlers are usually in the range of 90 to 95 centimeters in length,
but can grow to over a meter long in older males. Like all Sambar species, the Indian Sambar has
well developed eye glands. Sambar is a Hindi word which means animal.
DISTRIBUTION: The various species of Sambar Deer are the most widely spread deer in the
world, and also one of the most common. Sambar deer have a range that covers many of the coun -
tries of South-East Asia. The Indian Sambar is found throughout India, and across large parts of
Indonesia and Malaysia. It also occurs on Borneo and Sumatra. It has been introduced into Aus -
tralia, New Zealand and Florida.
HABITAT: They are a forest living deer, living in humid tropical and subtropical forest, preferring
areas close to water or near to swampy marshy ground. When the antlers are fully grown in the
males they will often move into more open habitats. They are found at elevations up to 3,000 me-
ters. It can also be found at the edge of cultivated areas.
DIET: The Indian Sambar feeds on a variety of grass species, leaves, and wild fruit.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of about 16 to 20 years.
REPRODUCTION: In India the mating season occurs between November and December. The
males establish territories, from which they exclude other males. They then mate with visiting fe-
males, who they try to collect together into a harem. They defend these harems vigorously from
other males. During the rutting period the distinctive bellowing rutting call can be heard. The ges -
28
tation period is about eight months lasting 245 to 285 days. Normally a single fawn, but occasional -
ly twins are born the following May or June. The young are not spotted at birth. The exact timing
of the birth and mating season depends on the location. The young are born concealed in thick
vegetation, and remain hidden separate from their mother for the first few days of life, after which
they are able to accompany their mother. The young are weaned from seven months of age. After
the rut the males lose their antlers, and a new pair begin to grow immediately.
BEHAVIOUR: The Sambar is mainly a nocturnal animal, which feeds throughout the night, and
then retires to rest at dawn. Sambar deer mostly live alone, although young males may form small
groups together. They only come together during the rutting season, when small groups can be
seen, but these break up as soon as the rut has ended. Despite its large size it is easily able to hide
in the dense vegetation of forests. They have excellent senses, and are good at detecting approach-
ing predators. When alarmed it will stand stock still, and emit a repetitive ‘honking’ alarm call,
rather than fleeing immediately. When it does flee, the tail is raised exposing the rump. They have a
number of predators, and it is one of the favorite prey animals of the tiger.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
29
Chital
Axis axis
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Axis, Spotted Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 110-140 cm
Shoulder height: 95 cm
Tail length: 20-30 cm
Weight: 75-100 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: An attractive animal, whose most noticeable feature is its rich chest-
nut brown coat that is dappled with numerous white spots. The coat is darker during the winter
months. The underparts and inner legs are white, and there is a large distinctive white throat patch.
A dark dorsal stripe runs down the back. The nose is black. The eyes are large, and have long eye-
lashes. The axis is a high-legged deer with a short neck and head. The tail is fairly long and has a
white underside. The antlers are long and elegant, growing to a maximum length of 76 centimeters.
Each antler is three tined, having a shorter brow tine and a backwards-pointing main beam that
splits into two. There is no definite season in which the stags cast their antlers.
DISTRIBUTION: They are found across the Indian peninsula and on Sri Lanka. It has been intro-
duced into numerous countries such as Italy, America, New Zealand, and Australia. The success of
these introductions has been mixed, because the Chital is unable to tolerate cold winters.
HABITATS: In India it is found in lowland forest with good cover, and it will also venture into
more open areas, and even feed on agricultural crops. It is often seen close to water. It is often a
parkland deer in countries in which it has been introduced.
DIET: Chital graze mostly on various types of grasses.
LIFESPAN: They have an average lifespan of eight to 12 years.
REPRODUCTION: In northern India the rut takes place during the winter months, further south
rutting can occur during any season. Rutting stags emit loud rough bellows and will fight for access
to females. The gestation period is 225 to 230 days, with one or two calves being born.
BEHAVIOUR: The Chital is a good runner able to reach speeds of 65 kilometers per hour. The
alarm call is a shrill whistle. Chital are gregarious animals, living in mixed herds, which can number
up to 100 animals in areas of suitable habitat. Dominant individuals decide where the herd will
graze. Older males are more solitary. Unlike the Sambar deer, which is nocturnal, the Chital can be
active by day. Predators include leopards, hyenas and even crocodiles. It is an important prey anim -
al of the tiger. To some extent by clearing the forests, man has helped increase Chital populations
by creating habitats they favour. However, because of the ever-increasing human population, habit-
at is being lost and hunting increasing, meaning they could be threatened in the future.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
30
Calamian Deer
Axis calamiansis
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 100-175 cm
Shoulder height: 60-100 cm
Tail length: 12-38 cm
Weight: 27-110 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Calamian Deer is very similar in appearance to the Hog Deer
and some authors consider it as being a subspecies of the Hog Deer rather than as a species in its
own right. The face and ears are thought to be shorter than in the Hog Deer, and there is a white
patch of fur on the lower throat.
DISTRIBUTION: The Calamian Deer is found on the Calamian Islands of the western Philip -
pines. Most occur on the islands of Busuanga and Culion. It is possible that originally man intro -
duced the Hog Deer to these islands in the Pleistocene, and these were the founder population of
the Calamian Deer population. Once very numerous on these islands, numbers have fallen because
of overhunting and loss of habitat due to the expansion of agriculture. Only about 500 animals are
thought to remain in the wild.
HABITAT: Calamian Deer inhabit open forest and grasslands, and also wet areas such as swamps,
river edges and marshes.
DIET: They mostly graze on grasses.
LIFESPAN: They have a maximum lifespan of about 20 years.
REPRODUCTION: Breeding can occur throughout the year. A single fawn is born after a gesta -
tion period of eight months. The fawns remain hidden in dense vegetation, until they are old
enough to accompany the mother. Males become independent at 12 months of age, but females
may remain with their mothers for longer.
BEHAVIOUR: They have a similar lifestyle as that of the closely related Hog Deer and Kuhl’s
Deer. They are mostly solitary, except for females who are seen with their young. However, some-
times small groups will occasionally form temporarily. They are mostly active in the early morning
hours and in the late afternoon, spending the middle part of the day resting.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered.
31
Kuhl’s Deer
Axis kuhlii
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Bawean Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 100-150 cm
Shoulder height: 60-70 cm
Tail length: 15-20 cm
Weight: 30-60 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Kuhl’s Deer are similar in size and appearance to the Hog Deer, and
are often considered as a subspecies of Hog Deer rather than a species in their own right by many
authors. The coat is short and a light brown in color. There is a white throat patch and white mark-
ings around the eyes. The tail is long and bushy, being brown above and white underneath. The
hairs are not uniform in color, being banded with yellow, and this can give the coat a grizzled ap -
pearance. The legs are shorter than in the Hog Deer, and the head not as long. The antlers bear
three tines and are similar to those seen in the Hog Deer, but do not grow as long.
DISTRIBUTION: The Kuhl’s Deer is found on Bawean Island in Indonesia. It is threatened be-
cause its habitat is being lost to make way for farming land and teak plantations.
HABITAT: The Kuhl’s Deer is found in upland forests, and often around riverine and marshland
areas. It prefers areas with dense undergrowth, which provide it with refuge.
DIET: They feed on a variety of different types of grass.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of 12 to 15 years.
REPRODUCTION: The rut takes place between the months of September and October. The ges-
tation period is eight months with a single fawn being born in April or May. Fawns have spots, but
they are not as distinct as those seen in the Hog Deer.
BEHAVIOUR: The Kuhl’s Deer is mostly nocturnal, emerging at night to graze and browse
around its home. It is normally seen singly, or sometimes in pairs outside of the breeding season.
During the day it retreats to dense forest cover and awaits nightfall. Most distinctive about this
species is its characteristic sharp bark like calls, which are emitted by both the sexes. The barks are
often used as challenges between rival males, although barking is not restricted to the rutting times.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically endangered.
32
Hog Deer
Cervus porcinus
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 105-115 cm
Shoulder height: 60-75 cm
Tail length: 17-21 cm
Weight: 50-110 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Hog Deer is so named because of its short ‘pig like’ appear -
ance, and its habit of running through thick undergrowth with its head held low in the manner of
pigs, rather than showing the typical deer behavior of leaping over things. The Hog Deer is stocky
in appearance, with a low height and short legs. Despite this small appearance it is quite heavy, of-
ten weighing over 50 kilograms. The back is raised towards the rump. The tail is long and hairy
with white underparts. The coat is typically dark brown in color with a black band running down
the back. The ears are long and rounded. The face is short and wedge shaped. The males grow
antlers which grow to 60 centimeters in length and which have three tines. These are cast on a
yearly basis, but in no discernible season.
DISTRIBUTION: Hog Deer are locally abundant in northern India and Pakistan. They are also
found in south-east Asia, but populations here have declined in recent decades. They have become
extinct in Bangladesh. There are a number of captive herds in European parks.
HABITAT: Found in swamps, marshes and in areas close to rivers. It favors good ground cover.
DIET: They graze mostly on leaves and grasses.
LIFESPAN: 12 to 15 years. They can live for a maximum of up to 20 years.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting season occurs between September and December, depending on
location. During the rut males gather in open grasslands and compete for females. No harems are
formed, the males instead pairing with a succession of single females. The male has no rutting call.
Pregnancy lasts 220 to 235 days, and usually a single, but occasionally two young are born. The
young are brown with white spots that fade with age. The young are weaned at six months of age,
and become sexually mature at eight to 12 months.
BEHAVIOUR: Normally Hog Deer live singly or in only small herds, mostly composed of a fe-
male and her young. When disturbed Hog Deer emit a warning bark and whistle. They are mainly
nocturnal, but where they are undisturbed by man they will also be active in the day.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered.
33
34
Pére David’s Deer
Elaphurus davidianus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Milu
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 140-230 cm
Shoulder height: 130 cm
Tail length: up to 60 cm
Weight: Males up to 200 kg,
Females up to 115 kg.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: A rather unusual species, the Pére David’s Deer has an appearance
unlike that of any other type of deer. Its Chinese name means 'the four unlike', because the tail
looks like it comes from a donkey, the hooves from a cow, the neck from a camel and the antlers
from a stag. Its body is unusual in shape, the rump is long and square, the neck is short and the
head is long with a squarish muzzle. Males have long shaggy neck hair that reaches down to their
breasts. The ears are short and pointed. The eyes are large. The legs are long giving it a lanky and
ungainly appearance. The hooves are large and splayed, designed to prevent it from sinking into
muddy and soft ground. As the Pére Davids Deer walks its hooves make a clicking sound similar to
that heard in Reindeer when they walk. The tail is long with a long tassel of fur and has been de -
scribed as being similar to a donkeys. In summer the coat is a tawny red with a dark stripe running
down the back. In winter the coat is a grayish-brown in color. The antlers of the male also appear
strange, and look somewhat ‘backwards’. They are short but strong looking, with two distinct
shafts. They are swept backwards and have several tines. The antlers are cast from October to De -
cember, and new ones begin to grow straight away, taking six months to reach full size.
DISTRIBUTION: This species has an unusual and interesting history. Originally they were found
on the Honan marshes in northeast China, but became extinct here due to hunting and to make
way for agriculture. Some animals remained in a small herd in the Chinese Emperors private collec-
tion in the Imperial Garden. The famous French biologist and Jesuit priest Pére Armand David,
was the first European to see and describe the deer, and later they were named after him. The Chi -
nese emperor gave some of the deer as presents to Britain, Germany and France. Although they
did not survive in France, in Britain they were kept by the Duke of Bedford at his Woburn estate,
and here they were able to breed successfully. In 1939 the remaining deer in the Emperors garden
were killed, leaving only the animals in the Woburn Herd. Other herds were established from these
animals, and they are now kept in a semi-domesticated condition in a number of parks and wildlife
35
gardens. Hopefully a wild population can be re-established in their former home in the future.
There are about 600 Pére Davids Deer world-wide.
HABITAT: Originally Pére David’s Deer were found in lowland marshes that had a dense under -
story of vegetation. Now they are kept in parkland conditions.
DIET: They feed on grasses, herbaceous plants, and wetland plants.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of up to 25 years.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting season is in July and August, with the males fighting to gain con-
trol of harems of females. They will often adorn their antlers with vegetation to try to enhance
their size and dominance. The gestation period is 283 days. Normally a single calf is born the fol -
lowing May. The calves are brown with white spots and they appear rather long legged. The young
begin to be weaned from six weeks of age. Females reach sexual maturity from 12 months of age,
males mature somewhat later from three years of age onward.
BEHAVIOUR: Outside of the rutting period Pére David’s Deer live in large mixed sex herds.
These herds are led by dominant individuals. The behaviour of wild living Pére David’s Deer is un -
known.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Extinct in the wild.
36
Fallow Deer
Dama dama
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 140-190 cm
Shoulder height: 80-110 cm
Tail length: 14-25 cm
Weight: 25-130 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Fallow Deer can be easily distinguished from other species of
deer because they have distinctive broad flattened palmate antlers that have numerous tines. The
color of the coat is extremely variable, with many different forms occurring, including animals with
white and black coats. However, in most animals the summer coat is a reddish-brown color, with a
smattering of white spots. The summer coat is smooth and thin in appearance. The winter coat is
thicker and scruffier looking, often being darker in color; the white spots are much less distinct
during the winter months. The throat and belly are lighter in color than the upper parts. The
hooves and nose are black. There is a white rump patch, which is bordered by black markings. The
tail is long and black with white fringes. The Adam's apple is pronounced. Males tend to be larger
and heavier than the females. The bucks cast their antlers in April or May. New antlers are grown
throughout the summer and are fully grown by August. The antlers become increasingly broad and
flattened with age, those bucks over five years of age have the largest and most blade like antlers
that have a length of over 70 centimeters. The tines at the front and middle of the antlers are the
longest and most prominent, the other tines mainly being extensions of the large flattened blade.
DISTRIBUTION: The original range of the Fallow Deer was around the Mediterranean and parts
of Asia Minor. They have been introduced to a number of countries. There popularity as a park-
land deer has meant they have been introduced into most western and central European countries.
Formally they were also found in north Africa.
HABITAT: The preferred habitat of Fallow Deer is open deciduous woodland. It is a very com-
mon parkland deer.
DIET: Fallow Deer eat a variety of grasses, leaves, berries and fruits.
LIFESPAN: Up to 14 years.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting period is in October and November. Bucks form small territories
or rutting stands in traditional locations, the territories are marked with urine and by rubbing bark
off branches. Fighting between rival males is not uncommon, with males clashing their antlers to-
gether to decide which is strongest and most dominant. During rutting the males can be heard bel-
lowing, or giving out a rough coughing sound. The males attempt to collect small groups of fe -
males into harems and then to mate with them. The gestation period is 230 days, with normally a
single fawn being born in June. The fawns are usually left in long undergrowth for two to three
37
weeks before beginning to accompany the females. They are suckled for eight to nine months, fi-
nally becoming independent at about a year of age.
BEHAVIOUR: Fallow Deer are mostly active at dusk and dawn. Females live with their young in
herds that have a strict dominance hierarchy. Males live in smaller separate bachelor herds, away
from the females. They are non-territorial, but possess loose home ranges, which overlap consider -
ably. They have a short barking alarm call.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
Mesophatanian Fallow Deer
Dama mesopotamica
The Mesophatanian Fallow Deer is sometimes considered as a subspecies of the Fallow Deer, it
has a similar appearance but is slightly bigger and the hair around its neck is thicker. The antlers
have much thicker and broader front tines than in the Fallow Deer, but are not as flattened or
blade like. This subspecies is found only in a small area in western Iran. There are thought to be
only about 1,000 remaining in the wild. The subspecies was originally thought to have become ex-
tinct in 1951, but rumors of its continued existence in the Khusistan Province of Iran continued,
and further expeditions found a small herd of about 150 animals in 1957. Some were captured and
taken to Kronberg zoo where a breeding herd was established. In the wild they are protected, but
continued survival remains uncertain. They are classified as being endangered.
38
12
New World Deer: Subfamily Capreolinae
The Capreolinae are mostly found in the New World, although the Elk and the Reindeer also occur
in Europe and Asia. They are more diverse in form than the Cervidae, ranging in size from the tiny
brockets in South America, up to the gigantic Elk, which has large flattened antlers.
39
Chinese Water Deer
Hydropotes inermis
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Water-deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 80-100 cm
Tail length: 6-7 cm
Shoulder height: 42-60 cm
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Chinese Water Deer is unusual amongst the deer in having no
antlers. The most distinctive feature are the greatly enlarged upper canines of the males. These pro -
trude well below the jaw line and can be over six centimeters in length. They resemble ‘tusks’ and
are used as weapons between the males when they fight. The Chinese Water Deer is short in
stature, but relatively long legged despite its small size. The head and neck are short in length. The
back is raised towards the rump. The front legs are shorter than those of the hind end. Molting of
the winter coat occurs in March or April. The summer coat is a rich reddish-brown color and is
thin and sleek in appearance. The winter coat which is grown by November is duller and thicker.
The coat hairs are paler at their base, and darker, almost black at their tip, giving it an almost
brindled appearance. The nose and eyes are black. The tail is short and there is no prominent rump
patch.
DISTRIBUTION: They are found in north-east China. There are also wild populations in France
and Britain which were established from escapees from private collections. In Britain it is found in
the Cambridgeshire Fens, the Norfolk Broads and Bedfordshire.
HABITAT: In China they inhabit deciduous woodland and marshy river valleys. In Europe they
are found in parkland, reed beds and in wet grasslands.
DIET: Feeds on grasses, sedges, rushes, brambles and willow. They will also invade farmland and
feed on agricultural crops.
LIFESPAN: The maximum lifespan of the Chinese Water Deer is about 10 to 12 years, most indi -
viduals live to be no older than six years.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting period is in December. Mature bucks establish mating territories
which contain a single doe. The boundary of the territory is marked in a variety of ways, such as by
using feces, rubbing head secretions onto trees and bushes, or by making small scrapes in the
ground which are then scented with urine. The males will fight rivals which enter their territory us-
ing their enlarged canines as weapons. The males have a distinctive whistling call which is used in
courtship. The pair often remain together for some months. Gestation is 180 to 210 days. Large lit -
ters of up to six can occur, but one to four fawns per litter is more usual. The fawns have white
spots, which are in rows along their body, these disappear by two months of age. The young are
weaned at two months of age, and are fully independent at five to seven months.
BEHAVIOUR: Mostly active at dawn and dusk when they feed. Usually solitary but sometimes
seen in pairs, especially around the rutting time. Sometimes they congregate in larger groups
around rich food sources in winter. They have an acute sense of smell. When alarmed they will
emit a loud dog like bark as a warning to others before fleeing.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
41
Roe Deer
Capreolus capreolus
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 100-140 cm
Shoulder height: 69-90 cm
Tail length: 2-3 cm
Weight: 16-50 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The smallest native deer of Europe, the small stature gives it a
somewhat stocky appearance. The legs are thin and long, the neck slender, and the head has a short
muzzle. The back is raised towards the rump. The males are usually larger and heavier than the fe -
males. In summer the coat is thin and sleek, in color usually being a reddish-brown. The winter
coat grows in September or October and is much thicker and rougher than the summer coat. The
winter coat is darker, being a dark brown or gray color. The short muzzle has a black nose band;
there are sometimes white patches of fur around the chin and eyes. The eyes are dark. The ears are
prominent and rounded. The tail is very short and almost absent, but during the winter the females
have a long tuft of white hair that grows from the tail. Both sexes have a white rump patch, which
is most prominent in winter. In males this is kidney shaped, while in the females it is more like an
inverted heart. Only males have antlers. Antlers are cast in October and November, and new ones
begin to grow during the winter months. The velvet is rubbed off the new antlers in May. The
antlers are fairly short, growing to only about 30 centimeters in length. Tnhey do not branch great-
ly, usually only having three or four tines, although mature bucks can have up to six points. The
bottom parts of the antlers are characteristically rough, which is known as ‘pearling’. Bucks in there
first year only grow simple short spikes, the number of tines increasing with age.
DISTRIBUTION: The Roe Deer is found throughout the temperate zone of Europe and Asia. It
has a widespread distribution in Europe, but is not found in Iceland, Ireland or around the
Mediterranean area. The distribution of Roe Deer is not as continuous as that of the Red Deer. It
is very abundant in Europe.
HABITAT: Although originally a forest dweller found in deciduous and mixed forests, the Roe
Deer is extremely adaptable and has been able to colonize cultivated and more open areas, such as
parks, fields and scrub land. In wooded areas it is normally seen in woodland clearings or along
woodland edges.
DIET: They feed on a variety of leaves, grasses, buds and fruit.
LIFESPAN: Roe Deer have a lifespan of eight to 10 years.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting season is from July to August. During this period males defend
their territories against rivals, and mate with receptive females. The fertilized egg does not begin to
grow until late winter. Females that have been unsuccessful at breeding during the rut can mate
again in December. Normally one or two young are born in May after a 300-day gestation period.
42
For the first few weeks of their life the kids are left hidden in thick undergrowth, and the mothers
visit them several times during the day to allow them to suckle. From about six weeks of age they
begin to accompany their mothers. The young are weaned at two to three months of age, but do
not become fully independent until they are a year old.
BEHAVIOUR: The Roe Deer feeds mostly at dawn and at dusk. Its behavior during the year
changes, most of the year it is fairly solitary, living alone in small territories. These territories are
marked with scent. The males defend their territories, while the females are more casual. In winter
these territories break down, and larger groups of Roe Deer collect together.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern
Siberian Roe Deer
Capreolus pygargus
This animal is usually considered as a subspecies of the Roe Deer, but sometimes also as being a
species in its own right. It is very similar to the Roe Deer in appearance and behavior. It is found in
eastern Russia and Siberia. The main difference between it and the Roe Deer are its antlers, which
are larger and more elaborately tined than those of the Roe Deer.
43
Elk
Alces alces
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
in Europe known as Elk,
in America as the Moose
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 200-300 cm
Shoulder height: Males 180-220 cm, Females
150-170 cm
Tail length: 7-15 cm
Weight: Males 300-800 kg, Females 250-400kg.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Elk is the largest of the deer species. Its characteristic shape
and large size make it easily recognizable. The shoulders are humped, and the legs long and slender.
The tail is short. The coat is a brownish-gray color in the summer, but in the winter is grayer. The
legs are slightly paler than the rest of the body. The underparts of the females are slightly paler than
the males. The male has a thick beard and the hair of the neck is long and shaggy. The snout is dis -
tinctly long and broad. The upper lip overhangs the mouth and is extremely movable. The eyes are
relatively small for an animal of its size. The feet are wide and flat, allowing the Elk to move with
ease over marshy and wet ground without sinking in. Only the bulls possess antlers; these are large
and carried low on the head. They can weigh over 20 kilograms. Two types of antler are seen. Pal-
mate antlers are flattened with shovel like blades, which have numerous upwards pointing tines.
Deer like antlers are also seen on some animals and have branching points and no flattened blade.
The antlers are cast each year between December and March. They begin to be regrown in April
and are fully grown by August or September. The antlers reach there greatest size when the males
are eight to ten years old. There are a number of subspecies of Elk.
DISTRIBUTION: They are found in a wide belt across the taiga of northern Europe, Asia and
North America. It is thought to be extending its range into eastern and central Europe after being
exterminated here by overhunting in previous centuries.
HABITAT: The preferred habitat of the Elk is coniferous forest, tundra and moorlands. It is often
found close to open water or near to swampy and marshy ground. In the far north it may move
onto the tundra in spring, and return to the forests as winter approaches.
LIFESPAN: They are capable of living to be over 20 years of age.
DIET: Shoots, twigs of pine trees, bark, leaves, and herbaceous plants all make up the diet of this
large animal. It requires between 10 and 40 kilograms of foodstuff each day in order to survive.
REPRODUCTION: The rut occurs in September or October. Unlike other deer species the males
do not have harems, but form a number of pair bonds with single females for several days. Over
the course of the rut males will form several such pair bonds and therefore breed with a number of
females. The bulls call for females with loud roars and grunts. Rivalry for females can be intense
with males undergoing trials of strength with their antlers. Males will form a rutting hollow.
Courtship involves both sexes calling to each other and laying in the rutting hollow. Gestation is
44
235 days long. One or two young are born the following May or June. Calves weigh about 10 kilo -
grams at birth, and are not spotted and a reddish-brown color. They suckle for nine to 12 months
before becoming fully independent. Females reach sexual maturity in their second year, males in
their third or fourth. In the males antlers grow in the first year, but are only small in size.
BEHAVIOUR: Elks are mostly solitary living. They are active during the day and night, spending
much time searching for food. They are capable of covering large distances quickly. Elk overwinter
in sheltered or low lying locations, and as summer approaches move to summer feeding grounds
higher up mountains or in more exposed locations. They are comfortable around water and are
able to swim well. Often animals will move away from the northern forests and onto the treeless
tundra during the spring and summer months, returning to the forests when winter returns. The
main predator of the Elk is the wolf, although bears will also predate on them. It is possible to
tame Elk, and in the past they have been used as riding and haulage animals.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
45
Mule Deer
Odocoileus hemionus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Black-tailed Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 100-190 cm
Shoulder height: 90-105 cm
Tail length: 10-25 cm
Weight: 50-215 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Mule Deer are so named because of their large mule like ears, which
allows them to be alert for the sounds of danger. It is a medium sized stocky deer, with long but
sturdy legs. The body is long, and the neck thin and slender. In summer the coat is fine textured,
and is a reddish-brown color. In winter it is thicker and grayer, sometimes with tinges of black. The
underparts are paler in coloration, sometimes being almost white. The inside legs and rump patch
are white. There is also a white throat patch. The tail is not particularly bushy but is long with a
black tip and a white underside. The large ears are white on their insides and gray on the outside.
The nose is black. There are paler markings around the eyes. The antlers can be up to 78 centime -
ters long and have a breadth of over a meter. The antlers are shed at the beginning of the breeding
season between January and April. New antlers begin to grow almost immediately, growth is rapid
and they are fully-grown within 150 days. Mature bucks have four main points on each antler. Sev -
en subspecies are currently recognized, including the Black-Tailed Deer from California.
DISTRIBUTION: The Mule Deer has a wide distribution being found over much of the west of
the north Americas, including the western USA, Canada and Mexico.
HABITAT: The Mule Deer is very adaptable and can be found in a wide range of habitats across
its distribution range. It prefers dry, open forest and scrub land, but is also happy in arid, open ar-
eas and on rocky hillsides. Unlike the White-Tailed Deer that is not found in desert and mountain-
ous areas, the Mule Deer is happy to inhabit these areas. The Mule Deer tends to avoid areas of
thick forest and is often seen around woodland clearings and glades where it can easily conceal it-
self in high vegetation.
DIET: It has a varied diet which includes green leaves, herbaceous plants, weeds, grasses and twigs.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of about 10 years.
REPRODUCTION: The mating season can vary depending on the location and the climatic con-
ditions found there. However the rut mostly takes place between November and mid December.
Males round up harems of females, and fight with other males to keep possession of them. The
gestation period is 210 days long. A single fawn, or twins are born in June or July. A single fawn
46
usually weighs about 2.5 kilograms at birth. The fawn has white spots that disappear with age.
Weaning occurs at six to seven weeks of age. Sexual maturity is reached at 18 months of age.
BEHAVIOUR: The Mule Deer is well known for its characteristic ‘stotting’ high bouncing gait. It
feeds mostly in the early mornings and late evenings. It usually rests through the heat of the day.
During the winter the deer will descend from high exposed locations to more sheltered locations at
lower altitudes. At these times large herds can form. At other times of the year they live in small
herds of usually about three or four animals. They are sometimes seen alone. When they sense dan-
ger they flee with a high leaping gait, but unlike the White-Tailed Deer do not lift their tail, the
black of the tail is clearly visible against the white of the rump patch. Their predators include the
wolf and the puma. The Mule Deer is a popular hunting species in the USA.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
47
White-Tailed Deer
Odocoileus virginianus
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: about 180 cm
Shoulder height: 90-105 cm
Tail length: 15-28 cm
Weight: 50-115 kg.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The White-Tailed Deer is the adaptable new world counterpart to
the Roe Deer in Europe. The main distinguishing feature of the White-Tailed Deer is the long
bushy tail, which as its name implies has a white underside, and which is raised as a warning signal
when the deer is alarmed or disturbed. There is also a large white rump patch. The eyes, muzzle
and throat also have distinctive white markings on them. The coat is a reddish-brown color, be-
coming darker and grayer in winter. There are two molts each year, the first occurring between
March and June when the winter coat is molted, the second is between August and October, when
the thicker winter coat is grown. The ears are large and rounded, while the nose is black. The neck
is long and gracile. The antlers are distinctive in shape; they begin by bending outwards before
turning to point forwards. They have numerous tines. The antlers can grow up to 90 centimeters in
length. There are a number of distinctive subspecies of this type of deer. Those living in the north
of its range are larger than those found in the south. For example the Keg Deer, found in Florida
can weigh as little as 25 kilograms, while further north they reach weights of well over 100 kilo -
grams. Other subspecies include the Colombian White-Tailed Deer and the Colombian Black-
Tailed Deer.
DISTRIBUTION: This species has a very large distribution across the Americas, it is found from
the south of Brazil to the north of Canada. They are not found in some parts of the western USA.
It has been successfully introduced into Europe into west Finland and also into the Czech Repub -
lic.
HABITAT: It is a very adaptable species, able to live in a variety of habitats. In the Americas it fills
the niche that in Europe is filled by the Roe Deer. It is essentially a woodland deer, happy along
woodland edges and amongst light woodland. Because of its adaptability it has spread across agri -
cultural lands and its numbers have increased rapidly as a result. The clearances of the north Amer -
ican forests and the creation of more open woodlands especially favored this species. Former
predators were also exterminated or now occur in much lower densities than previously, meaning
that deer numbers remain high. It does not like steep mountainous areas.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of 15 to 20 years.
DIET: White-Tailed Deer are very adaptable in what they will eat, feeding on a variety of food -
stuffs, including shoots, herbaceous plants, berries and leaves. They will also feed on agricultural
crops.
48
REPRODUCTION: In the temperate north rutting occurs between October and January. Males
compete fiercely for access to females. There are stories of fighting males getting the complex
antlers stuck during the antler ‘jousting’, and then being unable to untangle them, resulting in the
death of both the males. The gestation period is 200 to 205 days. Twins are common, and up to
four young can be born, although this is fairly rare. The young are reddish-brown in color, their
coat being covered in white spots. They are born in thick vegetation, where they remain for the
first few weeks of their life. They are weaned at four months of age. The males remain with their
mothers for a year, the females for two years. The tropical and subtropical subspecies can become
pregnant and give birth at any time of the year.
BEHAVIOUR: In some places large herds gather together during the winter months, but these
large groups break up with the coming of spring. Mostly females live in small groups, composed
typically of a mother and her young, and the previous years young. Males live separately either
singly or in small groupings of one or two males, only joining with the females during the rut.
Males accompany females for several hours to a few days until mating is complete or until a more
dominant male displaces them. They have a number of predators, including puma, coyotes, wolves
and jaguars. When they are alarmed they emit a shrill whistling alarm call, and flee with a distinctive
leaping gait, exposing the white underside of their tail. Often this is the only sign that people see of
them. They feed throughout the day and night. White-Tailed Deer were the inspiration to Walt
Disney for the cartoon deer Bambi.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
49
Pampas Deer
Ozotoceros bezoarticus
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 110-130 cm
Shoulder height: 70-75 cm
Tail length: 10-15 cm
Weight: 30-40 kg.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Pampas Deer is a slender, high legged deer, with a long thin
neck, and a slender pointed head. The coat is fine and in color is a reddish-brown or fawn above,
while the underparts are paler. The face is darker. The pelage remains the same color and length re-
gardless of the season. The tail is white below and dark brown above. On the back there is a dis -
tinctive whorl of hair. The ears are of average size for a deer of this size. The antlers are slender
and rather delicate in appearance. They are relatively simple with only three tines, one of which is
forwards facing, while the other two are on a backwards-pointing branch. The antlers are lost in
the autumn and regrow again the following spring. Although the Pampas Deer has roughly the
same distribution as the Marsh Deer and is similar in appearance, it can be distinguished because it
is smaller and darker than the Marsh Deer and its antlers are much more simple. The ears are also
not as large as are those seen in the Marsh Deer. The Pampas Deer is sometimes placed in the Odo-
coileus genus.
DISTRIBUTION: The Pampas Deer was originally found in great numbers over a wide area of the
Pampas of Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and Paraguay, where it was the main staple of the local Indi -
an culture. With the opening up and settlement of the Pampas by Europeans from the 19th century
onward numbers declined rapidly. This was mainly because of agricultural expansion, which result-
ed in habitat loss for the Pampas Deer. Overhunting, and the transmission of disease from live -
stock also played a part in its falling numbers. The subspecies O.b.celer is particularly threatened,
with only 500 animals remaining. Another subspecies O.b.bezoarticus has only 1,000 animals remain-
ing. A third subspecies O.b.leucogaster still has a wide distribution but numbers are declining. Small
numbers are kept in captivity.
HABITAT: The preferred habitat is the open dry grassland of the South American pampas. It
prefers low elevations and areas with plentiful water. In long grass the Pampas Deer can easily
hide.
DIET: The Pampas Deer feeds on various grass species.
REPRODUCTION: Rutting occurs in late spring or early summer, but this is not fixed and mating
can occur at any time of the year. During the rut males pair up with females. The glands between
the hooves of the Pampas Deer emit a strong pungent smell, similar to garlic, during the rut.
Charles Darwin noted the strength of this smell when he visited the area in the 1830's, writing that
rutting deer could be smelt up to three kilometers away. The young are born mainly from Septem -
50
ber to November. The gestation period is seven months. The young are chocolate brown and have
four whitish stripes running down their body at birth. The spots fade within two months. Unusual-
ly in mammals, the males remain with the mother after the birth of the calf, although it is unclear
whether they help in the raising of the calf. The calves are weaned from six weeks of age, and be -
come sexually mature at about a year of age.
BEHAVIOUR: Little is known about the lifestyle, but its social behavior is thought to be similar to
that of other Odocoileus species. In the winter months it lives alone or in pairs, but with the ap-
proach of spring it gathers into small groups of five to six animals. When disturbed it will stand
perfectly still to try to avoid detection, only fleeing when it is absolutely sure it has avoided detec-
tion. When fleeing danger it uses high leaps and raises its tail exposing its white underside. Al-
though fast runners, they have no endurance and are unable to run any great distance at speed.
Groups of up to 50 are sometimes seen. They mostly feed at night, and spend daylight hours rest-
ing in long grass where they are well hidden.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Near threatened.
51
Brown Brocket Deer
Mazama gouzoubira
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 70-140 cm
Shoulder height: 45-61 cm
Tail length: 5-20 cm
Weight: 17 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Brown Brocket Deer is one of the brocket or mazama species
of deer. There are a number of species of this type of deer, all fairly similar in appearance and life -
style to each other. They can be considered as the American counterparts of the duikers, which al -
though unrelated, have a similar way of life in thick tropical forest. Like the other species of brock -
et, the Brown Brocket has a small rounded body and short but slender legs. The back is arched
with the rump being held higher than the shoulders. The coat is a grayish-brown color, while the
underparts are paler. The antlers of the males are small and straight, being ridged at their bases and
growing backwards. There are no metatarsal glands.
DISTRIBUTION: They have a wide distribution and are found in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia,
Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina.
HABITAT: They are normally found in wooded and forested areas, which have a good understory
of vegetation which provides it with sufficient cover from predators.
DIET: They feed on forest foods such as fruits, grasses, shoots and leaves.
LIFESPAN: Brown Brocket Deer live for up to 10 years.
REPRODUCTION: The sexes only come together for courtship and mating, living separately at
other times. Brown Brocket Deer can breed throughout the year. The gestation period is about 206
days. A single young is born weighing about 0.05 kilograms. They reach sexual maturity from about
a year of age.
BEHAVIOUR: Brown Brocket Deer are solitary animals. Both sexes establish small territories of
several hundred square meters, which they mark with dung piles, urine and forehead gland secre -
tions. Brown Brocket are active both during the day and night. They are a very secretive and shy
deer, and are rarely seen. When they are alarmed they stand perfectly still and wait until the danger
has gone.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Least concern.
52
Red Brocket
Mazama americana
ALTERNATIVE NAMES: Large Mazama
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 65-130 cm
Shoulder height: 67-76 cm
Tail length: 10-15 cm
Weight: 20-50 kg
DECRIPTION: Although the Red Brocket is the largest of the brocket species, it is nevertheless a
small, delicate looking deer, no larger in size than a small Roe Deer. The legs are long and slender,
and the neck and head short. The ears are large in relation to its size. The adult coloration is uni -
form, the body and the legs being a chestnut-red color. The underparts are a slightly lighter shade
of chestnut. The neck and head are more grayish is color than the rest of the body. The underside
of the tail is white, which stands out brightly against the rest of the body. The antlers are simple
spikes, which are unbranched and short, growing backwards to a length of 10 to 15 centimeters.
The antlers can be kept for long periods without being cast.
DISTRIBUTION: The Red Brocket is a very common deer, and it has a very wide distribution
across much of South and central America. Red Brocket are hunted extensively for food; in areas
where they are already scarce this could threaten them locally.
HABITAT: Found in dense forest and woody thickets, forest edges and even on plantations. Their
small size allows them to be elusive and avoid detection.
DIET: A selective browser. Feeds on leaves, twigs, fungi and fruits.
LIFESPAN: They have a lifespan of about seven to nine years.
REPRODUCTION: Because the Red Brocket is a tropical living deer, there is no fixed breeding
season over much of its range. In Argentina, in the southern most part of its range, the breeding
period is mainly between August and October. Normally a single fawn is born, after a gestation pe -
riod of 200 to 220 days. The young are weaned at six months of age, and become sexually mature
from 12 months of age. The fawns are spotted at birth.
BEHAVIOUR: Little is known about the behavior of the Red Brocket because of its secretive and
shy ways. They can be active throughout the day and night. They do not form herds, instead living
either solitary lives, or living in pairs. They have small home ranges. If they sense danger they stand
stock still, before bounding off to safety. The Red Brocket has a number of predators, including
man, jaguar, puma and snakes.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Data deficient.
53
Dwarf Brocket Deer
Mazama chunyi
Head-body length: 72-135 cm, Tail length: 5-20 cm, Shoulder height: 35-75 cm
The Dwarf Brocket is, as its name would suggest, smaller in size than most of the other brocket
deer species. The Dwarf Brocket Deer has a reddish-brown coat with white underparts. The inner
legs and underside of the tail are also white. The antlers are small simple upright pointing spikes.
The tail is shorter than in the other brocket species. The preorbital eye glands are prominent in this
species. The Dwarf Brocket Deer has a distribution in the Andes Mountains, being found in areas
of montane forest in southern Peru and northern western Bolivia. They can be found at elevations
as great as 5,000 meters. It leads a solitary life in a small territory. Breeding is thought to be similar
to the other brocket species. They feed on a variety of forest plants, including grasses and shoots.
Farmers sometimes consider it a pest, as it will sometimes leave the forests at night to feed in
neighboring feeds on potato crops in some locations in Bolivia. The conservation status is vulnera -
ble.
Merioa Brocket
Mazama bricenii
Head-body length: 72-135 cm, Shoulder height: 35-75 cm, Tail length: 5-20 cm
The Merioa Brocket Deer is found in the mountains of Cordillera Oriental, which are in north
eastern Colombia and western Venezuela. It is similar in appearance and habits to the other brock-
ets, being a reddish brown color. It is a sedentary species found within dark forests. It is classed as
vulnerable.
Pygmy Brocket
Mazama nana
The Pygmy Brocket is found in areas of dense montane bamboo thickets. It has a distribution in
southeastern Paraguay, northeastern Argentina and southeastern Brazil. Its conservation status is
vulnerable.
Yucatan Brown Brocket
Mazama pandora
Head-body length: 72-135 cm, Shoulder height: 35-75 cm, Tail length: 5-20cm
The Yucatan Brown Brocket is found on the Yucatan Peninsula in southern Mexico, where it lives
in thick woodland. It is a dark brown to gray color, with whiter undersides. Males have curved
antlers. There is a tuft of longer hairs on its forehead. It is mostly solitary, living alone in a small
home range, which is marked, with urine and feces. Its conservation status is vulnerable.
54
Little Red Brocket
Mazama rufina
Head-body length: 73 cm, Shoulder height: 35-45 cm
The Little Red Brocket has a coat that is light brown in color, with a darker head and legs. The
antlers are simple spikes that point upwards, and can reach a length of 7 centimeters. The Little
Red Brocket lives in submontane forests of the Andes, being found in Southern Colombia and
Northern Ecuador. As with the other brocket species it is mainly solitary, living in a small territory,
only pairing up to mate. The Little Red Brocket is considered to vulnerable. It was described as a
species in 1908.
55
Northern Pudu
Pudu mephistopheles
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 60-80 cm
Shoulder height: 25-45 cm
Tail length: 2-5 cm
Weight: 6-13 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Northern Pudu is a small diminutive species of deer, but is not
as small as the Southern Pudu. It has a small rather rounded body that is carried on rather short
stubby legs. The neck is short and the head small. The tail is short. The ears are oval shaped and
also small. The coat is very thick and dense, in color being a light brown, the face and legs are often
much darker, sometimes being almost blackish. The underparts are paler in coloration. The antlers
are very small and are just short simple spikes. Unlike the Southern Pudu that has large preorbital
glands, the Northern Pudu has eye glands that are small in size.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern Pudu are found along the northern Andes mountain chain of South
America, being found in the countries of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.
HABITAT: The main difference between the Northern and Southern Pudu are in the habitats they
live in. Although the Southern Pudu is an animal of the lower slopes and is found in thick wood -
land and forest, the Northern Pudu is found at much greater elevations and will inhabit more open
areas away from thick forest. It is found at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 meters.
DIET: It is a selective feeder, choosing its food carefully, but nevertheless feeds on a variety of
vegetable matter, including leaves, barks, twigs, fruits and berries.
LIFESPAN: It has a lifespan of about eight to 10 years.
REPRODUCTION: Males mate with the females present within their territories. After a gestation
of 200 to 210 days a single young is born. At birth young weigh about 370 grams. Unlike the
Southern Pudu the young are not spotted. Maturity is reached at about a year of age.
BEHAVIOUR: Little is known about the lifestyle of this shy and secretive deer species. The habi -
tat in which it lives is especially challenging and has hindered research into this small animal. They
live either alone or in pairs in small territories. When alarmed it has a whistling alarm call. They are
reluctant to leave cover, even when hunted with dogs.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Data deficient.
56
Southern Pudu
Pudu pudu
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 90 cm
Shoulder height: 35 cm
Weight: 10 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: This is the smallest member of the deer family. It is similar in ap -
pearance to the Northern Pudu but is smaller with a browner coat. The neck and head are short,
the snout is slender and the legs are short. The ears are short and hairy, being oval shaped. The fur
is long and course, the upper coat is a reddish-brown color, while the underparts and inner legs are
paler. The tail is small and almost completely absent. The ears are also small. The antlers of the
males are only simple short spikes, which do not exceed 10 cm in length. They are shed annually in
July or August, and are regrown by November. The Southern Pudu has large preorbital glands.
DISTRIBUTION: It is found in southern Chile and the south west part of Argentina.
HABITAT: The Southern Pudu lives at lower altitudes than the Northern Pudu, not being found
at higher elevations than 1,700 meters. It lives in thick wet rainforests, which offer it protection
from predators.
DIET: It eats a variety of leaves, twigs, fruits, buds and seeds. It will peel bark from trees with its
teeth and antlers.
LIFESPAN: The average lifespan is about eight to 10 years.
REPRODUCTION: Unlike the other species of South American deer the Southern Pudu has a
seasonal mating system. Mating occurs in autumn, roughly from the end of April to the beginning
June. It is not known how the males compete for females. A single young is born after a 200 to 210
day gestation period. Normally only a single young is born but twins can occur, at birth the young
weigh between 1 and 1.5 kilograms at birth. Fawns are spotted with white, which acts as a camou-
flage in thick vegetation. They become mobile shortly after birth, being able to stand and walk
within an hour. They begin to feed on green matter from about five days of age, but are not fully
weaned until about two months of age. The females become sexually mature at about six months
of age, and the males at between eight and 12 months of age.
BEHAVIOUR: Mostly active at dawn and dusk. When chased they run in a zigzag pattern to avoid
predators. They have well developed pathways through their forest home range that they can travel
through at great speed. They normally live solitary lives. They are territorial, but whether they mark
their territory with feces or urine is unclear, it is thought they may rub their head against vegetation
57
to scent mark instead. When alarmed they seek cover in dense undergrowth, where they hide until
the danger has passed. They have a number of predators including the puma.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Near threatened.
58
Marsh Deer
Blastocerus dichotomus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Swamp Deer
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 180-190 cm
Shoulder height: 100-120 cm
Tail length: 10-15 cm
Weight: 100-150 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Marsh Deer is the largest deer species that occurs in South
America, being a similar size as the Red Deer. It is a tall long legged deer with a slender body, long
thin neck and a pointed shaped head. In summer its coat is a uniform bright chestnut color. The
winter coat is duller, and the legs, muzzle and the underneath of the tail are black. It is well adapted
to swampy areas; the hooves are long and can be splayed widely because of binding tendons, this
gives them a large surface area and allows the Marsh Deer to move easily over marshy and wet
ground without sinking. The dewclaws are also well developed, adding extra surface area to the
hooves. The nose is black, and the ears large and prominent. The tail is long in length and is raised
during flight. The male has antlers that usually fork twice, giving it a total of four tines, although
animals with up to 10 tines can be seen. The antlers can be cast and regrown at any time of year.
DISTRIBUTION: Originally this species had a wide distribution across South America being
found from central Brazil southwards to northern Argentina. However, it has declined greatly be-
cause of habitat loss, marsh drainage and hunting. Cattle ranching forced it away from its tradition-
al habitats. It has disappeared from Uruguay, and is now rare in Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and north -
east Argentina. It is most abundant in south Brazil. Its exact range and population status is unclear.
Few are held in captivity, with a small number being kept in Berlin zoo.
HABITAT: As its name suggests this species lives in wet grassland and woodland areas. It is found
in marshes, swamps, near to river areas and along forest edges. Sometimes it spreads into neighbor-
ing grassland areas during annual flooding. It favors high and thick grass stands, where it can easily
hide.
DIET: Marsh Deer feed on a variety of grasses, reeds and other herbaceous water plants.
REPRODUCTION: The Marsh Deer is a tropical living deer and there appears to be no fixed
breeding periods, it being able to breed throughout the year. However in Argentina most mating
takes place during October and November. The gestation period is nine months, with normally
only a single fawn being conceived. This is not spotted at birth.
BEHAVIOUR: It lives alone or in only small groups. Small groups often include an older male, a
couple of females and the young. They often emerge at night to feed, remaining hidden during the
day. It moves easily around marshy areas, and can range widely where flooding occurs.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
59
North Andean Deer
Hippocamelus antisensis
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Peruvian Guemel, Peruvian Huemel, Taruca
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 150-170 cm
Shoulder height: 74-77 cm
Tail length: 10-15 cm
Weight: 45-65 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The North Andean Deer is similar to the South Andean Deer, but
differs in the form of its antlers and also has a more northerly range. It is a short legged, stocky but
well proportioned deer. The head and neck are short. The coat is thick and course, being a gray-
brown in color throughout the year. The underparts are paler. There is a distinctive white throat
patch, and white markings on the muzzle and beneath the tail. The ears are large, and the insides
are white. The tail is short and triangular in shape. The tail has a brown underside, unlike that of
the South Andean Deer that has a white underside. There is a band of darker fur around the eyes
and forehead. Both sexes have well developed canines, however these do not protrude beneath the
upper lips. The males have short forked antlers of between 22 and 27 centimeters in length. These
fork close to the rose, unlike those of the South Andean Deer which fork further along the length.
The forward pointing prong is shorter than the backwards pointing prong. Occasionally the rear
prong branches again.
DISTRIBUTION: The North Andean Deer is widespread across the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Chile
and Argentina. They are found between latitudes of 12 and 28 degrees south. Despite being rela-
tively common, populations are declining. This is mainly because they are hunted by man for food,
and because of habitat loss due to expanding agriculture. They are rarely kept in zoos, and have not
been bred in captivity.
HABITAT: It lives mostly on steep mountain slopes. It lives at elevations greater than 3,000 me -
ters, and can be found as high as the snow line. It is found on mountain grasslands, and rocky out-
crops.
DIET: It feeds on grasses, sedges, herbaceous plants and moss.
REPRODUCTION: The rutting season is in June or July of each year, but can continue into Au-
gust. The gestation period is 240 days; with normally a single fawn being born between February
and April the following year. The fawns are not spotted. During the rutting period bucks fight
fiercely with their antlers to collect together harems of females.
BEHAVIOUR: North Andean Deer live in small mixed sex herds of around four to nine mem -
bers. The composition of these groups changes regularly with members from other local groups.
During the summer the deer feeds on the higher slopes, but during the winter months it moves
downwards to where there is more shelter. The main predators are man and puma. Males cast their
antlers in October and November, and new ones begin to grow almost immediately. They are in
60
velvet by December and January, and are fully hardened by May. During fawning the females form
temporary groups away from the males.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
61
South Andean Deer
Hippocamelus bisulcus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Chilean Guemel, Chilean Huemel
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 140-160 cm
Shoulder height: 75-85 cm
Tail length: 10-15 cm
Weight: 45-65 kg
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Similar in appearance to the North Andean Deer, the main differ-
ence is that the South Andean Deer has antlers which branch higher and tend to have more tines.
It is medium sized, with short legs and a slender build. The ears are large and rounded, and the tail
short. The fur is thick and course in texture. In colour it is a dark greyish brown, the underparts be-
ing paler. The South Andean Deer is slightly darker in colour than its northern counterpart. There
is a white throat patch, and paler patches on the insides of the legs. The nose is black, but the end
portion of the muzzle is white. The inside of the ears and the underside of the tail are white. The
antlers are small and spiky, and as mentioned branch into a number of tines from a short stem.
DISTRIBUTION: The original distribution covered the whole of the southern tip of South Ameri-
ca. The South Andean Deer was found in Patagonia of Argentina, and the Andes of Chile. Howev -
er there has been large population declines. Overhunting, competition from introduced Red Deer,
and habitat loss because of expanding agriculture have all played a part in its decline. It is now only
found in protected areas, notably Los Glaciares National Park in Argentina, and Rio Simpson Na-
tional Park in Chile. The current distribution and status is unclear, and there are thought to be less
than 2,000 remaining.
HABITAT: The South Andean Deer lives on high mountainsides above the treeline, being found
at elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 meters. It is also found on the cold treeless grasslands found on the
southern tip of the South American continent. It prefers areas with plentiful water. It lives at high -
er altitudes during the summer months, spending the winter lower down in forested valleys.
DIET: Feeds on grasses, herbaceous plants, and shrubs.
REPRODUCTION: Little is known about the reproductive behavior. It is thought to be fairly
similar to that of the North Andean Deer, with rutting occurring in the late summer and autumn,
and mostly a single calf being born the following spring after a 240 day long gestation period.
BEHAVIOUR: They live either singly or in small groups of two to three animals, made up mostly
of a female and her young and the previous years young.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered.
62
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
ALTERNATIVE NAMES:
Caribou
MEASUREMENTS:
Head-body length: 185-220 cm
Shoulder height: 82-120 cm
Tail length: 10-15 cm
Weight: Males 70-150 kg. Females 40-100 kg.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: The Reindeer, or Caribou as it is known as in North America, is
well known to most people as being a stereotypical winter deer. It is unusual amongst the deer as
being the only species where both sexes carry antlers. It is a large deer with a long head and rump,
and rather long legs. The ears are short and dark. The eyes are dark brown. The fur is thick, with
woolly underfur and course guard hairs. The coat can vary in color considerably between individu-
als, but usually the summer pelage is a dark gray-brown color, while the denser winter coat is
lighter in color and is a paler grayish-white. The underparts are white. The legs and muzzle are
sometimes darker in coloration. The male has a ‘mane’ of thick fur around the lower part of his
neck. The hooves are especially broad and well adapted to their winter habitats, helping the Rein-
deer to move around easily in snow. It also has ‘pseudo claws’ to the sides of its hooves, which
gives the hooves even more surface area. The hooves make a characteristic ‘clacking’ sound as
Reindeer move, because of a small tendon found in the foot. Both sexes carry antlers, those of the
bulls being larger than those of the cows. The antlers of the bulls begin growing in April, the velvet
being stripped off in September. The antlers are cast after the rut in January. The cows keep their
antlers until they have given birth in May. The antlers are irregularly branched with numerous tines.
The calves begin to grow antlers within a few months of birth. It is thought that the cows carry
antlers because they are useful in scrapping snow away from the ground so that they are able to
feed. They may also be used by the females to defend their young from predators. A number of
subspecies of Reindeer have been described, but they are all similar in appearance and habits.
DISTRIBUTION: The Reindeer has the northern most distribution of any deer species, being
found in the northern Americas, north Russia and in northern Europe. There are thought to be
over one million in North America alone. Semi-domesticated reindeer herds are kept in northern
Scandinavia by the Sami people. Although not under threat the populations have declined in recent
decades because of overhunting.
HABITAT: They live on the northern tundra and in the northern coniferous forests. Caribou are
well known for migrating, travelling between 25 and 50 kilometres a day north in the spring, and
63
returning to the taiga forests as winter approaches. The will often travel 1.000 kilometers between
its summer and winter grounds.
DIET: Reindeer feed on a variety of grasses, sedges, and lichen. They also feed on Reindeer Moss
Cladonia rangiferina, a type of lichen.
REPRODUCTION: During the summer the females live in small herds of between 20 and 50
cows. The bulls lead more solitary lives away from these herds. The rutting season occurs from
September to November depending on the location, and the bulls mix with the female herds. In
any one area the rut only last a few days. Males try to gain control of and defend a harem of fe-
males from other males. The bulls use rutting calls and sometimes fighting to establish dominance.
A single calf weighing between four and eight kilograms is born the following May or June, after a
gestation period of 210 to 240 days. The calves are a uniform brown color with no spots; they are
able to walk within an hour of being born. From a few weeks of age the young will feed on green
matter. Growth is rapid, the calves reaching 35 kilograms in weight by October. They are weaned
at five months of age, and become sexually mature from 18 month of age. The calves will some -
times stay with their mothers for up to three years.
BEHAVIOUR: In the spring they move northwards away from the forested taiga regions and onto
the bare treeless tundra. In spring the tundra offers fresh grazing grounds that the Reindeer is
quick to utilize. As winter approaches they again move southwards back to the shelter of the thick
dense forests. For these migrations they often aggregate into large herds, but for most of the rest
of the year live in smaller herds of about 20 animals. Males tend to be more solitary living, and only
join with groups of Reindeer during the rut. The Reindeer has a number of predators including
wolves, bears and lynx. However, maybe a greater problem to Reindeer are parasites such as
midges which attack the Reindeer each spring and try to lay their eggs on the Reindeer, especially
around the head and mouth. These hatch out into maggots which eat into the flesh, and in severe
cases can cause the death of the affected animal. During the spring Reindeer attempt to stay out of
areas of high midge populations, moving quickly northwards.
CONSERVATION STATUS: Vulnerable.
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