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Sizing isolated mini-grids in Kenya: Risk transfer to deal with multidimensional uncertainties and constraints

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... Regarding technical issues, authors show how infrastructure characteristics and sizing [36], along with consumer behaviour, affect the sustainability of electricity services [37] and reparability [38]. Analysing off-grid community PV projects in Malawi, Dauenhauer and Frame attribute sustainability challenges to poor technical designs and lack of skills [39]. ...
... Financial viability is therefore closely dependent on the economic model set up within the project design. Financial dimensions are well covered in grey and scientific literature on energy access [31,32,36]. Previous research seeks to calculate the costs and benefits of the off-grid sector, sometimes taking into account positive externalities on development, education, health, etc. [25,42]. ...
... Sizing and reparability [37,38] are linked to the infrastructure itself, while village governance, participation and the training of inhabitants [32,50] are envisioned particularly at the village level. Financial viability through cost-reflective tariffs, as opposed to cross-subsidies at a national scale, implicitly assumes that customers' payments will cover the operational costs [36,73,74]. ...
... Renewable off-grid systems are viable alternatives particularly in hard-to-reach rural communities with high fuel costs [20]. The recent decrease in solar PV prices, rising fossil fuel costs, and innovative business models (such as pay-as-you-go models) have spurred a drastic increase in the adoption of Solar Home Systems (SHS) for residential use in rural SSA [22]. The high power capacity of the hybrid renewable-based minigrids, as compared to the SHSs, make them cost-effective alternatives for holistic rural electrification, including productive use applications [10,23,24]. ...
... There is evidence in the current literature that productive uses of electricity (PUE) -that is, using electricity for income-generation activities -can alleviate the low demand barrier and lower the minigrid energy costs [1,3,22,23,27,28]. In [3], a hybrid wind-solar PV-biomass minigrid with battery storage powering an array of non-irrigation agricultural loads in Nigeria achieved an LCOE of $0.26/kWh, a competitive tariff for the minigrid sector in SSA with an estimated median LCOE of $0.6/kWh [29]. ...
... A synopsis of the system's economic features may be seen in Table 4. To assess the cost of the PV array, initial battery cost, inverter cost, controller for charging cost, and installation cost, the numerical values given by [43] are used. The cost of PV array Eq. 6 is used to determine the cost of the photovoltaic (PV) module, which is estimated to be USD 1.95/WP. ...
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According to the Agenda 2030 launched by the United Nations in 2015, to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all is now recognised as a fundamental goal to reach by 2030. Focusing on electrification, to ensure universal access to electricity, it is estimated that 2.6 billion people will have to be electrified by 2030, highlighting the need and the urgency to develop sustainable and appropriate approaches to electricity planning. According to this, this thesis deals with methods, approaches, and models for formulating and designing sustainable long-term electrification plans for rural off-grid areas of the world. In particular, the scientific literature highlights the lack of appropriate modelling frameworks for assessing, projecting, and integrating the electricity demand within the rural energy planning endeavour. It also reveals a weak understanding of the dynamic and multifaceted complexities that involve electricity access and socio-economic development. To fill these gaps, this thesis sets a novel starting point for the research work on energy demand models and their integration in electrification planning procedures, by setting the following three specific objectives: (1) To investigate and discuss the challenge of electricity demand assessment and modelling for rural electrification. This objective is pursued through the development and analysis of specific case-studies, an extensive synthesis and capitalisation of the related scientific literature, and the characterisation of the main modelling fundamentals of this research field. The relevance of electricity demand in rural electricity planning is introduced, by discussing and demonstrating that unreliable forecasts and projections of short- and long-term electricity demand can negatively impact the techno-economic sizing of off-grid power systems. This implies a raising awareness on the criticality of electricity load assessment in rural electrification planning and advocates more research on this topic. The current methodologies adopted for projecting long-term energy demand along the planning horizon are then evaluated, finding that most of the rural energy planning literature neglects the aspect of long-term evaluation of electricity demand. It is also found that modelling long-term projections of energy demand needs to consider the multifaceted aspects related to it, which have both a technical and a socio-economic nature. This leads to the development of the main important causal loop diagrams that characterise the technical and socio-economic dimensions of the electricity-development nexus, proving that the evolution of rural electricity demand can be explained by endogenous dynamics. This result advocates the promotion of modelling techniques able to frame, understand, discuss, and quantitatively formulate the behaviour of complex systems, such as System Dynamics. The second specific objective is (2) To assess and model the fundamental dynamics, variables, and exogenous policies that characterise the electricity-development nexus and determine the evolution of electricity demand. The chosen method to achieve this objective is system dynamics. All the steps are based on a real case-study as reference, i.e. a hydroelectric-based electrification programme implemented in the rural community of Ikondo, Tanzania, in 2005 by the Italian NGO named CEFA Onlus. The conceptualisation of the model leads to the analysis of the dynamic problem to solve and the purpose to achieve, the model boundary and key variables, and their behaviour. The formulation phase results in the development of a novel simulation model which simulates the impact of electricity access and use on the socio-economic development experienced in Ikondo, and the related feedback on the community’s electricity consumption. This result provides the first important goal in the research and modelling work committed to develop more general, flexible, and customizable energy demand models. The calibration of the model and the analysis of the uncertainties through the Markov-chain Monte-Carlo (MCMC) contributes to build confidence in the model structure by verifying its ability to replicate the observed historical behaviour of the system, and by uncovering model flaws and hidden dynamics. The calibration also confirms the appropriateness of system dynamics in modelling the complexities behind the evolution of rural electricity demand, and it provides new modelling insights on some presumed dynamics and their impact on the electricity-development nexus. The testing of the model leads to a novel assessment of the most relevant dynamics and it provides a novel discussion on model results when its inputs take on different values, until the extreme ones, and as if the model were tested for different contexts than Ikondo. Policy testing is also performed for exploring model behaviour when subjected to different polices and exogenous decision-making processes. It provides a list of complementary activities to couple with electrification programmes for enhancing their positive impact on rural communities. These results can support the definition of useful guidelines and best practices for rural electrification, and they advocate an updating of the traditional monitoring and evaluation frameworks commonly used for assessing energy access projects. The last objective is (3) To integrate demand, load, and energy optimisation models in a more comprehensive electricity planning procedure. This is pursued by developing a computational soft-link between the system dynamics model, a stochastic load profiles generator, and a heuristic energy optimisation tool. The result is a more comprehensive modelling framework for investigating electrification processes – if compared with the traditional approaches and hypotheses commonly adopted to assess and integrate electricity demand in rural electricity planning –, and it provides an important contribution towards the employment of the robust multi-year energy optimisation as the referring standard for off-grid electricity planning.
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This report is issued by the Kenya Miniwind project funded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark through the Danida Market Development Partnerships. The project aims to explore and develop the market for a partly locally produced kW wind turbine to be integrated into a PV mini-grid for rural electrification in order to reduce the cost of electricity and support local value creation. The long-term objectives of the project are accordingly to contribute to poverty reduction, stimulate economic growth and increase the supply of sustainable energy. The short-to medium-term objective is to explore the market potential and learn more about how to design solutions and business models that are suitable for rural electrification. The project will therefore conduct a market study, engage in dialogue with local communities and authorities, and demonstrate the technical, social and economic feasibility of integrating a kW wind turbine into a smart solar-powered mini-grid in Kenya. The project will also describe the assembly and production of a key component of the demonstration wind turbine. Finally, the project will work to improve the mini-grid developer sector in both Kenya and the wider region. The aim is that the knowledge generated through these activities will help develop the concept into a viable business model for the private companies involved, thus paving the way for the large-scale deployment of rural wind.
Article
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This article explores the challenges of transitioning towards future energy systems in a solar test field within the eco-community of Tamera, Portugal. We examine what findings can point to wider actionability and how. First, we consider how Tamera’s solar test field has addressed energy transition challenges. We unpack the nature of stability and change in achieving 60 percent energy autonomy; trace the linkages to spatiotemporal issues implicated in this sociotechnical process informed by keen commitment to energy justice; and dwell on the test field’s socioeconomic considerations at its interface with the Portuguese institutional framework and global connections. Second, we identify which findings can fertilise policy and action across European contexts. Considerations in gradually installing sub-100 kW solar capacity contrast starkly with the current proliferation of grid-scale solar in southern Portugal, raising questions about the actionability of knowledge on sociotechnical transitions. We co-generate ideas on how such contextualised epistemological advances can aid our understanding of societal energy transitions. The article encourages socially informed, integrated policy pathways. It speaks to building epistemological complementarities between applied researchers and practicing agents; problematises linking across scale between a community and institutionalising powers; and calls for actionable efforts that integrate systems thinking and power dynamics towards transformation.
Technical Report
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This report is a resource entrepreneurs and developers can use to understand the technical and business model challenges related to productive use of energy in smaller micro-grids, focusing on small agricultural processing, and small industrial and commercial loads.
Article
Increasing renewable energy capacity to achieve climate goals will necessitate the rapid development of utility-scale solar plants throughout Ghana. Situated in the impoverished Upper West region, the Kaleo Lawra solar plant serves as a grim admonition. Drawing from mixed methods fieldwork and the literatures of feminist political ecology and critical energy geography, we examine the following research question: How has the development of the Kaleo Lawra solar plant influenced gendered livelihoods and resource access? The solar plant was developed to mitigate the climate crisis and combat energy poverty but actually exacerbates social vulnerabilities through energy and resource dispossessions. Although the government of Ghana has committed to mainstream gender considerations within all national climate and energy policies and development processes, solar enclosures in the agrarian Upper West have effectively produced a gendered surplus population without resources and livelihoods. Yet respondents had an overall "neutral to favorable" perception about the solar park. Maintaining optimism in the face of deprivation is a demonstration of courage and resilience, a renewable resource more valuable than farmed photons on fenced fields.
Article
While there is a broad literature on ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all (SDG7), the positive impact of electrification on development and on electrification strategies, there is little literature on the topic of devolved electrification governance. The paper addresses this issue by analyzing opportunities and challenges of a devolved electrification governance with Kenya as a case study. Conceptually, we base our exploration on an analytical framework adapted from work on multi-level natural-resource governance, which not only includes actors and policies, but also their interactions and power relations, and the analysis of devolution outcomes in the light of (good) governance principles. Methodologically we rely on an extensive literature review and on 24 expert interviews in Kenya. Kenya is chosen as a case study because Kenya has, after its new Constitution came into force in 2010, implemented an ambitious devolution process and is one of the few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that has devolved important energy functions. However, our results show that devolved electrification governance in Kenya is (still) fragmented and complex, partly due to the late enactment of the Energy Act (2019). Electrification is still mainly planned and implemented by actors on the national level, although decentralized structures and technologies have become more important in recent electrification policies. We found more challenges than opportunities in Kenya's devolved electrification governance. The biggest challenge is a lack of capability in the county governments; other challenges relate to legitimacy and overlapping responsibilities, transparency and information-sharing, accountability of national actors, as well as a lack of inclusiveness and participation of local communities. Despite existing challenges, our interviewees perceive devolution as dynamic and an opportunity for electrification and universal electricity access in the long run. Overall, the article shows that while devolution provides opportunities for electrification and associated development impacts, a devolved electrification governance is challenging and requires not only transparency and information-sharing, but also support for capacity building at decentralized levels.
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This chapter examines the role of public policies in the organization of the off-grid electrification market in Senegal. It focuses on the last two decades (1998–2021), during which successive proactive policies have resulted in one of the largest mini-grid portfolios in Sub-Saharan Africa, to which can be added the thousands of individual solar solutions provided by public or private suppliers. The chapter examines how the negotiated implementation of market-based reforms has led to the coexistence of policies and counter-policies, resulting in a territorial patchwork in the supply of electricity services. It describes these plural landscapes of rural, off-grid electrification involving a diversity of actors: transnational and local small- and medium-size enterprises, alongside the national electricity leader, Société Nationale d’Électricité du Sénégal (Senelec). It shows how the politics of off-grid electrification in Senegal raise issues of energy justice in different ways, including political controversies concerning the implementation of neo-liberal reforms, power asymmetries between energy suppliers resulting from market regulations, and territorial and social disparities in terms of price and service quality. Finally, the chapter considers how energy justice issues have recently been put on the agenda of public authorities and given rise to new forms of regulation.
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Off-grid solar technologies, that is those solar energy technologies which function outside the centralized grid such as lanterns, pico-systems, solar home systems, micro- or mini-grids, are increasingly being used in Africa to help reduce the electricity access gap as well as deal with the limitations of the national grid. After over a decade of the growth of the off-grid solar sector in the continent, the time is ripe to take stock of the sector. This book does so by examining how political, economic, institutional, and social forces shape the adoption of off-grid solar technologies in Africa, including how injustices linked to off-grid solar electrification are manifested at different levels and spaces. Opening the edited volume, this chapter begins by giving context of energy access in the continent. This is followed by a conceptualization of energy justice, which draws on Western and non-Western perspectives. I then show how different chapters contribute to the purpose of this volume in three parts: history and politics of off-grid solar electrification, manifestations of energy injustices, and enabling uptake. Based on discussions in the various chapters, I position the book as one that contributes to the off-grid solar and energy justice scholarship in low-income non-western contexts.
Article
California is one of the most climate-challenged regions of North America and is considered the vanguard of climate action in the United States. California's climate policy framework has strongly promoted the expansion of renewable energy infrastructure, and the state generates more solar energy than any other in the nation. Using the case of Lancaster, a city of 170,000 residents in northern Los Angeles County seeking to position itself as the “alternative energy capital of the world,” this article examines private investments in solar energy infrastructure as a response to California's entwined economic and ecological crises. Drawing on recent scholarship on socioecological fix, we argue that private accumulation through renewable energy infrastructures in California has required both the presence of crisis conditions and innovations in financial risk mitigation that manage tensions between mobility and fixity inherent in the formation of fixed capital. However, a narrow focus on short-term financial risk obviates other forms of risk, including future impacts of extreme weather on grid infrastructure and electricity supply. While this does not foreclose opportunities for solar energy infrastructure to support positive social and ecological transformation, we argue that such opportunities may be constrained under a mode of energy transition predicated on private accumulation.
Article
Low-carbon energy transitions scholarship has witnessed an exponential rise since the beginning of the millennium. Many studies have explored the different pathways to achieving global carbon neutrality in the next few decades. Greater efforts have been focused on how poorer regions could be supported to achieve universal access to clean and affordable energy by 2030. However, little research has investigated the dualistic nature of low-carbon energy transitions vis-à-vis inherent contextual factors which could promote or hamper full realization of a broad array of benefits associated with sustainable energy projects in developing countries. Drawing upon interviews of experts and key informants, focus group discussion involving different groups of rural people in Ghana, alongside direct observation, we investigated the virtues and vices of solar micro-grid deployment in Ghanaian rural islands. Results of case studies from three rural islands show gradations of valuable outcomes from gender equity and social transformation to undesirable impacts of dispossession and conflicts. While the solar micro-grids engendered streams of benefits for the local people, the projects also exacerbated existing contextual issues and triggered novel challenges. These results may guide policy makers, practitioners, researchers, donors, and development partners to pay attention to these subtle issues in their efforts to promote low-carbon energy technologies in the developing countries.
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Nature-inspired algorithms use random exploration and exploitation tactics as a searching strategy to explore a search space. These two searching schemes are harmonized in nature-inspired search techniques to solve any optimization problem. Although several traditional approaches have been applied to the design of optimal HRES, there is still a challenge of finding a near-optimal approach to estimate the configuration size, cost, and reliability of mini-grid HRES. In this paper, we reviewed the state-of-the-art optimization approaches that have been applied in estimating the configuration size, cost, and reliability of mini-grid HRES. A desktop-based research method was adopted in which a total of 49 scholarly articles which tie well to the topic was selected for a thorough review. Various nature-inspired search methods proposed and/or applied in the last 5 years (2016–2021) by different researchers in solving the optimization problem of HRES were showcased in this paper. The review suggested that the optimal design of HRES in most cases seeks to minimize a cost function and maximizes the reliability of the system to meet the load requirement. Again, based on the diverse scenarios and increasing complexities of HRES, nature-inspired algorithms promise better near-optimal solutions than their competitors. Furthermore, the review suggested that nature-inspired search techniques have been applied extensively in HRES optimization. Moreover, several studies have also hybridized two or more algorithms to improve the searching strategies for better performance of HRES. These findings among others suggest opportunities for future research in the design of near-optimal HRES. The review holds salient implications for researchers and industry professionals. It elucidates the chances to design a reliable, cost-efficient, and effective mini-grid HRES yet have economic benefits to the users.
Article
Worldwide, the emerging trend of hybrid renewable energy sources integration in modern power systems is increasing due to privileged prices and clean electricity supply. However, the optimal planning of rural hybrid systems is a challenging and complex task, especially when different alternatives and sustainability aspects are considered. This paper develops an integrated decision-making approach for the optimal planning of a 100% renewable energy supply system comprising solar, wind, hydro, and biomass sources in a rural area located in Pakistan. An hourly-based design optimization analysis of twelve on/off-grid electrification alternatives is performed. The optimization model simultaneously addresses five sustainability criteria related to economy, reliability, ecology, society, and topography aspects. Furthermore, a novel hybrid decision-making model has developed to identify the unique best configuration with on-grid and off-grid options. The proposed model combines fuzzy analytic hierarchy process, multi-objective optimization based on ratio analysis technique for order of preference by similarity to an ideal solution, and evaluation based on distance from average solution methods. The results reveal that the solar-hydro-biomass battery with a life cycle cost of 10.9 Misthetoprankingoffgridsystem.Whenthehybridsystemisconnectedtothegrid,thesolarhydrobatteryhasfoundthemostappropriatedesignwithalifecyclecostof12.96M is the top-ranking off-grid system. When the hybrid system is connected to the grid, the solar-hydro-battery has found the most appropriate design with a life cycle cost of 12.96 M. Both scenarios have a negligible capacity shortage of 0.09%. Ecologically, the optimal off-grid system produces only 408.37 kg/yr of CO2 due to the significant energy share of solar and hydro sources (99.3%). The optimal on-grid system produced the minimum CO2 with 29,177.89 kg/yr compared to other alternatives. Also, employing the optimal on/off-grid designs require land area and jobs of 96.6 m², 14 jobs, and 118 m², 15 jobs, respectively. Overall, the developed approach with the presented case study offers a valuable benchmark and guidelines for investors and stakeholders to create realistic investment plans for the energy industry looking to push efficient inducements to encourage the high dissemination of renewables.
Article
On the path to universal electricity access, the most significant challenge lies in the electrification of remote rural villages where connection to the national grid is a durable but prohibitively expensive solution. With decreasing costs of renewable technologies, autonomous mini-grids combined with solar home systems constitute today an economically affordable and robust electrification option. In this paper, we elaborate a novel methodology that automatically designs and estimates the cost of the optimal mini-grid to install in a village, that requires only some geographical information with a delimitation of its roofs. In a first step, we use machine-learning algorithms to predict the demand of each building. In a second step, we develop a mathematical optimization approach to best design the mini-grid where generation and storage assets as well as the reticulation of the grid are jointly optimized. Our methodology has many advantages: first, by automating the full process, the calculation time of the electrification cost is drastically reduced by many orders of magnitude and the methodology can easily be deployed to any village/region. Second, our approach can reduce investment costs by more than 20% when compared to existing benchmarks. Finally, it can help agencies to efficiently assess the electrification costs of many regions and support them in the energy access planning.
Article
In countries that have a large share of population in energy poverty, appliance and electricity demand can be expected to rise. Approaches to estimate latent demand of energy poor populations often assume a constant income elasticity of demand. Here, we develop a novel simulation-based structural estimation approach to estimate responsiveness of electricity demand to income accounting for non-linearities, and considering other important drivers. We apply the model using micro-data for four developing nations to assess the implications of policy scenarios for achieving the Sustainable Development Goal SDG 7 under different socio-economic futures. We find that under scenarios that include policies to achieve universal access to electricity, total electricity demand is higher but the average per capita is lower than in no access policy futures. We also find that the level of adoption of electrical appliances varies significantly by country, appliance type, climate and income, with a high and stable share of electricity used for entertainment in all four countries and socio-economic futures. However, the share of electricity used for food preservation and preparation and clothes maintenance rises significantly with income as people are able to afford appliances that provide greater convenience. Our results confirm that as energy poor populations gain access to electricity services their demand will rise, but neglecting heterogeneity can result in biased estimates.
Article
Renewable hybrid energy systems are well-proven to be capable of supplying reliable power in the remote areas, where grid extension is not viable due to geographical constraints, but not absolutely emissions free. The present study investigates a hybrid energy system that entails photovoltaic module, wind turbine, biogas generator, and vanadium redox flow battery for supplying stable power to a remote Island, Saint Martin, Bangladesh. Two well-known multi-objective optimisation techniques such as non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II and infeasibility driven evolutionary algorithm are applied to size the hybrid system components based on the cost of energy ($/kWh) and life cycle emissions (kg CO2-eq/yr) under a certain reliability. In addition, a fuzzy decision-making technique is applied to find the optimal solution. A comparative analysis of using single objective function is compared with the multi-objective one. In addition, results from the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II optimisation technique is compared with the widely utilized software hybrid optimisation of multiple energy resources tool and the infeasibility driven evolutionary algorithm. Although the cost of energy is relatively comparable between the objective functions considered, the multi-objective approach provides better environmental benefits than the single objective optimisation system. The analyzed results also indicate that the intelligent techniques are the superior to the hybrid optimisation of multiple energy resources software tool in terms of costs and environmental point of view. Furthermore, the unit electricity cost of the proposed hybrid system configuration is comparable with the grid electricity supply at the loss of power supply probability of over 8% with significantly lower life cycle emissions.
Article
Renewable energies are an alternative to explore new business models in Colombia, especially when the new regulation associated with Law 1715 is considered. In this work the financial feasibility of a power purchase agreement (PPA) that uses photovoltaic energy is analyzed from the perspective of a non-traditional investor. In this paper, the financial feasibility of a PPA business was analyzed considering some of the benefits offered by Law 1715 through the use of discounted cash flows and real option analysis. The results show that tax benefits (included on Law 1715) improve the feasibility of this business models in Colombia, nevertheless, the defer option value suggest the convenience of delaying the investment. This work contributes to the analysis of the effect of the renewable energy policy incentives and the development of new business models based on renewable energies and the analysis of decisions that help include photovoltaic energy in Colombia.
Article
Market-based solar products are widely accepted as being vital to addressing energy poverty in the Global South. In service to the aims of SDG 7, it is estimated that 740 million people, primarily in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, will benefit from solar products by 2022. However, while the improving sales volumes of solar products are celebrated as an encouraging development, there is limited discourse about the consequences of relying on off-grid solar markets to address energy poverty. In this paper I draw on ethnographic insights from Malawi to demonstrate how the combination of a shift in responsibility for provisioning electricity towards individual households, and a two-tiered, poorly regulated solar market, generate injustice in a Malawian setting. I go on to argue that off-grid solar markets tend to reproduce socio-economic inequities and thus do not represent a sustainable solution to the structural drivers of energy poverty. As recent research suggests that these broad dynamics persist across Sub-Saharan Africa, I argue that there is an urgent need to critically examine the intra and intergenerational consequences of the region’s deepening policy reliance on solar markets to address energy poverty. To this end, the paper concludes with avenues for future research.
Article
Sub-Saharan Africa faces several challenges that hamper the effort to provide universal electricity access. The challenges are not the result of lack of energy resources but rather the result of governance and institutional problems as well as lack of capital to meet the high investment requirement. This study aims to provide relevant policy recommendations to facilitate the path towards universal electricity access in Sub-Saharan Africa. We do this by identifying the barriers for electricity access and the relevant actors, institutions, and regulations using desk research, stakeholder interviews and expert workshops. The results show that the absence of overall plans and approaches and lack of clarity in policies are the main challenges for the sector. Setting standards for electricity products, such as solar panels, could help to reduce the problem of counterfeit poor quality products. A broader participation of non-governmental actors is needed to increase the speed of electrification. This requires innovative revenue schemes, financial and fiscal incentives and elimination of market distortions. More generally, we conclude that stable and consistent policy frameworks and improved coordination between actors, are crucial to accelerate electrification in the region.
Article
Optimal design of hybrid renewable mini-grids requires both economic and power quality considerations. Existing modeling approaches address these considerations via separate or loosely coupled models. Here, we extend REopt—a techno-economic optimization model developed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory—to consider both within a single model. REopt formulates the design problem as a mixed-integer linear program that solves for a site's optimal technology mix, sizing, and operation to minimize life cycle cost. REopt has traditionally assumed a single node system. In the work presented here, we expand the REopt platform to consider multiple connected nodes with associated voltage constraints. In order to do this, we model power flow using a fixed-point linear approximation method. We then use the model to explore design considerations of mini-grids in Sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, we evaluate under what combinations of transmission line distance and capacity it is technically viable and economically preferable to build multiple isolated mini-grids versus an interconnected, centralized system.
Article
After decades of terrible ecological impacts, inefficiencies, corruption, and spatial injustices associated with dependencies on both centralised power generation and distribution in Africa, decentralised solar photovoltaic (PV) electrification is presented in the literature as an ‘irresistible’ alternative or complement necessary for a just, development-oriented and low-carbon energy transition. Affordable decentralised solar energy systems, however, currently have restrictive usage whereas systems with a larger capacity are accessible to a few richer social groups. The massive promotion of decentralised solar electrification does not even guarantee energy justice for all. This is due to contested notions of entitlements to and use of grid-based and off-grid electricity, relative spatial advantages or disadvantages, practical constraints linked to the pursuit of low-carbon energy solutions – particularly in situations where people/governments do not feel (morally) obliged to make commitments to climate change mitigation, and monopolistic tendencies of electricity distributors/suppliers. Furthermore, many electricity users in Africa lack the technical know-how and financial resources required for efficient self-organisation of decentralised solar PV electrification. Meanwhile, paradoxically, global north actors championing low-carbon energy technologies in Africa are sustaining their economies via massive use of fossil fuels – a behaviour referred to as ‘energy bullying’. Nonetheless, these quandaries should not be taken to imply ‘throwing away the baby with the bathwater’. Evidence presented from four idiographic cases suggests even that though context/country-specific conditions are decisive of the desirability of decentralised solar energy systems, certain general conditions necessary for the wider development of the technology in Africa are still discernible.
Article
Sub-Saharan Africa is generally one of the most electricity deprived regions in the world. Since the 1990s, the World Bank and other relevant and respected multilateral organisations have consistently advocated that the required finance to develop sub-Saharan Africa's essential electricity capacity should be sourced from the private sector. However, despite this ongoing advocacy, the private sector has been unenthusiastic to answer this call. Much of the literature attributes this reticence to a lack of ‘good governance’: principally negative behaviours such as corruption. Instead, in this paper we argue that this is too simplistic an explanation, as private investment has still been able to thrive in other locations where such negative behaviours have existed. To support this argument, we utilise an interdisciplinary approach to review three separate academic governance perspectives, to deliver a more comprehensive view. These are: 1) Financial Investment Governance, the private sector investor's perspective, which focuses on the rules and institutions (or lack of) that directly influence the financial investment environment; 2) Political Governance, the political economy perspective, which relates to the negative, indirect investment consequences resulting from the way that governments govern; and 3) Technological Governance, a ‘systems’ perspective, which encompasses how the standard structure and organisation of the wider electricity delivery system in each country, negatively impacts such investment. In discussion and conclusion, we find that if the development policy perspective for delivering electricity access to the region is to be successfully constructed around private investment, as the multilateral development community advocates, it will need to accommodate 15 distinct issues that can be identified from this comprehensive review of governance.
Book
This book provides students and practicing engineers with a comprehensive guide to off-grid electrification: from microgrids and energy kiosks to solar home systems and solar lanterns. As the off-grid electrification industry grows, universities are starting and expanding courses and programs in humanitarian engineering and appropriate technology. However, there is no textbook that serves this growing market. This book fills that gap by providing a technical foundation of off-grid electrical systems, putting into context the technical aspects for developing countries, and discussing best practices by utilizing real-world data. Chapters expertly integrate the technical aspects of off-grid systems with lessons learned from industry-practitioners taking a pragmatic, data-driven perspective. A variety of off-grid systems and technologies are discussed, including solar, wind, hydro, generator sets, biomass systems, battery storage and converters. Realistic examples, case studies and practical considerations from actual systems highlight the interaction of off-grid systems with the economic, environmental, social and broader development aspects of rural electrification. Whole chapters are dedicated to the operation and control of mini-grids, load and resource estimation, and design of off-grid systems. Special topics focused on electricity access in developing countries are included, such as energy use in rural communities, technical and economic considerations of grid extension, electricity theft, metering, and best practices devoted to common problems. Each chapter is instructor friendly and contains illustrative examples and problems that reinforce key concepts. Complex, open-ended design problems throughout the book challenge the reader to think critically and deeply. The book is appropriate for use in advanced undergraduate and graduate courses related to electrical and energy engineering, humanitarian engineering, and appropriate technology. • Provides a technical foundation of off-grid electrical systems; • Contextualizes the technical aspects for developing countries; • Captures the current and state-of-the art in this rapidly developing field.