Identifying the factors affecting social integration in local societies: A literature review

Abstract

The paper focuses on factors affecting social integration of refugees staying in European countries. It consists of an extensive literature review in terms of the definition and the origins of the term "social integration" as well as various aspects affecting the degree to which newcomers can be incorporated to local communities. Results prove that social integration is a complex procedure lying not only to housing policy but also to a series of issues that may be part of an integration policy. This review is the first part of a wider research on exploring the degree to which refugees living in Greece have been integrated to local society as well as the degree to which they feel incorporated to it.

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Identifying the factors affecting social integration in local
societies: A literature review
Eleftheriou Vasileios1*
Kyriakidis Charalampos1
Potsiou Chryssy1
1Sustainable Mobility Unity, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
*Email: kyriakidisharry@gmail.com
Abstract
The paper focuses on factors affecting social integration of refugees staying in
European countries. It consists of an extensive literature review in terms of
the definition and the origins of the term “social integration” as well as various
aspects affecting the degree to which newcomers can be incorporated to local
communities. Results prove that social integration is a complex procedure
lying not only to housing policy but also to a series of issues that may be part
of an integration policy. This review is the first part of a wider research on
exploring the degree to which refugees living in Greece have been integrated
to local society as well as the degree to which they feel incorporated to it.
Keywords: social integration of refugees, factors affecting integration, refugee policy,
housing policy, local community, literature review.
Introduction
In recent years, we have witnessed large migration flows, at a global level (Silove,
Ventevogel & Rees, 2017; Catchpole & Coulombier, 2015), that affect all countries in
the world (Martin, 2016). By reviewing UNHCR’s (2022) data we observed a continual
increase in the number of displaced people across the world who have fled their home
countries to escape violence, persecution and conflict. Today their number is 36.0%
higher than the one in 2015; this was the year when refugee flows reached a top-level
benchmark. During that year, the highest number of victims of forced migration since
1960s was recorded (53 million people, in total) (Rodier, 2016). Indeed, more than
1.25 million refugees arrived in the European Union within this year (2015)
(Greussing & Boomgaarden, 2017), as a result of the conflict escalation in the Middle
East (Kotsiou, et al., 2018; Rodier, 2016). Many of them were found in the European
countries surrounding the Mediterranean, as they were the entry-points to the
European Union (EU) (Fotaki, 2022; Diamantis-Balaskas, 2021; Valenta, et.al., 2019).

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Their majority (around 860,000) arrived from the Turkish coasts to the Greek islands
(Rondos, Nagopoulos, Panagos, 2017); refugees arrivals from Africa to Italy were also
numerous (Heisbourg, 2015).
In response to this situation, EU faced the moral obligation (see in Abbasi, Patel &
Goodlee, 2015) to help these people, complying with the international conventions of
human rights and refugee protection (Rondos, Nagopoulos, Panagos, 2017). Thus, in
summer 2015, and after the two deadly shipwrecks close to the Italian island
Lampedusa (Chouliaraki & Zaborowski, 2017; Rodier, 2016) special measures were
taken (Fernandez-Juertas, Moraga & Rapoport, 2015) to deal with the so-called
"refugee crisis"; it should be noted that this term formulated to describe the
movement of large groups of displaced people who left their home countries, under
extremely -or even hazardous- conditions (Kalogeraki, 2022). The European Agenda
on Migration developed by the European Commission (EC, 2015) was the basis of the
established policy. This particular agenda is based on four pillars: (a) reducing the
incentives for irregular migration, (b) a common asylum policy, (c) a new policy on
legal migration and (b) border management (see more in Winiarska, 2020). This
context demonstrates Europe's interest in controlling and containing the refugee
flows (Guild, et.al., 2015). This specific approach follows the framework of the
establishment of the European organization Frontex, which, in addition to its
competences for combating cross-border crime and terrorism (Franko, 2020 in
Bachiller Lopez, 2022) starting in 2019, has been in charge of border surveillance
since 2004 (Rodier, 2016). By applying a revised and evolved option of the
Copenhagen School’s securitization framework (Léonard & Kaunert, 2022), this
mechanism “has become the focal point for the sharp critisism of pro-migrant and
human rights groups” (Léonard, 2010: 232). In the above context, therefore, the
containment of flows is realized through the externalization of immigration controls.
This practically means that the responsibility for managing part of the migration
flows as well as refugees is being transferred to non-European countries, since the
ultimate goal is their expulsion. For this purpose, agreements are offered to third
countries in which financial compensations or visa facilitation are offered for their
nationals (Rodier, 2016).
The above results in an initially negative attitude towards the refugees staying on the
European soil, and much more towards their integration in the local communities of
the member states. However, the above view (reception of refugee and hospitality
actions) was criticized when it was decided to relocate asylum seekers from the
Mediterranean countries to the rest of the European states, based on a quota.
Although the measure was not immediately implemented (Rodier, 2016), with some
countries like Hungary maintaining a hardline stance, others, like Germany and
Sweden, welcomed thousands of refugees (Martin, 2016). The opinion of the
European Commissioner Dimitrios Avramopoulos (in Phillimore, 2021) who
underlines that the whole migration policy would be a successful one only in case

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integration of migrants and refugees will also be successful, is moving in this
direction.
In this context, this paper theoretically approaches the issue of social integration by
looking into the various parameters that influence the integration of refugees. For this
purpose, an extensive literature review is carried out (Section 2), achieving both the
conceptual delimitation - as far as possible – not only of the research objective but
also the various factors affect it. The result of the literature review (Section 3) is
utilized in the context of a research activity for the social integration of refugees in
Greece. However, it can be used as a framework for understanding the issue and
conducting other empirical research, given the special importance is given to the issue
of integration in dealing with the refugee problem.
Refugees Social Integration: A Literature Review
Social integration is one of the four dimensions (the other three being legal, economic
and cultural) of wider integration, according to UNHCR (2014). It is a quite debated
concept (Cheung and Phillimore, 2016) as it is a complex issue that prevails in a
community in case bonds of attraction and values unite its members (Blau, 1960). It
refers to the process of forming social consensus which is based on a common system
of values, meanings, culture and language (Rodier, 2016). Although the existence of
differences between individuals or individual groups of each society is not excluded,
agreement on certain fundamental principles is nevertheless necessary for the
harmonious coexistence of the social whole as well as for the "sense of belonging"
(Schnapper, 2008 in Kourahanis, 2019).
Emile Durkheim is one of the main scholars having written on the issue (in Pillemer
and Glasgow, 2000). In Durkheim's work, social integration is associated with social
cohesion (Berkman, et al., 2000). Although he does not define the concept clearly, he
makes clear that integration has to do with the bonds of the individual to society - and
its individual formations, such as the family, religious and political groups and
organizations (Pillemer and Glasgow, 2000) - and the stability of social relations
within it (Hassan, 1998). In his work he recognizes two types of solidarity to ensure
social cohesion (see in Mishra and Rath, 2020), which Alpert (1940) identifies as the
two principles of social integration that correspond to two extremely different forms
of social organization (Thilakarathna, 2019): (a) mechanical and (b) organic
solidarity. The first was evident in primitive societies (Mishra and Rath, 2020; Pope
& Johnson, 1983) - in which Durkheim was particularly interested (Schiermer, 2014)
- and was based on the shared beliefs and consensus that exist in the collective
consciousness (Koucrahanis, 2019). With the structural changes resulting from
industrialization and urbanization, mechanical solidarity was destroyed and the
second form came to the fore (Kanu, Ezeji & Alaribe, 2020; Çağirkan, 2019; Siu-kai,
1976). The second type of solidarity is created "on the basis of the interdependence
of economic ties that would result from the differentiation and specialization of the

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modern economic pattern" (Kourachanis, 2019). This kind of interdependence
creates the right conditions for increased social integration and, as a result, for
weakening social conflicts (Kourachanis, 2019).
Therefore, by studying Durkheim's theoretical point of view, one understands how he
defines the concept of social integration through the processes by which the
individuals of a society connect with each other and develop relationships of mutual
dependence (Souza, 2018). These processes strengthen the social relationships
between people, groups and institutions (Kourachanis, 2019). Through processes of
integration into a collective body, social groups are recognized as capable of
participating in social life and the political community (Turner, 1981).
Due to the fact that, in modern times, social cohesion is treated with different
meanings in scientific discourse (see in Miciukiewicz, 2012; Chan, To & Chan, 2006),
establishing a commonly accepted definition of social integration is not easy (Bakker,
Cheung & Phillimore, 2016), since social integration is conceptually included to social
cohesion (Mickelson & Nkomo, 2012). A typical example of this is the project of
Bakker et al. (2016) who have conducted an extensive literature review concerning
the terminology and the meaning of social integration. Having studied the work of
various scholars, with an emphasis on Berry, Bhatia and Ram as well as Schneider and
Crul, they argue that the social integration of refugees can be perceived by some as a
linear process while by others as a multi-dimensional and two- way process (Berry,
1997 in Bakker, et al., 2016). Focusing on Bathia & Ram's study (2009), social
integration is understood as a clear two-way approach where the cultural
characteristics and conditions of the country of origin and the host country are in
constant interaction. The same happens between present and past. The basic point at
this dialectic connection, is the questioning of the initial identity and its evolution for
both involved subjects. Schneider & Crul (2011), relying on the conceptual framework
of segmented assimilation, present a different perception of achieving social
integration since they consider that there are various pathways leading towards
multiple mainstreams.
Given the multidimensional character of the process of integrating refugees into local
societies, the parameters that contribute to its achievement are numerous. By
identifying these parameters, it is possible to promote social integration and social
cohesion, which is a policy goal for projects focused on refugees (Ager & Strang,
2008). For this reason, much research has been conducted to identify these factors
(Bakker, et al., 2016).
The most widespread research paper regarding this issue is the one of Ager & Strang
(2008) who identify ten influencing factors which they classify into four broad
categories: (a) Markers and Means (employment; housing; education; health), (b)
Social Connection (social bridges; social bonds; social links), (c) Facilitators (language
and cultural knowledge; safety and stability) and (d) Foundation (rights and

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citizenship). Fundamental areas for fulfilling social inclusion are access to goods and
the development of social networks, ties and relationships. Achieving social
integration is facilitated by developing linguistic and cultural knowledge of the host
society, as well as ensuring a sense of security and stability. Finally, the acquisition of
citizenship functions decisively in promoting social integration (Kourachanis, 2019).
This specific model is generally accepted by most researchers and thus, it has partially
been applied in policy development in various countries like New Zealand (Marlowe,
et al., 2014).
The categorization of influence factors formulated by Esser (1999) is of a similar logic.
According to this earlier categorization, social integration can also be differentiated
into four basic types: structural, cultural, interactive and identificational integration.
The first one -quite a similar perception to the one Ager & Strang (2008) presented-
is about the access people have to main services like education, health and insurance
as well as labor market. Cultural integration is related to the acquisition of
competencies and knowledge concerning cultural aspects like language and accepted
behavior patterns. Interactive integration refers to the various social aspects, such as
partnerships and friendships. Finally, sense of belonging to a society characterize the
identificational integration.
Beyond such broad-ranging approaches, much of the literature focuses on specific
dimensions of social inclusion by projecting specific factors as primary or focusing on
them because of thematic interest of their empirical study. Typical are the examples
the studies conducted by Hamza (2021) and Korac (2003); in those papers there are
mentioned factors that approach the ones included in the categories "Markers and
Means" and "Social Connection" (see in Ager & Strang, 2008), respectively. Especially,
the first group of parameters, according to Ager & Strang (2008), which includes
employment, housing, education and access to health facilities, is the object of
identification in many studies, such as those of Czischke & Huisman (2018), Kousoulis
, et al. (2016), Choi, et al. (2015), Plillimore (2011) and Ratha, et.al. (2011) (Table 1).
At this point, it is worth noting that "housing" is evaluated as a particularly important
factor; however, this does not mean that other parameters are underestimated (see
in Kourachanis, 2019). In addition to the documentation resulting from empirical
data, this particular view is also documented through various theories about human
needs, such as the hierarchical theories of Maslow (1943) and F. Steele (Stadler-
Atlmann, 2015). On this basis, Kourachanis (2018) underlines that access to housing
is a necessary condition for the development of other social integration actions, a fact
that is manifested through social policy that primarily aims to secure housing
(Clapham, et.al., 1990) or Venieris, 2015).

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Factors affecting Social
Integration
Published Research
(Author(s)’ Names – Year of Publication)
Housing Type
Hamza (2021) – Kousoulis, et al. (2016) - Ager & Strang
(2008)
Housing Location
(Accessibility to the city
centre)
Haugen (2019) – Hugo & Morén‐Alegret (2008) – Waters &
Jiménez (2005) – Korac (2003)
Healthcare
Plillimore (2011)
Studying Opportunities
Hamza (2021) - Ager & Strang (2008)
Educational Level
Barreto,Oyarzun & Conklin (2022)
Working Opportunities
Czischke & Huisman (2018) – Ratha, et.al. (2011) - Ager &
Strang (2008) – Korac (2003)
Income
Korac (2003)
Social Coherence
Hanza (2021) - Ager & Strang (2008) – Barreto,Oyarzun &
Conklin (2022)
Social Behavriour
Block & Gibbs (2017) - Ager & Strang (2008)
Social Intercourse
Czischke & Huisman (2018) - Ager & Strang (2008) – Korac
(2003)
Bonds with the city
Korac (2003)
Recreational activities
Block & Gibbs (2017)
Adequate Institutional
Framework
Plillimore (2011) - Ager & Strang (2008)
Quality of Life
Absence of documentation– need for further study
Table 1. Factors affecting Social Integration.
An important observation regarding the role of the residence is that, apart from the
type of residence, its location is considered an important parameter, since it affects
the degree of access to services and social interaction. This specific theoretical point

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of view forms the basis for criticizing the development of hot-spots as places for
refugees to stay. Indeed, although this specific policy was promoted with the aim of
recording the arrivals, in practice it appeared to malfunction (Rodier, 2016),
acquiring the character of internment camps; in such places conditions are produced
that devalue human existence (Kourachanis, 2019). Given their location in extra-
urban areas, by priority (Marmani, 2018), the main criticism focused on the fact that
they function more as practices of spatial and social control rather than as policies to
provide cheap and mass housing (Speer, 2018). The social dimensions of integration
are in the core of various research projects such as the one of Beirens, et al. (2007).
These scholars note that integration is a multidimensional process that, at the same
time, is mainly connected to social networks. In this direction, Daley (2007)
underlines the key role of the local community and the social cohesion it seeks.
Cultural parameters, such as cultural and sports activities, are recognized as social
activities and at the same time as facilitators (Lewis, 2015; Amara, et al., 2005). One
the one hand, the first reading lies in their contribution to the social integration of the
newcomers; on the other hand, there is another side of the coin. According to a deeper
perception of the topic, the various activities are associated with the norms and
lifestyle of the host society. The cultural parameters include, therefore, musical
preferences and clothing choices, while critical factors are those of learning the
language (Sorgen, 2015) and dealing with the gender inequalities that characterize
refugee populations (Cheung & Phillimore, 2017).
One parameter for which no theoretical documentation was identified is "quality of
life". The reason why something like this is done is assumed to have to do with the
perception that "quality of life" is a result of social integration and not a factor that
affects it. However, it was considered appropriate to include it in Table 1 in order to
empirically investigate the issue and confirm or not the above hypothesis.
From all the above, it is clear that social integration of refugees is a complex process
that is not limited to the refugees' access to public administration services,
bureaucratic control mechanisms and their formal inclusion in the institutions of the
state (Kamali, 1999), which are parameters of the threshold of social integration,
according to Ager & Strang (2008). On the contrary, it seems to be more related to the
various dominant socio-economic, institutional, political and cultural environments
of the host societies (Phillips, 2006), which must be taken into account when
implementing integration policies of the specific social groups.
Discussion and Conclusions
The massive inflows of refugees and immigrants in Europe in recent years - especially
after 2015 - brought to the fore a debate around the question: Would it be better to
help these populations stay where they come from, instead of moving to a European
area? This debate harkens back to the 1980s, when major industrialized countries
pledged to the UN to provide public assistance to achieve the goal of development

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(Rodier, 2016). Such an approach would, apparently, allow the mobile populations to
stay in their country since they would have a better standard of living. However,
Rodier (2016) counters this view by emphasizing that higher levels of development
imply greater mobility. So, it seems that the need for integration is the only option,
although there are groups of the population that express either their fears or their
opposition to such a policy, especially in a period of economic hardship for Europe.
In that context, this paper has focused on reviewing the literature concerning social
integration of refugees; our aim, at the initial step of the research, was to identify the
factors contribute to social integration. Through this overview, a multitude of
parameters emerged that must be taken into account in the context of implementing
an integration policy. These factors appeared to largely follow the categorization
formulated by Ager & Strang (2008), although some other parameters were
identified; they should be studied further in order to ascertain how important they
are in integration process. Quality of life consists of such a parameter; although it is
assumed to be perceived as a consequence of social integration, nevertheless, its
reverse affective dynamics have not been explored, yet.
Particular emphasis is placed on the role of housing, since both in the distant and
recent past, it was the focal ingredient of integration policies of newcomers into the
local communities. The Emergency Support to Integration and Accommodation
(ESTIA) Program consists of a typical case: the term “integration” is included in its
initials since such a goal is expected to be achieved by improving housing living
conditions of the beneficiaries. However, the reference to the other dimensions of
social integration (see in Section 2) is particularly limited; their satisfaction has been
left to the discretion of the implementing partners of the program. This is the main
reason why strong criticism against this program has been attracted (Kourachanis,
2019). Christopoulos (2019) also agrees on that point of view considering that the
lack of inclusion of social integration actions, disables the program, which, however,
is characterized positively for the provision of housing. It is critical to note that
regardless of the type of residence, an important factor that enhances social
integration is the location of the residence, since it may allows or limits (a) social
intercourse with compatriots, (b) mixing with locals and (c) and access to services
and facilities.
All the above constitute the framework for preparing an empirical research regarding
the degree of integration of refugees in Greek cities. This issue is crucial since the
number of refugees that are located in Greece nowadays is particularly large taking
into account the insufficient resources. At a next stage, results are expected to be
published resulting from empirical research in two medium-sized Greek cities in
order for the following two issues to be investigated: (a) to what extent the identified
factors affect the integration of refugees, and (b) what is the importance of housing
(type and location) in achieving the goal of integration.

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Finally, one issue that is worth noting is the distinction between “implemented” social
integration and the “sense of social integration”. Although in several studies the two
variables are identified, it seems appropriate that they are explored through
separated methodologies, namely, whether and to what extent there is variation
between the agencies' perception of refugee integration and the point of view of the
refugees themselves.
Fudning: This research is carried out / funded in the context of the project “Research
Proposal to Investigate the Relationship between the Degree of Integration of
Refugees and Immigrants in Relation to the Housing Patter and the Reception
Residential Core. Formulation of a Social Index of Integration based on Spatial
Qualities” (MIS 5049180) under the call for proposals “Researchers' support with an
emphasis on young researchers- 2nd Cycle”. The project is co-financed by Greece and
the European Union (European Social Fund- ESF) by the Operational Programme
Human Resources Development, Education and Lifelong Learning 2014-2020.
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