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International Journal of Bioresource Science
Citation: IJBS: 10(02): 173-183, December 2023
DOI: 10.30954/2347-9655.02.2023.4
How to cite this article: Ali, M.H., Ali, A., Nungula, E.Z. and Gitari, H.
(2023). Effect of Extreme Drought on Reticulated Giraffe Population in
Northeastern, Kenya. Int. J. Bioresource Sci., 10(02): 173-183.
Source of Support: IUCEA; Conflict of Interest : None
ASSOCIATION FOR AGRICULTURE
ENVIRONMENT
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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Research Paper
Effect of Extreme Drought on Reticulated Giraffe Population in
Northeastern, Kenya
Mohamed Hussein Ali1, 2*, Abdullahi Ali2, Emmanuely Z. Nungula3 and Harun Gitari1
1Department of Agricultural Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Enterprise Development, Kenyatta University,
Nairobi, Kenya
2Bura East Community Conservancy, Hirola Conservation Program. Garissa, Kenya
3Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania
*Corresponding author: mohahussein.a@gmail.com (ORCID ID: 0009-0003-6171-6053)
Received: 23-08-2023 Revised: 28-11-2023 Accepted: 06-12-2023
ABSTRACT
Occurrence of severe drought in northeastern Kenya has emerged as a critical threat to the girae
population in the region, exacerbating a multitude of pre-existing challenges. The primary concern stems
from the drying up of acacia trees, a crucial feed source for giraes. As these trees wither due to the
prolonged drought, the giraes are confronted with a diminishing feed supply, leading to malnutrition
and an alarming decline in their overall population. One immediate consequence of the drought is the
migration of giraes to neighboring countries such as Ethiopia and Somalia in search of sustenance.
Unfortunately, the situation in these regions, particularly Somalia, has been aggravated by persistent
civil unrest since 1991. The ongoing conict not only exacerbates the challenges faced by giraes but also
poses additional threats to their survival. The violence and instability in these areas hinder conservation
eorts, making it more dicult to implement protective measures and conservation programs. Beyond
the drought and migration, giraes in northeastern Kenya are grappling with a host of other issues.
Habitat loss, primarily driven by human activities such as deforestation and land development, further
diminishes the available living space for giraes. The encroachment of agriculture, expanding selements,
and infrastructure development contribute to the shrinking of their natural habitats.
HIGHLIGHTS
mReticulated giraes (Giraa Camelopardalis. reticulata) are a subspecies of giraes found in East Africa,
primarily in the arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia.
mReticulated giraes are easily recognized by their distinctive coat paern, which features a network
of sharp-edged, polygonal shapes outlined by a network of thin white lines.
mThey inhabit savannas, open woodlands, and grasslands, where they can nd an abundance of acacia
trees and other vegetation.
mThese animals are herbivores and primarily feed on the leaves, owers, and fruits of acacia trees.
Their long necks and prehensile tongues enable them to reach high branches.
Keywords: Reticulated girae, land fragmentation, overgrazing, degradation, bush-meat trade, poaching
The Horn of Africa region, characterized by its
arid landscapes, harbors a remarkable array of
unique wildlife, including the reticulated girae
(Giraa Camelopardalis. reticulata), hirola antelope
(Beatragus hunteri), and African elephant (Loxodonta
africana) (Davies and Asner, 2019). However,
this biodiversity hotspot faces a dire threat due
to factors such as drought, overgrazing, civil
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unrest, and the effects of climate change. The
consequence of this coexistence between humans
and wildlife is a growing competition for dwindling
resources, leading to the perilous decline of several
species primarily due to habitat loss. Research
indicates that land degradation, drought, habitat
destruction, diseases, illegal hunting, and armed
conicts have all taken a substantial toll on girae
populations across Africa (Muller, 2018). In Kenya,
the native reticulated girae, often referred to as
the Somali giraffe, has suffered severely due to
human population growth and land use changes.
These giraffes are easily recognized by their
distinctive coat paern, which features a network
of sharp-edged, polygonal shapes outlined by a
network of thin white lines (Fig. 1). Unfortunately,
conservation efforts for giraffes in Africa have
been notably limited, resulting in the extinction of
girae populations in several countries over recent
decades, including Burkina Faso, Guinea, Malawi,
Eritrea, Mauritania, Senegal, and Nigeria (Lee et
al. 2020).
Specically, in the Horn of Africa, girae populations
have undergone dramatic declines in northern
areas, southwestern Somalia, and parts of southern
Ethiopia. Various studies have delved into the
biology of giraes, examining their ecology, genetic
structure, reproductive dynamics, and population
behavior, all aimed at aiding conservation eorts
on the continent (Davies and Asner, 2019; Lee
et al. 2020). While there have been efforts to
restore small herds in Kenyan national parks and
conservancies, the overall status of the giraffe
population remains uncertain, highlighting gaps in
the existing knowledge. Amidst these challenges,
success stories are emerging from Africa, such as
the remarkable increase in girae populations in
South Africa by over 50%, thanks to reintroduction
and conservation initiatives in their historical range.
Additionally, West African giraes, which is the
tiniest subspecies, have rebounded from about 50
individuals in the 1990s to 400 today.
Although the majority of reticulated giraffes
inhabit eastern Kenyan counties like Garissa,
Lamu, Mandera, and Wajir, current conservation
eorts have largely concentrated on populations
in northern Kenyan counties, including Laikipia,
Samburu, and Marsabit, mainly due to accessibility
(Berkes, 2004). However, construction of the Lamu
Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET),
Eastern Africa’s extensive infrastructure project,
through the girae’s native range in Garissa, Lamu,
and Wajir Counties poses a significant threat to
their habitat quality and population. Hence, the
giraffe’s status in such part of Africa remains
uncertain, with anecdotal reports of its presence
and habitat use in the Juba region. To address the
gaps in data and knowledge, organizations like
the Northern Rangelands Trust in Kenya and the
Hirola Conservation Program have been collecting
data on reticulated girae numbers, particularly
in Laikipia, Isiolo, and Garissa Counties. Still, this
data is insucient for developing a comprehensive
conservation plan given the extensive range of the
reticulated girae. Therefore, a well-coordinated
effort involving local communities, scientists,
non-prot conservation agencies, and government
entities is needed to conduct area-wide research
and conservation eorts for the long-term survival
of giraes.
Fig. 1: Reticulated giraffes with a distinctive network of white
sharp-edged, polygonal shapes.
Credit: Hirola Conservation Program
Nevertheless, despite the proven success
of community-based giraffe conservation, in
various regions, it has received limited aention.
Investigating the extent of giraffe population
decline in areas managed by local communities is
a promising avenue. Given the numerous threats
these giraes face, initiating a robust conservation
program is essential, focusing on raising awareness,
implementing strategies to mitigate human-girae
conicts, and building capacity for in-country girae
conservation actions. Such coordinated eorts can
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pave the way for the recognition, protection, and
support of all girae populations along the Kenya-
Somalia border, ensuring their continued existence.
Poaching poses a significant threat to giraffe
populations as well. The demand for girae parts,
including their skin, bones, and tails, fuels illegal
hunting activities. Giraes are also targeted in the
bush meat trade, adding another layer of danger
to their existence. The combination of these factors
puts immense pressure on the girae population,
hence pushing them closer to the brink of extinction.
HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT: A
GROWING CHALLENGE
The term “human-wildlife conict” (HWC) refers
to the frequently harmful interactions that occur
when wild animals come into contact with humans.
These interactions have an impact on people’s
resources, wildlife, and ecosystems (Soulsbury
et al. 2015). Such conicts, driven by competition
for natural resources, have escalated in many
countries due to factors like population growth,
infrastructure development, and changes in
land use. HWC poses a signicant global threat
to sustainable development, food security, and
wildlife conservation, affecting both urban and
rural environments. Its eects encompass crop loss,
reduced agricultural productivity, competition for
grazing land and water sources, livestock predation,
human injuries and fatalities, infrastructure damage,
and heightened risks of disease transmission
between wildlife and livestock.
The conflict between humans and wildlife has
far-reaching implications for human safety,
well-being, ecosystem health, and biodiversity.
These impacts can be direct or indirect, ranging
from animals directly harming humans through
attacks to accidents involving animals, zoonotic
disease transmission, and economic losses such as
damage to crops, livestock, and property. Indirect
consequences include opportunity costs for farmers
and rangers, mental health impacts, disruptions
to livelihoods, and food insecurity (Karanth et
al. 2017). The severity and frequency of human-
wildlife interactions can vary widely, from minor
incidents involving common garden pests to severe
encounters with apex predators like tigers, lions,
and sharks. Conict frequency also varies within
and between regions, with some areas experiencing
minimal harm while others face occasional surges
in predator aacks or uneven protection measures.
Farmers-Girae Conict
The establishment of farms along the river in
Garissa has had detrimental eects on the natural
water corridors for wildlife, particularly impacting
negatively on giraes. The farmers in the region have
fenced their farms and employed guards, eectively
blocking the traditional routes that giraes used to
access water sources. This obstruction has created a
conict between the farmers and giraes, leading to
various consequences for both parties (Stoldt et al.
2020). Such fencing of farms and the denial of access
to water have forced giraffes to find alternative
routes, often traversing through farmlands. In their
quest for water, giraes have resorted to feeding
on crops such as mangoes along the way, causing
economic losses for the farmers. This has created a
cycle of conict between the two groups.
In response to the intrusion of giraffes and the
damage caused to their crops, farmers have
retaliated by attacking the giraffes with spears.
Such confrontations have resulted in injuries and
even death for the giraes, exacerbating the already
strained relationship between humans and wildlife
in the region. The conict, particularly aecting
reticulated giraes, has persisted for many decades
with limited attention and resolution. Lack of
intervention and sustainable solutions has allowed
the situation to escalate, posing a threat not only
to the girae population but also to the delicate
balance of the local ecosystem.
Consequences of human-wildlife conict
The conict between farmers and giraes can have
various consequences, aecting both the agricultural
communities and the giraffe populations. Some
of the consequences of this conflict include the
following:
Feeding on crops by giraffes: This leads
to significant economic losses to farmers.
Consequently, this can aect the livelihoods
of agricultural communities, especially in areas
where subsistence farming is prevalent (Gulati
et al. 2021).
Retaliatory killing: Farmers may resort to
retaliatory killing of giraffes as a response
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to crop damage or perceived threats to their
livelihoods. This can have severe consequences
for girae populations, contributing to their
decline.
Habitat fragmentation: As agricultural
activities expand, they often lead to habitat
fragmentation, isolating giraffe populations
and limiting their ability to access essential
resources. This can contribute to a decline
in genetic diversity and overall population
health. Human activities, particularly habitat
fragmentation and extensive land use changes,
have played a significant role in the dire
situation faced by giraffes in northeastern
Kenya. One major contributor to the challenges
is the fragmentation of giraffe habitats. As
human populations expand, settlements,
agriculture, and infrastructure projects have
increasingly encroached upon the once-vast
territories where giraes roamed freely. Such
fragmentation disrupts the natural connectivity
of habitats, restricting the movement of girae
populations and hence limiting their access to
essential resources.
Loss of biodiversity: Giraffes play a role in
maintaining ecosystem balance and their
exclusion or decline due to conict can disrupt
the natural biodiversity of an area. This can
have cascading effects on other species and
ecosystem dynamics. The clearance of acacia
trees, a vital component of the girae’s diet, for
various purposes has added to the predicament.
Acacia trees not only serve as a primary food
source for giraffes but also provide shade
and act as crucial elements in the ecosystem.
Unfortunately, these trees are often cleared to
make way for human selements or to create
space for fencing livestock. The depletion of
acacia trees deprives giraes of their nutritional
needs, exacerbating the impact of the severe
drought already aecting the region.
Community discontent: Persistent conflicts
between farmers and giraffes can create
tensions within communities. This may lead
to discontent and negatively impact social
cohesion as residents grapple with economic
losses and safety concerns.
Impact on tourism: In regions where giraes
are a tourist araction, conicts with farmers
can aect local tourism. Negative encounters
with wildlife may deter visitors, impacting
the tourism industry and associated economic
benets for the community.
Competition for resources
In times of drought, scarcity of water and food
resources triggers intense competition for the
limited available sustenance among various
animal species, including giraes. Such heightened
competition can have significant repercussions
for giraes, potentially leading to increased stress
levels and conicts, especially with other herbivores
sharing similar dietary preferences (Maja, & Ayano;
2021). One notable source of competition often
observed during drought involves the browsing
habits of giraffes and camels. Both species are
adapted to feed on vegetation at similar heights,
particularly the leaves of trees and shrubs. This
similarity in browsing preferences can result
in direct competition for the same limited food
sources. Female giraes, with their characteristic
long necks, and camels, known for their ability to
reach high branches, may nd themselves vying for
access to the remaining greenery.
Livestock grazing, while essential for the livelihoods
of local communities, can also intensify the
competition for resources between domestic
animals and giraes. Overgrazing by livestock can
lead to the degradation of vegetation, making it
even more challenging for giraes to nd sucient
food (Teixeira et al. 2020). Resource depletion
and the shared reliance on specic vegetation by
giraes and camels can lead to the depletion of
these resources in the local ecosystem. As both
species consume leaves from similar heights, the
pressure on acacia trees and other preferred plants
intensies, potentially aecting the regeneration and
sustainability of these key plant species.
Aggression and competition for limited resources
induce stress among giraes, as well as between
giraes and other competing species like camels.
Elevated stress levels can compromise the overall
health and well-being of giraes, making them more
susceptible to diseases and other environmental
stressors. Additionally, heightened competition
may escalate into aggressive encounters, further
threatening the stability of the ecosystem.
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Perceptions by pastoralists, in areas where
pastoralists coexist with wildlife, there may be a
perception that giraes contribute to the depletion
of scarce resources such as water and acacia trees.
This can lead to conicts between local communities
and giraffe populations. Pastoralists, dependent
on these resources for their livestock, might view
giraffes as competitors for essential elements,
potentially fueling negative aitudes toward girae
conservation.
IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON
GIRAFFE REPRODUCTION
Drought exerts a profound influence on the
reproductive success of giraffes. Shortage of
essential resources, namely food and water, can
result in diminished fertility and lower survival
rates for girae calves. Moreover, the heightened
stress induced by environmental changes can
adversely aect the females’ capacity to conceive
and rear their ospring successfully. Consequently,
the cumulative impact of these factors poses a
signicant threat to girae populations, potentially
leading to a decline in their overall numbers. Eorts
to mitigate the eects of drought on giraes are
crucial for sustaining their populations and ensuring
long-term ecological balance.
Girae migration
Giraes, by nature, are highly mobile creatures,
and their survival is intricately tied to their ability
to nd suitable food and water sources. In times
of drought, when these resources become scarce in
their usual habitats, giraes display a remarkable
capacity to cover extensive distances in search of
more favorable conditions. This behavior often
manifests as long migrations, where herds traverse
various landscapes to locate areas with better
access to essential resources (Ledee et al. 2020).
Nonetheless, such increased movement during
droughts comes with its own set of challenges. The
physical toll of covering large distances, often in
harsh environmental conditions, can be taxing on
giraes. The extended journeys require signicant
energy expenditure and can lead to exhaustion,
particularly among the young, elderly, or already
weakened individuals.
Moreover, the nomadic behavior of giraffes
during drought exposes them to heightened risks,
particularly from predators. The extended time
spent in unfamiliar territories makes them more
vulnerable to predation, as they may not be as adept
at navigating potential threats in new environments
(Altizer et al. 2021). In some instances, giraes may
embark on migrations that take them across national
borders, for example, from Kenya to Ethiopia
and Somalia. While this movement is driven by
the imperative to find sustenance, it introduces
additional challenges. Unfortunately, civil unrest
is a common occurrence in some of these areas,
making the situation even more precarious for
the giraes. The presence of human conict poses
threats not only from a direct safety standpoint
but also in terms of potential disruptions to their
movement paerns and access to essential resources.
While the migratory behavior of giraes during
drought underscores their adaptability, it also
underscores the complex challenges they face.
Balancing the need for survival with the inherent
risks associated with increased mobility, especially
in regions prone to conflict, adds a layer of
complexity to the conservation efforts aimed at
protecting these iconic animals during periods of
environmental stress (Brown & Bolger, 2020).
Road Kill
According to Schell et al. 2020, the phenomenon of
urbanization and the implementation of the Lamu
Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET)
corridor have led to a substantial expansion of
road networks in the northeastern region. While
this development has undoubtedly enhanced
connectivity and facilitated transportation, it has
also introduced signicant challenges for the local
girae population.
Rangelands in the northeastern region serve as
crucial territories for giraffes, offering diverse
nutrients and serving as migration routes for
various purposes, including mating and foraging.
However, the increased road network has resulted
in a rise in accidents involving giraes (Fig. 2). The
primary cause of these incidents is the collision
between over-speeding vehicles and migrating
giraes. Such escalating issues further exacerbate
the existing challenges faced by giraes, particularly
in terms of nutritional stress. Giraffes, which
already contend with the complexities of nding
adequate nutrients in their natural habitat, now
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face the additional threat of navigating through an
expanded and potentially hazardous road network.
The multifaceted impact of these collisions extends
beyond the immediate physical harm to individual
giraes. It disrupts their natural migration paerns,
hindering their ability to access essential nutrients
and complicating their already challenging quest for
suitable mating grounds. In essence, the burgeoning
road network not only poses a direct threat to the
physical well-being of giraes but also disrupts their
ecological behaviors and contributes to the broader
challenge of nutritional stress.
Habitat loss and degradation
In northeastern Kenya, giraffes are facing a
signicant threat to their habitat due to extensive
land encroachment by farmers. Expansion of
agricultural activities has led to the clearance of
once-thriving bushy woodlands, which served as
vital ecosystems for giraffes and other wildlife.
Such habitat loss not only diminishes the available
space for giraffes but also disrupts the intricate
balance of the ecosystem they inhabit (Tang et al.
2020; Nungula et al. 2023)
Encroachment of farmlands is an ongoing issue,
with farmers continuing to expand their cultivation
areas (Maitra et al. 2023; Sahoo et al. 2023). As
agricultural activities intensify, the pressure on the
remaining natural habitats increases, exacerbating
the challenges faced by giraffe populations.
Conversion of these woodlands into farmlands
not only affects the giraffes directly but also
contributes to the fragmentation of their habitats,
making it more dicult for them to nd suitable
feeding grounds, water sources, and safe areas for
reproduction.
Another contributing factor to the diminishing
girae habitat in northeastern Kenya is the rise in
human population and selements. The towns in
the region are experiencing overpopulation, leading
to increased demand for resources and land. As a
result, people are migrating to rural areas, including
those that were once inhabited by giraffes. The
expansion of human selements further intensies
the competition for space between giraffes and
humans, often resulting in the displacement of
these majestic creatures (Gonçalves-Souza et al.
2020). Selement expansion contributes to habitat
loss, reducing the available space for giraes to
roam and nd food. Additionally, the fencing of
land for livestock further fragments the landscape,
creating barriers that impede the natural movement
paerns of giraes. This habitat disruption upsets
the delicate balance of the ecosystem and increases
the vulnerability of giraes to external threats.
Impact of Land Fragmentation on Wildlife and
Livestock
Mounting evidence underscores a pressing concern,
the global decline of wildlife populations and their
(a) (b)
Fig. 2: Giraffe waiting for trafc to clear before crossing (a), on the other hand, black-backed jackal knocked down by over-
speeding vehicle (b)
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habitats, with Africa bearing a significant brunt
of this crisis. These losses manifest in various
forms, spanning scale, geography, and root causes.
Recent years have witnessed sharp reductions in
wildlife numbers across African regions such as
South, West, Central, and East Africa (Sutton et
al. 2016). The drivers behind these declines are
multifaceted and complex, encompassing rapid
human population growth, alterations in land use,
habitat fragmentation, infrastructure expansion,
trophy hunting, bushmeat trade, climate change,
disease outbreaks, the proliferation of firearms,
lax law enforcement, governance challenges,
resource competition with livestock, and glaring
socioeconomic disparities.
Notably, rapid human population growth stands out
as a prominent catalyst for the dwindling wildlife
populations in Africa. This surge contributes to the
expansion of agriculture, human selements, and
the development of infrastructure. Climate change
further compounds the degradation of wildlife
and livestock habitats due to the unpredictable
alterations in these environments stemming from
extensive land use changes. This places substantial
pressure on pastoralism, ranching, and wildlife
conservation in African rangelands and protected
areas (Allan et al. 2017). These rangelands are
essential for livestock, primarily raised for meat and
milk production, and the preservation of wildlife.
Surprisingly, over 70% of protected wildlife reserves
and parks are situated within these rangelands.
Furthermore, a considerable portion, approximately
65-70%, of national terrestrial animal populations
inhabit human-modified rangelands outside of
protected areas. For instance, in Kenya, only 10-
12% of land is ocially allocated for biodiversity
protection, and wildlife areas constitute a mere
8% of this land. The rest is divided into forests,
water catchment areas, and private sanctuaries.
Kenya’s tourism sector, with its focus on wildlife
observation and photography, plays a pivotal role in
the country’s economy, contributing approximately
14% to its GDP and employing more than 10% of
the workforce.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
INVASIVE SPECIES
Climate change has become synonymous with
environmental destabilization, which in turn
amplifies the proliferation of invasive species.
These invasive species, often foreign to a particular
ecosystem, wreak havoc on native ora and fauna
(Chepkoech et al. 2018). This destructive relationship
between climate change and invasive species has
been noted as a signicant driver of ecological shifts
(Makokha, 2018).
The repercussions of this association are substantial.
As climate conditions become more volatile, invasive
species nd it easier to extend their reach beyond
their native habitats (Fagundes et al. 2019). Notably,
the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) has identied climate change and invasive
species as two of the primary culprits behind global
biodiversity loss. Fortunately, communities can
employ various strategies like prevention, early
detection, climate forecasting, and genetic control
to mitigate their impact.
The domino eect of climate change is keenly felt by
the plants and animals in aected areas. Increased
CO2 levels, altered water pH, and species extinctions
are just a few of the consequences (Şen et al. 2011).
These changes lead to physiological stress for native
species. Moreover, temperature variations, either
warmer or colder than usual, open pathways for
non-native organisms to enter new territories and
compete with native species. Non-native plants, in
particular, demonstrate remarkable adaptability,
often displacing native flora within introduced
ecosystems.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) defines invasive species as organisms
introduced outside their natural range, negatively
affecting biodiversity, ecosystems, and human
well-being (Demeris and Iliadis, 2017). Climate
change, interestingly, can redene the concept of
invasiveness. Species once considered invasive may
become less influential in evolving ecosystems,
while previously non-invasive species may acquire
invasive traits. Native species may also undergo
range shifts and relocation to new areas (Pyke et
al. 2008).
For centuries, alien species invasion has been a
leading driver of biodiversity loss and species
extinctions (Demeris and Iliadis, 2017). Invasive
alien species further erode the resilience of natural
ecosystems, agricultural regions, and urban areas to
climate change. Conversely, climate change weakens
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habitat resistance to invasive species. Both biological
invasions and climatic changes profoundly impact
global diversity, but their complex interactions are
often examined in isolation.
Importance of water in ASAL areas of Kenya
In Kenya’s arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs),
scarcity of water is a critical issue that perpetuates
a persistent crisis (Alhammad et al. 2022; Otieno et
al. 2023). This scarcity is exacerbated by inadequate
government support and erce competition among
water users, which can escalate into armed conicts.
The ASAL regions are predominantly inhabited
by nomadic pastoralist communities who rely on
seasonal migrations in search of grazing pastures for
their livestock. Unfortunately, this nomadic lifestyle
often leads to clashes within these communities
as they compete for limited grazing and water
resources. Regreably, these conicts frequently
escalate into violence, posing a serious threat to
Kenya’s peace and security (Muratoglu et al. 2022).
The signicance of water in the region cannot be
overstated, especially considering that most of the
livestock kept by these communities, except for
camels, rely heavily on water. Moreover, water is
crucial for their daily subsistence needs, including
cooking, drinking, and the construction of their
temporary and semi-permanent dwellings. Despite
the evident and urgent need for water among
these communities, efforts to address the water
shortage have been insufficient over the years.
Many interventions have been short-term in nature,
narrowly focused on individual issues rather than
the broader, interconnected challenges faced by
these communities (Williams, 1999). Consequently,
the benets of these interventions tend to be short-
lived and overshadowed by the persisting problems.
Interestingly, Kenya receives an annual rainfall
that, in theory, should be sufficient to support
the livelihoods of its inhabitants (Ochieng et al.
2023). However, the discrepancy arises because a
signicant portion of this water goes unused where
it gets lost through surface runo, ooding, and
evaporation (Şen et al. 2011; Nyawade et al. 2021). To
address this complex challenge, a fresh approach is
urgently needed to unlock the untapped potential of
water sources and to manage them strategically and
sustainably. This approach should aim to maximize
the utilization of available water resources, ensuring
they benet the communities over the long term.
Encroachment of water corridors
Ecosystem loss and destruction, a process by which
a natural ecosystem can no longer support its native
species, results in the displacement or demise of the
organisms residing in a habitat (Kavwele, 2017).
This process is a primary driver of biodiversity
decline, making it a critical focal point in ecological
research, especially concerning the preservation of
endangered species.
Human activities signicantly contribute to habitat
degradation, including deforestation, urbanization,
and industrial expansion (Alkharabsheh et al. 2021).
Agriculture, the cornerstone of many developing
economies, often expands near water sources,
severely impacting wildlife corridors and causing
widespread habitat loss. Such actions are currently
recognized as the leading global cause of species
extinction (Bulte and Horan, 2003). Moreover,
indirect environmental factors, like the introduction
of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion
due to overgrazing, climate change, and noise
pollution, also play a detrimental role.
Habitat loss frequently begins with habitat
fragmentation, which diminishes the carrying
capacity (CC) of native ora and fauna. Among
the numerous threats to biodiversity and species
survival, habitat loss stands out as the most
severe. Critically endangered species are especially
vulnerable to habitat loss, given their unique
existence in specic regions, making their chances
of survival precarious. Many endemic species
possess highly specialized habitat requirements,
which, when unmet, restrict their population range
and heighten the risk of extinction. Consequently,
habitat destruction not only jeopardizes specic
organisms but also contracts the geographic range
of numerous populations.
Mitigation measures of human-wildlife
conict
Human-wildlife conict emerges when the needs
and activities of humans intersect with those of
wildlife, frequently resulting in adverse outcomes
for both parties. Mitigating such conflicts is
imperative for the conservation of biodiversity and
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the well-being of communities. The following are
common measures employed to address human-
wildlife conicts. Implementing proper land-use
planning to minimize overlap between human
activities and wildlife habitats. Some of the actions
recommended include the following:
Restoring degraded habitats to provide ample
resources for wildlife, thereby reducing their
necessity to venture into human-occupied areas.
Erecting physical barriers, such as fences or
walls, to deter wildlife from human selements
and agricultural areas. Implementing wildlife-
friendly fencing designs that minimize the risk
of injury to animals.
Creating corridors that connect fragmented
habitats, allowing wildlife to move freely
without encroaching on human settlements
(Branco et al. 2019).
Developing and implementing systems that
oer early warnings to communities regarding
the presence of wildlife, to enable them to take
preventive measures.
Encouraging proper livestock management
practices to minimize conflicts between
predators and domestic animals.
Providing secure enclosures or nighttime
housing for livestock to protect them from
wildlife predation.
Introducing deterrents such as scarecrows,
noise devices, or lights to discourage wildlife
from agricultural elds.
Promoting the use of crop protection measures
like fencing or neing to safeguard crops from
wildlife damage.
Involving local communities in conservation
eorts and providing incentives for wildlife
protection.
Educating communities about the importance
of coexisting with wildlife and the ecological
benets they provide.
Implementing compensation programs to
reimburse communities for losses incurred due
to wildlife damage.
Introducing wildlife insurance schemes to
alleviate economic burdens on individuals
aected by wildlife conicts.
Researching to understand the behavior and
movement paerns of wildlife, informing more
eective mitigation strategies.
Implementing monitoring programs to track
wildlife populations and assess the impact of
mitigation measures.
Establishing and enforcing laws and regulations
that safeguard both wildlife and human
interests.
Implementing penalties for illegal activities
contributing to human-wildlife conicts, such
as poaching or habitat destruction.
A combination of these measures, adapted to the
specic context of each situation, is often necessary
for successful human-wildlife conict mitigation.
Collaborative eorts involving local communities,
conservation organizations, and government
authorities are essential for long-term success.
CONCLUSION
Giraffes, the world’s tallest land animals, are
facing numerous challenges that threaten their
survival. One significant threat is habitat loss,
driven by human activities such as agriculture,
logging, and infrastructure development. As their
natural habitats shrink, giraffes face increased
competition for resources and fragmentation of
their populations. Drought also poses a serious
threat to giraes, especially in regions where climate
change is leading to more frequent and intense
droughts. This results in a scarcity of water and
food, impacting the health and reproductive success
of girae populations.
Poaching is another critical issue, driven by the
demand for giraffe body parts, including their
skin, bones, and tails. Girae populations are also
aected by the bush meat trade, where they are
hunted for their meat. Land degradation further
compounds these challenges, as overgrazing and
soil erosion reduce the availability of nutritious
vegetation. Human-wildlife conict is on the rise
as giraes encroach on agricultural lands, leading
to retaliatory killings and further habitat loss.
Given their economic importance, the study fully
recommends that it is imperative to focus protection
of these key animals.
Ali et al.
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