Designing Resistance Training Programs
Abstract
Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is a guide to developing individualized training programs for both serious athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Two of the world’s leading experts on strength training explore how to design scientifically based resistance training programs, modify and adapt programs to meet the needs of special populations, and apply the elements of program design in the real world.
The fourth edition presents the most current information while retaining the studies that are the basis for concepts, guidelines, and applications in resistance training. Meticulously updated and heavily referenced, the fourth edition contains the following updates: A full-color interior provides stronger visual appeal.Sidebars focus on a specific practical question or an applied research concept, allowing readers to connect research to real-life situations.Multiple detailed tables summarize research from the text, offering an easy way to compare data and conclusions.A glossary makes it simple to find key terms in one convenient location.Newly added instructor ancillaries make the fourth edition a true learning resource for the classroom (available at www.HumanKinetics.com/DesigningResistanceTrainingPrograms).
Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is an essential resource for understanding and applying the science behind resistance training for any population.
... Effective training programs must frequently puts overload to the neuromuscular system to prevent fatigue and stagnation. Variations in training stimuli are essential for optimizing strength adaptations by forcing the neuromuscular system to adapt to unaccustomed stress (17). Studies show that periodized training helps maintain effectiveness by preventing stagnation, as evidenced by research indicating improved strength gains during periodized training compared to non-periodized programs (18). ...
... Fitness variables can compass each other; for instance, achieving a higher endurance in cardiovascular fitness can hinder maximum strength and muscle hypertrophy or maximum power; as a result, developing each variable for each specifically needed fitness requirement may negatively impact other required performance variables (17). However, this issue may not be considered an impactful and problematic one because adaptations through years of practice might be regarded as enough, even at a low level for some fields (12,17). ...
... Fitness variables can compass each other; for instance, achieving a higher endurance in cardiovascular fitness can hinder maximum strength and muscle hypertrophy or maximum power; as a result, developing each variable for each specifically needed fitness requirement may negatively impact other required performance variables (17). However, this issue may not be considered an impactful and problematic one because adaptations through years of practice might be regarded as enough, even at a low level for some fields (12,17). For example, in some fields, track and field body composition or maximum sprinting speed might not be an issue, so these variables are just trained as low a healthy level, not at the competition level for competition (12). ...
This article concerns periodized and non-periodized training protocols, now widely used to enhance athletic performance conditioning. Periodization is a systematic training protocol that structures training into specific phases. Periodization directly involves optimizing performance results by changing training variables such as intensity, volume, and exercise selection interpretation over time. Periodized training systems are also widely used to manage fatigue levels and reach peak performance at certain moments. On the other hand, however, a non-periodized training outlook involves a regular interchange, where training variables remain unchanged or change consistently. It may offer a more straightforward and more uncomplicated way of approaching training sessions but, as a result, may lead to flat progress. Hence, to clarify a more transparent approach to enhancing performance, this review article provides a more comprehensive theoretical comparison in depth between these methodologies, to try to delve into both conceptual frameworks' understanding, advantages, disadvantages, limitations, and practical applications. This article also aims to represent more literature on the background. While trying to uncover some shadowed parts of the theoretical framework, this article examines some of the impact of periodized strength training on neuromuscular adaptation, muscle hypertrophy and other structural changes, supported by a review of key research findings. Furthermore, the historical development of periodization theory is discussed, outlining the evolution from early practices to contemporary models and assessing its relevance in modern athletic training. The comparison highlights how each approach influences performance, adaptation, and recovery, emphasizing the need for further research to better understand and apply these training methodologies in diverse athletic contexts. The review concludes that while periodization offers structured progression and helps prevent performance plateaus, non-periodized training provides flexibility and may suit specific training scenarios where simplicity is preferred.
... Effective training programs must frequently puts overload to the neuromuscular system to prevent fatigue and stagnation. Variations in training stimuli are essential for optimizing strength adaptations by forcing the neuromuscular system to adapt to unaccustomed stress (17). Studies show that periodized training helps maintain effectiveness by preventing stagnation, as evidenced by research indicating improved strength gains during periodized training compared to non-periodized programs (18). ...
... It would complicate the recovery phase and mechanism and may potentially lead to impairing adaptation and performance at a glance (11,14). o Incompatible Adaptations: Fitness variables can compass each other; for instance, achieving a higher endurance in cardiovascular fitness can hinder maximum strength and muscle hypertrophy or maximum power; as a result, developing each variable for each specifically needed fitness requirement may negatively impact other required performance variables (17). However, this issue may not be considered an impactful and problematic one because adaptations through years of practice might be regarded as enough, even at a low level for some fields (12,17). ...
... o Incompatible Adaptations: Fitness variables can compass each other; for instance, achieving a higher endurance in cardiovascular fitness can hinder maximum strength and muscle hypertrophy or maximum power; as a result, developing each variable for each specifically needed fitness requirement may negatively impact other required performance variables (17). However, this issue may not be considered an impactful and problematic one because adaptations through years of practice might be regarded as enough, even at a low level for some fields (12,17). For example, in some fields, track and field body composition or maximum sprinting speed might not be an issue, so these variables are just trained as low a healthy level, not at the competition level for competition (12). ...
This article concerns periodized and non-periodized training protocols, now widely used to enhance athletic performance conditioning. Periodization is a systematic training protocol that structures training into specific phases. Periodization directly involves optimizing performance results by changing training variables such as intensity, volume, and exercise selection interpretation over time. Periodized training systems are also widely used to manage fatigue levels and reach peak performance at certain moments. On the other hand, however, a non-periodized training outlook involves a regular interchange, where training variables remain unchanged or change consistently. It may offer a more straightforward and more uncomplicated way of approaching training sessions but, as a result, may lead to flat progress. Hence, to clarify a more transparent approach to enhancing performance, this review article provides a more comprehensive theoretical comparison in depth between these methodologies, to try to delve into both conceptual frameworks' understanding, advantages, disadvantages, limitations, and practical applications. This article also aims to represent more literature on the background. While trying to uncover some shadowed parts of the theoretical framework, this article examines some of the impact of periodized strength training on neuromuscular adaptation, muscle hypertrophy and other structural changes, supported by a review of key research findings. Furthermore, the historical development of periodization theory is discussed, outlining the evolution from early practices to contemporary models and assessing its relevance in modern athletic training. The comparison highlights how each approach influences performance, adaptation, and recovery, emphasizing the need for further research to better understand and apply these training methodologies in diverse athletic contexts. The review concludes that while periodization offers structured progression and helps prevent performance plateaus, non-periodized training provides flexibility and may suit specific training scenarios where simplicity is preferred.
... Is clear that strength training (ST) is an excellent training approach that can increase skeletal muscle size and strength including in women (Hagstrom et al., 2020;Fernández & Hoyos, 2020;Vila Suarez et al., 2023;Marcos-Pardo et al., 2024). Hence, coaches and practitioners use several strategies to prevent the stagnation of gains in muscle mass with the manipulation of several ST variables including selection and order of exercises, manipulation of load and repetitions, rest interval between sets and exercise, and the time under tension (Angleri et al., 2017(Angleri et al., , 2020Charro et al., 2010;Fleck & Kraemer, 2014;Ribeiro et al., 2016;Schoenfeld, 2011). The manipulation of the ST variables to improve muscle mass led to the design of a set of various techniques such as drop-sets, cluster sets, crescent and inverse pyramid, and German volume training (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014;B. ...
... Hence, coaches and practitioners use several strategies to prevent the stagnation of gains in muscle mass with the manipulation of several ST variables including selection and order of exercises, manipulation of load and repetitions, rest interval between sets and exercise, and the time under tension (Angleri et al., 2017(Angleri et al., , 2020Charro et al., 2010;Fleck & Kraemer, 2014;Ribeiro et al., 2016;Schoenfeld, 2011). The manipulation of the ST variables to improve muscle mass led to the design of a set of various techniques such as drop-sets, cluster sets, crescent and inverse pyramid, and German volume training (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014;B. Schoenfeld, 2011). ...
... Typically, the TST technique uses the multisets system, performing multiple sets with the same load (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014). In turn, the Drop-sets (DS) technique (also known as descending sets or breakdown sets) consists of performing a set of one exercise, and consequently in the same set, decrease (drops) the load (e.g., 20%) performing more repetitions without or with very little, interval rest between drops (Angleri et al., 2017;Fink et al., 2018;Fleck & Kraemer, 2014;Bentes et al., 2012). ...
Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two strength training protocols, equated in volume, on the elbow flexor muscle thickness (MT) in women. Methods: Twenty-seven women (mean±sd, age 21.89±2.85 years; stature,167.82±5.90 cm; body mass 63.01±7.20 kg; estimate of body fat mass, 19.19±2.88%) were divided in three experimental groups: a drop-set (DS), a traditional (TR), and a control group (CG). The CG maintained regular strength training without perform any upper body exercises. The DS group performed a dumbbell biceps curl for two days/week, 12 weeks, 4 sets of 3 blocks of 10 repetitions at 75%, 55%, and 35% of their 1 Repetition Maximum (RM), and 8 sets of 11 repetitions at 75% of the 1RM for the TR protocol. Rest interval between sets was 120 seconds. The MT was acquired in the anterior face of both upper arms at 50% and 60% of the distance between the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the acromial process of the scapula before (T0) and after the 24 training sessions (T1). Results: There was a significant increase in all MT measurements between T0 and T1for the training groups(p<0.05). In addition, significantly higher values of MT were found in the training groups compared to the control group for all local measurements in T1 (p<0.05). No significant differences were found between training the groups for MT. Conclusion: It appears that both training groups (DS and TR), were effective in promoting MT of the elbow flexors muscles of young women with no differences between training strategies. Keywords: Hypertrophy, Ultrasonography, Training method, Female
... Resistance training is any exercise that requires moving (or attempting to move) against an opposing force (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014;Stone et al., 2007). Resistance can be provided by external means (barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells, cable machines, elastic bands) or by the practitioner's own body weight, as in the case of calisthenics and plyometrics. ...
... Two or more repetitions make a set insofar as there is no substantial pause for rest between them. Rest is recommended between the sets, and its duration varies according to the intensity of the workout (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014). • Throughout a repetition, the relevant muscles are shortened and lengthened in a controlled manner. ...
... The muscles' shortening is the movement's concentric phase, and its controlled lengthening constitutes the eccentric phase. Isometric muscle action happens when a weight is held stationary without movement of the joints (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014). • Proper lifting technique (or form) involves the activation of the relevant muscles targeted by that exercise (its prime movers or agonists), paired with the activation of the synergists (auxiliary muscles that help to move the weight) and inhibition of the antagonist muscles (those that would move the weight in the opposite direction) (Sale, 1988). ...
The problem of self-knowledge has been thoroughly discussed in the context of traditional epistemology. In parallel to that traditional approach, Ecological-Enactive Cognition (EEC) has emerged in the last 30 years as a genuine contender in the cognitive sciences. According to EEC, the unity of analysis of cognitive processes is the dynamics between brain, body and environment. In this paper, I advance an EEC approach to self-knowledge, which immediately suggests that knowing oneself is a matter of knowing what one’s body can do. I then turn to resistance training, particularly weightlifting, and argue that it offers a paradigmatic case of self-knowledge in EEC’s terms. I contend that periodically reaching the point of mechanical failure provides an important insight into self-knowledge. Thus, resistance training allows the trainee to achieve knowledge of themselves in a fundamentally practical manner—and doing so is transformative of the kind of actions they are capable of.
... In addition to the physical components of baseball players' training, when designing a comprehensive seasonal periodization program, the seasons can be classified as off-season, pre-season, in-season, post-season, or restoration [4]. Off-season training can include moderate-to lowintensity (50-75%, 1 RM) resistance and circuit trainings for muscle adaptation to develop the best and most evenly distributed physical performance for the sport [5] and high-intensity (30-95%, 1 RM) performance training for maximum power in the pre-season phase [6]. High intensity (50-93%, 1 RM) and low training volume should be applied during the season to maintain fitness and perform at peak performance [7]. ...
... The concept of 2 biomechanically similar exercises can be described as a compound pair [33], which may be the optimal training strategy for developing motor skills because this form of compound training enhances neuromuscular activity, which in turn enhances strength and power production, and compound training is sport-specific [34]. Combining the 2 exercises is effective [5]. Resistance training and PT are common training methods for improving strength and power. ...
... Plyometrics, which consists of rapid centrifugal muscle action followed by centripetal muscle action, improves the rate of force development. High-intensity resistance training, which increases strength and acceleration, is effective when combined with other methods [5]. Combining PT and KT for in-season pitchers improves lower-extremity strength, VJ, and Y-balance and affects pitching velocity through physical function development [53]. ...
Background
The purpose of this study was to determine how the combination of plyometric training (PT), which builds strength through fast, repetitive extensions and contractions, and kettlebell training (KT), using a device that is smaller than a barbell and allows for strength and full-body work, affects the physical performance and performance of high school pitchers during the season.
Material/Methods
Participants (n=30 males; age group=16–19 years) were randomized into 3 groups: compound training group (CTG) (n=10), plyometric training group (PTG) (n=10), and kettlebell group (KTG) (n=10). All groups performed training twice weekly for 4 weeks. Pre- and post-intervention assessments were conducted on isokinetic strength to measure strength, vertical jump (VJ) to measure power, dynamic balance (Y-balance), and ball speed (BS) to measure baseball performance.
Results
We found there was increased strength, VJ, Y-balance, and BS in the CTG, PTG, and KTG (p=.000). CTG had significantly different results than PTG and KTG (p=.000). There was a significant difference in increased strength of the right knee joint flexors between PTG and KTG (p=.000).
Conclusions
CTG, PTG, and KTG for pitchers during the season improved significantly. These results suggest that combination training, rather than just 1 type of training, affects pitchers’ strength, VJ, Y-balance, and BS during the season.
... Each program has demonstrated various favorable adaptations following training as they relate to cardiovascular fitness (capacity and endurance), muscular fitness (relative and absolute), and body composition (5,11,18,41). For instance, HIFT has been demonstrated to increased VO2max and improvements in body composition (32); However, several of these studies demonstrate variable (35) if not conflicting (6,41) results. ...
... For instance, HIFT has been demonstrated to increased VO2max and improvements in body composition (32); However, several of these studies demonstrate variable (35) if not conflicting (6,41) results. Similarly, RT has shown great improvements in body composition along with muscular fitness (11) and even in some cases cardiovascular endurance (18). Currently, CHIC related research is limited, likely due to the changing variety of classes as well as the difficulty in reproducible protocols being observed outside of a lab. ...
... Several studies have demonstrated improvements in body composition following HIFT, with Schlegel.2020 demonstrating BF% changes through decreasing body fat (41) (11) who reviewed resistance training as efficient in reducing body fat, with greater changes in body composition being observed with high -volume multiple -set programs, similar to the protocol of this study, while some studies have reported increases in FFM as high as 3 kg in over a 10 week period of resistance training (11) Overall, the findings of this study provide a litany of physiological responses to 16 weeks of training of HIFT, CHIC, and RT. Aerobically, HIFT and CHIC were both effective in aerobic improvements. ...
The remarkable popularity of fitness trends like high intensity functional training (HIFT), choreographed high intensity classes (CHIC) and resistance (RT) trainings raises the question on their effect on cardio-respiratory, lactate removal rate, endurance and body composition responses. The purpose of this study was to assess and compare these effects. Ninety-five participants were randomly assigned into 16 weeks of these trainings, five sessions/week. Anthropometric and fitness tests were carried out before training (PRE), after eight (8W) and sixteen weeks (16W). Body composition measures demonstrated significant decrease in body fat percentage (p<0.001, d=0.17–0.54) for all groups and fat mass (p< 0.001, d= 0.26–0.53) for HIFT and CHIC in 8W,16W and in 16W for RT (p= 0.03, d= 0.14), also significant increase in fat free mass only in HIFT (p< 0.002, d= 0.06–0.21) and RT (p< 0.001, d= 0.17–0.33) in 8W,16W. Cardio-respiratory measures demonstrated significant improvements in maximal aerobic capacity for HIFT (p< 0.001, d= 0.58–1.26) and CHIC (p< 0.001, d= 0.45–1.21) in 8W,16W. Endurance tests demonstrated significant improvements in 8W,16W in aerobic endurance among HIFT (p< 0.001, d= 1.28–3.19) and CHIC (p< 0.001, d= 1.16–1.79), in muscle absolute endurance in three groups (p< 0.002, d= 0.14–1.17)and muscle relative endurance in HIFT (p< 0.02, d= 0.13–0.2)and RT (p= 0.03, d= 0.3) in 16W. We can conclude that HIFT and CHIC are effective for cardio–respiratory and endurance improvement and all three programs are effective in reducing body fat
... Proponents of this method suggest that is a superior method of exercise prescription, primarily as a result of it being an objective programming strategy (43). However, the use of 1RM testing and exercise prescription based on percentages of this value, is largely rooted in sport science/strength and conditioning literature (44). In this light, loading paradigms for using %1RM typically target athletic apparently healthy populations (44). ...
... However, the use of 1RM testing and exercise prescription based on percentages of this value, is largely rooted in sport science/strength and conditioning literature (44). In this light, loading paradigms for using %1RM typically target athletic apparently healthy populations (44). However, even in this context, it is well understood that there are large variations in the accuracy of these charts in determining repetitions performed at a given percentage (45)(46)(47). ...
A practical framework for the design of resistance exercise interventions in oncology research settings-a narrative review. Resistance exercise (RE) has been demonstrated to result in a myriad of benefits for individuals treated for cancer, including improvements in muscle mass, strength, physical function, and quality of life. Though this has resulted in the development of recommendations for RE in cancer management from various international governing bodies, there is also increasing recognition of the need to improve the design of RE interventions in oncology. The design and execution of RE trials are notoriously complex, attempting to account for numerous cancer/treatment related symptoms/side effects. Further, the design of exercise trials in oncology also present numerous logistical challenges, particularly those that are scaled for effectiveness, where multi-site trials with numerous exercise facilities are almost a necessity. As such, this review paper highlights these considerations, and takes evidence from relevant areas (RE trials/recommendations in oncology, older adults, and other clinical populations), and provide a practical framework for consideration in the design and delivery of RE trials. Ultimately, the purpose of this framework is to provide suggestions for researchers on how to design/conduct RE trials for individuals with cancer, rather than synthesizing evidence for guidelines/ recommendations on the optimal RE dose/program.
... Traditionally, it has been considered that GTOs serve as "safety devices" that help prevent excessive force during muscle contraction [95]. When the forces of muscle contraction and external factors combine to a point where injury to the muscle, tendon, or bone becomes possible, GTOs generate inhibitory postsynaptic potentials on the cell bodies of the agonist motor units [96][97][98]. According to Moore [93], recent research has demonstrated that these concepts regarding GTO physiology are inaccurate. ...
... (d) During CR stretching, the GTO autogenic reflex induces a momentary inhibition that persists only for the duration of the active muscle contraction. Therefore, it is unlikely that GTO activity significantly influences the subsequent relaxation phase, as proposed in earlier literature [96][97][98]. ...
Over the past 20-30 years, numerous studies have expanded our understanding of the connective components within the human musculoskeletal system. The term "fascia" and, more specifically, the "fascial system" encompass a variety of connective tissues that perform multiple functions. Given the extensive scope of the topic of fascia and the fascial system, which cannot be fully addressed in a single article, this work will focus specifically on the role of fascia in tension transmission (mechanotransduction). This includes both the tensions generated by the contractile muscular component and the elastic recoil, which contribute to movement and posture in the human body.
A functional alteration of the fascia, due to the high density of receptors within it, can trigger pain symptoms identified as myofascial pain; this typically manifests at so-called myofascial trigger points (MTrPs). This article presents a new hypothesis on how MTrPs may develop as a result of imbalanced tension loading on the fascial components arranged in series and parallel to the contractile muscular component. While the literature contains several studies on the manual manipulation of fascia, limited evidence is available regarding the treatment of fascial dysfunctions through alternative modalities, such as therapeutic exercises aimed at lengthening or shortening these structures.
This work is divided into two parts: the first section provides an overview of the composition of fascia used for the transmission of tension forces and introduces the basis of the approach, using stretching techniques, to address dysfunctions related to excessive rigidity in the myofascial system. Additionally, a mechanical physiological basis is proposed for the various stretching methods described in the literature. The second part addresses the treatment of dysfunctions related to reduced rigidity in the fascial system through therapeutic exercise. The fascial training recommendations provided in this article are aimed at preventing and treating musculoskeletal disorders. They should be integrated with muscle-strengthening work, cardiovascular training, and coordination exercises.
Developing a fascial network in the body that is both flexible and resistant to injury involves applying recent discoveries from the rapidly advancing field of fascia research into effective training programs. This paper aims to motivate physiotherapists, osteopaths, sports trainers, and other movement instructors to integrate these principles and adapt them within their professional practices.
... Blood samples were taken 48 h before and after the training period; the other tests were repeated. In each session, the subjects performed RT with an intensity of 70-85 % 1RM [21,22] at certain hours of the day (10:00-13:00 in the morning) in a constant environment (same temperature and humidity) for eight weeks. Subjects were asked to refrain from other sports activities during the study. ...
... The plan for the second session consisted of nine Vol. 73 moves: bench press, incline bench press, chest fly machine, barbell shoulder press, dumbbell shoulder press, cable curl, dumbbell curl, cable push-down and barbell skull crush. The movements were performed in three sets with an intensity of 70-85 % 1RM with 6-12 repetitions (the rest interval between sets was 60-90 s and between movements, 2-3 min) [21,22]. Training intensity increased by five percent every two weeks (Fig. 2). ...
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of resistance training (RT) alongside creatine-hydrochloride (Cr-HCl) or creatine monohydrate (CrM) supplementation on anabolic/catabolic hormones, strength, and body composition. Forty participants with an age range of 18-25 years were randomly divided into four groups (n=10): RT+Cr-HCl (0.03 g.kg-1 of body mass), RT+CrM-loading phase (CrM-LP) (0.3 g.kg-1 of body mass for five days (loading) and 0.03 g.kg-1 body mass for 51 days (maintenance)), RT+CrM-without loading phase (CrM-WLP) (0.03 g.kg-1 body mass), and RT+placebo (PL). The participants consumed supplements and performed RT with an intensity of 70-85 % 1RM for eight weeks. Before and after the training and supplementation period, strength (1RM), body composition (percent body fat (PBF), skeletal muscle mass (SMM), muscular cross-sectional area (MCSA)) and serum levels of testosterone, growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follistatin and myostatin were measured. The results showed that in the supplementation groups, strength, arm and thigh MCSA, and SMM significantly increased, and PBF significantly decreased (P≤0.05); this change was significant compared to the PL group (P≤0.05). In addition, the results showed a significant increase in GH, IGF-1 levels, the ratio of follistatin/myostatin, testosterone/cortisol (P≤0.05), and a significant decrease in cortisol and ACTH levels (P≤0.05) in the supplementation groups. Hormonal changes in GH, IGF-1, testosterone/cortisol, cortisol, and ACTH levels in the supplementation groups were significant compared to the PL group (P≤0.05). The results showed that CrM and Cr-HCl significantly enhanced the beneficial effects of RT on strength, hypertrophy, and hormonal responses, with Cr-HCl showing no benefit over CrM.
... Existen muchos beneficios relacionados con la práctica de actividad de actividad física en los niños y adolescentes, y aunque la mayor parte de las asociaciones médicas se centran en los beneficios del entrenamiento de resistencia (Rowland 2005), son varios los estudios científicos que relacionan el entrenamiento de fuerza con beneficios importantes para el joven deportista (Fleck and Kraemer 2004). Sin entrar en detalle, el entrenamiento de fuerza en el joven conlleva: mejoras en el perfil de riesgo cardiovascular, facilita el control de peso, fortalecimiento de los huesos, mejoras a e -c o a c h Página 4 nivel de relación social y bienestar personal, mejoras en habilidades relacionadas con el rendimiento deportivo, y mejoras en la prevención de lesiones ( CONSIDERACIONES A TENER EN CUENTA PARA EL TRABAJO DE FUERZA EN EL JOVEN DEPORTISTA Para comenzar este apartado hay que dejar claros varios requisitos previos necesarios, y muy importantes, para el desarrollo de un programa de entrenamiento de fuerza en jóvenes. ...
... En el caso de ejercicios complejos, como pueden ser los levantamientos olímpicos, su uso (ej., con cargas muy livianas) estaría recomendado en estas edades como aprendizaje, y como método de trabajo para la mejora de la coordinación intermuscular. La técnica priorizará sobre cualquier otro parámetro de control, y aunque existen muchas maneras de orientar una sesión de entrenamiento de fuerza (Fleck and Kraemer 2004;Kraemer and Ratamess 2004;Roetert and Ellenbecker 2007), desde aquí proponemos el uso de ejercicios que involucren grandes grupos musculares antes que el trabajo de los grupos musculares pequeños, y ejercicios multiarticulares antes que ejercicios monoarticulares. Además, los ejercicios que sean más complejos a nivel de técnica (ej., levantamientos olímpicos, pliometría) deberían realizarse al principio de la sesión para evitar los posibles efectos de la fatiga. ...
... Training in OC increases tissue resistance. In the push-pull execution of a movement, adopting OC techniques maximises the total amount of signals sent in a specific place as high pressures are used, increasing the selection of high motor units, (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014) [16] . 3. Another crucial factor for successful periodisation for a fast bowler is tri-phasic training techniques. ...
... 4. Adding extra skill-specific programmes is another efficient strategy for controlling the workload of fast bowlers during their seasonal matches. The overall consistency of a fast bowler will increase as he works to improve his neuromuscular efficiency (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014) [16] . Working on extensibility is one of these skillspecific training programmes. ...
Around 12 permanent and 94 associate countries participate in the worldwide sport of cricket, where fast bowlers play a crucial role in any eleven-member squad. With the changing dynamics of this batsman-dominated game and increased requirements for fast bowlers, one of the hot topics for discussion is how to effectively manage a fast bowler's load by emphasising his biomechanical tendencies and keeping him match fit by avoiding major injuries that are a usual part of a fast bowler's cricketing career. This study seeks to provide the physiological literature about fast bowlers in cricket and a useful and periodised training programme for them during their in-season preparation. Additionally, it provides us with the limitations of earlier studies and potential directions for future research in Strength & Conditioning. The primary objective of this review is to provide the evidence in this area with a place to start.
... Periodization is the systematic process of planned variations in a strength-training program over a training cycle and usually refers to manipulating the amount of rest between sets, number of sets, or number of repetitions within each set (7,8,10). The manipulation of variables in a training program is designed to maximize strength and power. ...
... The only exception in the circuit sequences is that they were instructed to complete all sets of hang cleans, in a traditional manner, before they started lifting in the desired circuit manner. The reason for completing hang clean in a traditional manner first is due to the information provided by the American College of Sports Medicine (2002) and Fleck and Kraemer (2004), which revealed benefits for power and explosive exercises being implemented at the beginning of a workout due to the neuromuscular system being in a non-fatigued state and is capable of higher rates of force production and contractile velocities. This also reduces risk of injury due to the explosive nature of hang cleans (7). ...
Manipulating variables in a training program (e.g., sets, reps, lifts, sequence, etc.) is designed to maximize strength and power performance. Due to the complexity of designing resistance-training programs, changing one variable could potentially set an athletic team apart from others in performance. The purpose of this study was to investigate if exercise sequence could influence the development of strength, speed, and agility. This study compared two specific types of exercise sequences: traditional, which performs the prescribed exercises in a traditional or blocked manner (by completing every set of an exercise before moving to the next); and, circuit, which performs the prescribed exercises in a circuit or alternating manner (by completing the first set of each prescribed exercise, then going to the second set of each exercise). Thirty-nine adolescent athletes from two separate high school football teams completed identical six-week resistance-training programs with the only difference being the sequence of the exercises. Each group tested pre- and post-intervention on hang clean, bench, squat, 40-yard dash, and pro agility. A strength index was used to measure overall strength gained by dividing the sum of the three lifts by total body weight. The results demonstrated that the only significant difference between groups occurred with hang clean. Both circuit and traditional groups made significant but equal gains when compared independently pre- to post-intervention. These results suggest that if strength gains are desired, then either a circuit or traditional style of exercise sequence will produce equal results regardless of beginning level of strength.
... Blood sampling was done 48 h before and after the training period; moreover, the initial tests were repeated. In each session, the participants performed resistance exercises with an intensity of 70-85% 1RM [28,29] at certain hours of the day (10:00-13:00 AM) in a constant environment (same temperature and humidity) for eight weeks (Fig. 1). The participants were asked to refrain from other sports activities during the implementation of this research. ...
... The training program of the first session (consisted of nine exercises: leg press, machine lying leg curl, machine leg extension, calf raise, cable pull down, cable row, T-bar row, back extension and crunches) and the second session (consisted of nine exercises: chest press, incline bench press, butterfly press, barbell shoulder press, dumbbell shoulder press, cable curl, dumbbell curl, cable push-down and barbell skull crush). Exercises were performed in three sets with an intensity of 70-85% 1RM with 6-12 repetitions (rest between sets 60-90 s and between movements 2-3 min) [28,29]. Five percent training intensity was added every 2 weeks to increase the amount of training mobility. ...
This study aimed to compare the effect of creatine hydrochloride (Cr-HCl) and creatine monohydrate (CrM) supplementation alongside resistance training (RT) on oxidative stress, muscle damage, performance, and body composition in soldiers. In this research, 36 male soldiers aged 18–28 years voluntarily participated in the study. Participants were randomly divided into three groups (n = 12): 1- RT + Cr-HCl, 2- RT + CrM, and 3- RT + placebo (PL). The participants performed RT with an intensity of 70–85% 1RM for eight weeks (three days a week). Also, during this period, they used Cr-HCl and CrM supplements. Before and after supplementation and training periods, body composition (percent body fat (PBF) and skeletal muscle mass (SMM)), performance (muscular strength, muscular endurance and power), blood sample (total antioxidant capacity (TAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), Creatine kinase (CK)) were taken. The results showed that muscle strength, muscle endurance, power and SMM increased while PBF decreased in the RT + Cr-HCl and RT + CrM groups compared to the PL group (P ≤ 0.05). In addition, regarding antioxidant indices changes, the results showed decreased MDA and increased SOD in RT + Cr-HCl and RT + CrM groups compared to the RT + PL group (P ≤ 0.05). However, no significant group × time interactions were noted for levels of LDH and CK (P > 0.05). In general, the results showed that Cr-HCl and CrM, along with RT can positively affect oxidative stress, performance and body composition of soldiers, but it does not affect muscle damage indicators. According to the results, Cr-HCl does not cause more effects than CrM.
... Perpetuation of the reductionist paradigm Contemporary exercise research and practice continue to be guided by a reductionist paradigm rooted in Schmidt's motor schema theory [104][105][106]. To reiterate, this theory proposes that movements are controlled by generalised motor programmes that allow the transfer of skills between similar tasks [83,91]. ...
... Nevertheless, core textbooks perpetuate the reductionist paradigm in which isolated exercise training improves functional transfer [105,106]. One textbook on resistance training states that practicing general strength exercises produces direct functional carryover through increased force-generating capacity [104], citing evidence that resistance training improves ADL based on improved muscle strength and size [112,113]; and resistance training improves physical function in older adults by increasing muscle strength, power, and endurance [114]. This suggests a direct carryover effect on daily activities. ...
This article challenges the prevalent approach in exercise science for improving functional performance in older adults. It argues that
contemporary exercise research and practice adhere to an outdated paradigm that undermines the principle of specificity in training and assessment. The author supports this central critique by examining fundamental issues including conceptual imprecision, paradigmatic limitations, and misapplications of core theories of motor learning. Additional evidence from exercise science literature demonstrates how these issues compromise the effectiveness of interventions by violating the specificity principle. To address these limitations, the author proposes a preliminary framework titled 'The Emergence of Skilled Mobility in
Ageing' (ESMA), which aligns training and evaluation with individual task environment constraints. This framework recognises the critical role of adaptive variability and representative practice design in optimising coordination, skills, and mobility. The proposed preliminary framework has
significant implications for interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge translation through focused and ecologically valid assessments and interventions. Overall, this article identifies key gaps in the current exercise science paradigm for older adults and offers an integrated solution that promotes specificity and real-world functioning. Future research will focus on the development and validation of this framework.
... The key findings of the study include that the experimental group showed an improvement on all motor fitness components like muscle strength, agility, explosive power and speed. This can be attributed to the training effects seen within the model of appropriate periodization which involves transferring a variety of performance variables (strength, speed -strength, strength endurance) to their highest rate of development with the aim of peaking at a precise time and avoiding stagnation, injury, or overtraining [24,25]. It has been recommended that these objectives can be accomplished through taking into consideration the variables like training methods, contents, frequency, volume, and intensity in consecutive phases during different periods of the season with training program scheduled for between 2-10 weeks [24,26]. ...
... This can be attributed to the training effects seen within the model of appropriate periodization which involves transferring a variety of performance variables (strength, speed -strength, strength endurance) to their highest rate of development with the aim of peaking at a precise time and avoiding stagnation, injury, or overtraining [24,25]. It has been recommended that these objectives can be accomplished through taking into consideration the variables like training methods, contents, frequency, volume, and intensity in consecutive phases during different periods of the season with training program scheduled for between 2-10 weeks [24,26]. This was achieved in the current study with a training program which was conducted for a period 8 weeks. ...
... Although a number of variables constitute the ST (series, repetitions, sessions, velocity, and intervals between series among others), load is one of the most important. Both loads that demand maximum effort (maximum repetitions-RM) (6,16,42) and those loads capable of producing efforts close to the maximum (submaximal efforts) (39,44) have been recommended for the enhancement of muscular strength. Whatever the nature of the effort made, percentages of over @60% of a maximum repetition (%1RM) are necessary to achieve enhancement (27,34). ...
... Although the choice of the load used when prescribing ST can be made in different ways, percentages related to the 1RM test and the use of RMs training zones, are the most recommended (6). Nevertheless, sometimes the application of maximum test (1RM and RM) can present difficulties. ...
... Resistance training programs was designed based on the Fleck model [22], three sessions per week for eight weeks. The exercise was based on a exible scheduling pattern and the principle of overload. ...
... So far, no study has investigated the effect of this supplement on ASP level, but in previous studies, spirulina has been introduced as an appetite suppressant [21]. This substance contains the amino acid phenylalanine, which stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin and helps suppress appetite [18, 19,22]. The proposed mechanism of action of spirulina is to reduce the in ltration of macrophages into visceral tissue, prevent the accumulation of liver fat, reduce oxidative stress, improve insulin sensitivity and reduce appetite (due to the improvement of leptin resistance in the arcuate nucleus) [20,21]. ...
Purpose
The present study aimed to investigate the effects of eight weeks spirulina supplementation and circuit resistance training (CRT) on Asprosin, appetite and energy balance of overweight and obese men.
Methods
The present study is a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Sixty overweight and obese men (BMI > 25) were purposefully selected and randomly divided into equal four groups of training plus spirulina, training plus placebo, spirulina, and placebo. The participants of the training groups performed 12 movements with 40–90 percent maximal repetition (3 sessions per week) and supplemental groups consumed 1000 mg of spirulina per day for eight weeks. Asprosin, appetite with visual analogue scales, calorie intake, energy expenditure and mass of body fat (MBF) were measured before and after intervention. To analyze data, one-way variance, paired- t-tests and Pearson correlation test was used by SPSS (version 20) at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05.
Results
After intervention Asprosin level, weight, MBF, calorie intake, and hunger declined and fullness and satiety increased in training plus spirulina, training plus placebo, and spirulina groups (p < 0.05). In addition, energy expenditure increased only in the training groups (P = 0.01). The mean changes of the research indicators in the training plus spirulina group were significantly more than the other groups (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
It seems that eight weeks of CRT and spirulina supplementation decrease the level of Asprosin and improve appetite and energy balance in overweight and obese people.
... Current speed training in karate incorporates a variety of methods designed to enhance explosive power and reaction time, essential for effective combat performance. Plyometric exercises, such as jump squats and medicine ball throws, are frequently employed to develop fast-twitch muscle fibers, which contribute to quicker strikes (Fleck & Kraemer, 2014). ...
Effective physical training is crucial for karate athletes aiming to enhance their techniques and increase the speed of their attacks, particularly gyaku-tsuki. This study investigates the impact of rubber-based exercise on the speed of gyaku-tsuki punches among Gokasi karate athletes in Jember Regency with an age range of 16-20 years, male and female. An experimental method with a one-group pretest-posttest design was employed. The population in this study were Gokasi Jember karate athletes in junior to senior classes, with a total of 12 athletes. The sampling technique used in this research is total sampling. Therefore, the entire population was taken as a sample of 12 athletes. Speed measurements of the gyaku-tsuki punch were taken both before and after the rubber training regimen. Data analysis using SPSS 21 covering descriptive analysis, normality test, and Paired sample Test. The paired sample test yielded a significance value of 0.000, which is below the 0.05 threshold. Analysis of the pre-test and post-test averages shows an increase from 30.67 to 31.92. These findings suggest that a four-week rubber training program positively affected Gyaku-Tsuki punch speed. Furthermore, the average results demonstrate an improvement in punch speed. These findings contribute to karate coaches and athletes applying rubber exercises to improve gyaku-tsuki punch speed. The findings also provide valuable insights for karate coaches and athletes, recommending the inclusion of rubber-based training in their routines to enhance the speed and effectiveness of gyaku-tsuki punches.
... However, older adults who participate in community programs organized by their local institutions are subject to temporary interruptions in their exercise programs due to vacation breaks [11][12][13], which can lead to the detraining effect [14]. This phenomenon, which may result in the reversibility of acquired adaptations, can occur partially or totally, depending substantially on the prior exercise stimulus and the length of activity interruption [15,16]. ...
Objective: To verify the effects of two different detraining periods on the physical fitness of older adults with cardiometabolic risk factors. Methods: This observational study encompassed older individuals with cardiometabolic risk factors, who were assessed after two different detraining periods: 1 month (1DT) and 3 months (3DT). Physical fitness was assessed using the 30-s sit to stand test (STS), 30-s arm curl, chair sit-and-reach, back scratch, timed up and go, and 6-min walk test (6MWT). The comparison between the different periods was carried out using absolute differences (Δ = posttest-pretest) and relative differences (Δ% = (Δ/pretest) × 100), with α = 0.05. Results: Eight older adults were assessed (70.3 ± 7.48 years, 4 female/4 male). Improvements in the STS (+1.88 repetitions; p = 0.007) and 6MWT (+17.38 m; p = 0.007) were found after 1DT. After 3DT, a worsening was observed in the 6MWT (−26.38 m; p = 0.018). The arm curl test worsened in both detraining periods (1DT: −1.38 repetitions; 3DT: −3.5 repetitions; p = 0.001). When comparing Δ% of 1DT and 3DT, STS and 6MWT showed differences, with p = 0.024 and p = 0.005, respectively. Conclusions: The 1-month detraining period had a positive effect on some physical fitness components, while 3 months induced a decline in cardiorespiratory fitness. Upper limb strength appears to be the component most susceptible to detraining.
... Handgrip strength will be measured isometrically (maximum effort maintained for 6 seconds), on the dominant upper limb, with the volunteer positioned in accordance with the recommendations of the American Society of Hand Therapy 20 . Grip strength will be measured using the second position of the grip handle of the Jamar® dynamometer and scores will be calculated by averaging 3 repetitions, with a 60-second rest interval between repetitions 17,21 . ...
Objective: Multicomponent physical training, carried out via tele-exercise, can contribute to a healthier lifestyle in the elderly. The objective is to present the intervention protocol of the “Idoso Ativo” (Active Older Adult) program via tele-exercise, synchronously and asynchronously. Method: This is a randomized clinical trial with two groups performing tele-exercise. Participant recruitment will be done via digital platforms, social media pages and printed leaflets distributed in the different regions of Distrito Federal. Both groups will perform exercises three times a week, lasting 50 min, and the intervention period will be 12 weeks. Discussion: The hypothesis is that the multicomponent exercise program offered online will provide improvements in muscular strength, balance and mobility in both groups. A higher adherence rate is expected in relation to the asynchronous group, and it is believed that the positive effects on physical health, minimizing the negative outcomes caused by inactivity, are present in participants in both groups.
... Exercises should generally follow an order of larger exercises to smaller exercises and higher velocities to lower velocities [99]. Thus, power development (i.e., plyometrics) exercises should be prioritized first, followed by structural spinal loaded exercises (i.e., back squats), and then assistance and corrective exercises (i.e., planks or lunges) [100,101]. Therefore, firefighters will work power without fatigue, perform spinal loaded multipoint exercises, and perform single-joint or muscle imbalance exercises. Typically, 3-5 exercises from power and structural will be utilized per training session, with the remaining exercises from either assistance or corrective categories in order of priority based on the needs analysis [102]. ...
Firefighting is a physically demanding occupation that requires optimal fitness and coordination in addition to other physical and cognitive skills. When firefighters lack the physical fitness necessary to perform their duties, they put themselves and others in danger of injury and even death. The heavy, unbreathable personal protective equipment worn to shield firefighters from harmful conditions also promotes overall performance decrements via restricted range of motion as well as energy expenditure and heat-related fatigue. Firefighters are expected to carry other heavy loads, such as hose packs, tools, and victims, while working in hazardous environments. In addition to external load carriage, many firefighters also carry excess body fat that may contribute to poor physical fitness and performance. Therefore, it is imperative to incorporate training strategies to optimize load carriage and improve body composition for improved physical performance during emergencies. Thus, the aims of this narrative review are to (1) explore the impact of firefighter-specific issues on physical performance and safety and (2) identify strategies to assess and optimize occupational performance and safety. Plyometrics; resistance training; and exercise selection, volume, and intensity specifically for improving physical performance in firefighters will be discussed.
... Increasing the intensity of exercise requires the body to proportionally increase oxygen consumption, reaching a maximum level, defined as maximum oxygen consumption (VO 2 max) (Ruivo, 2018;Wilmore et al., 2001). According to Fleck and Kraemer (2017), muscle strength training aims to adapt skeletal muscles through overload, resulting in increased activity of glycolytic enzymes and adenosine triphosphate production with adaptations in the nervous system, leading to an increase in the number of motor units recruited. Individuals with ASD have lower levels of muscle strength than their peers with typical development (Golubović et al., 2012 andBorji et al., 2019), in which the patterns of fatigue and neuromuscular recovery are also lower (Zafeiridis et al., 2005). ...
Physical exercise offers health benefits for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the literature on recommendations for exercise prescription is still limited. This study aims to identify the most beneficial type of exercise program and present the most effective guidelines for its prescription in individuals with ASD. A systematic review was carried out using the ERIC, Web of Science, PsycINFO, PubMed and Scopus databases in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Of a total of 1114 studies, 18 were considered eligible. Overall, the type of programs included aerobic exercise sessions with an average duration of 12 weeks, with 3 weekly sessions of 45 to 60 min. The assessment included the shuttle test protocol, the progressive cardiovascular endurance running protocol and the modified Bruce protocol. For the muscle strength exercises, the sessions lasted an average of 12 weeks, with 2 weekly sessions of 10 to 20 min, including 2 to 4 exercises, 1 to 3 sets, with 6 to 12 repetitions. The assessments included the handgrip strength test, the modified curve-up test and the push-up test. The programs had positive effects on cardiorespiratory capacity and hemodynamics, indicating that the benefits of training increase when both capacities are combined. This study provides useful guidelines for adapted sports coaches to prescribe exercise programs aimed at promoting quality of life in individuals with ASD.
... -that in middle-aged persons who regularly engage in physical exercise, and who were detected as research entities, a certain connection between perceived quality of life and preferred lifestyle can be observed. P eriodisation can be defined as a planned distribution of specific variations introduced into training methods at regular time intervals to optimise gains in strength, power, muscular hypertrophy, and motor skills, while at the same time minimising the risks of overtraining (Fleck, 1999;Fleck & Kraemer, 1997;Zatsiorsky, 1995). Physical training should be organised with preplanned, systematic variations in training specificity, intensity and volume in different periods or cycles within the overall training programme for the season (Michalsik, 2015). ...
Background: Lack of physical activity and failure to pay attention to daily calorie intake cause the structure of the body to be disturbed. Purpose: This study aims to investigate the effect of sauna and physical activity on cardiovascular performance and body composition of female non-athletes. Methods: In a semi-experimental research, 30 women aged 25 ± 5 years old who live in Yazd city were randomly selected, and the samples were divided into sauna and physical activity groups, where each group was randomly assigned 15 subjects. Before and after 8 weeks of physical activity and sauna, changes in heart rate, blood pressure, body fat percentage, fat weight and lean body mass were measured. Finally, the SPSS21 software was employed to study and analyse the collected data. Results: For the group which used sauna, the results showed that there were significant changes (p ≤ 0.05) in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, total weight, lean body mass, fat weight, and body fat percentage, while there were no significant changes in diastolic and average blood pressure (p ≥ 0.05). Additionally, the subjects who used the cycle ergometer, showed a significant change (p ≤ 0.05) in heart rate, average blood pressure, total weight, body fat percentage, fat weight, and lean body mass, while systolic and diastolic blood pressure did not change significantly (p ≥ 0.05). Conclusion: The results of this research showed that sauna and physical activity improve the cardiovascular function and body composition of non-athlete women.
Keywords: sauna, physical activity, cardiovascular function, body composition
... -that in middle-aged persons who regularly engage in physical exercise, and who were detected as research entities, a certain connection between perceived quality of life and preferred lifestyle can be observed. P eriodisation can be defined as a planned distribution of specific variations introduced into training methods at regular time intervals to optimise gains in strength, power, muscular hypertrophy, and motor skills, while at the same time minimising the risks of overtraining (Fleck, 1999;Fleck & Kraemer, 1997;Zatsiorsky, 1995). Physical training should be organised with preplanned, systematic variations in training specificity, intensity and volume in different periods or cycles within the overall training programme for the season (Michalsik, 2015). ...
Background: The objective measurement of physiological indicators using reliable and repeatable tests forms the basis of the planning of sports training. Aim: This study aims to investigate the impact of a high-intensity repeating interval training protocol with anaerobic capacity on biochemical and physiological indicators, and performance results in young elite 200m sprinters using Carlson's fatigue test as an evaluation tool. Methods: Six sprinters from the youth Iraqi National Athletics team underwent a twelve weeks training program, three sessions per week. The testing protocol included pre and post testing phases of the following tests: the basic biochemical and physiological markers: 1) Blood Hemoglobin, VO2 Max, Calcium - CA, Phosphocreatine Kinase CPK, and Blood Phosphate PH, 2) and the overall performance of the 200m sprinting contest. Problem: The research problem was whether the high-intensity repeating interval training protocol with anaerobic capacity has an impact on the biochemical and physiological indicators, and performance results in young elite 200m sprinters. Results: the chosen biochemical and physiological indicators had improved significantly. Notably (Blood Hemoglobin: 13.97/14.23, VO2 Max: 47.67/51.12, Ca: 8.666 / 9.021, CPK: 90.04 / 98.79, and PH: 13.97 / 14.23). Moreover, a significant difference (p=0.004) between the pre-intervention (24.83s) and post-intervention (23.98s) average time of the 200m runners had made notable gains in their performance measures. Conclusion: the high intensity repetitive interval anaerobic capacity-based training strategy was beneficial in improving the basic physiological and biochemical markers, and the 200m sprint performance.
Keywords: Training Protocol, Sprinters, Biochemical Markers, Physiological Markers, Athletic performance, fatigue test.
... The exercises do not require machines, but make use of low-cost equipment including yoga mats, hand-held weights (e.g., 2 to 10 pounds) stretch bands of varying elasticity, foam rollers and (only initially in the YMCA setting) stepping platforms and TRX equipment. The IE program is su ciently different from usual tness center programs in that it can be conducted in a virtual group setting delivered over an internet platform into a private home [36][37][38][39]. ...
There are no reported randomized trials testing exercise versus an active comparator for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). This randomized clinical trial assessed the effectiveness of group exercise versus psychoeducation to improve quality of life and reduces symptomatic severity in Veterans with PTSD. Veterans who met criteria for current PTSD (DSM-5) and/or endorsed moderate levels of PTSD symptoms (CAPS 5 score ≥ 23) were randomly assigned to treatment. Integrative Exercise (IE) combines fitness exercises (aerobics, resistance training, stretching) with mindful body/breath awareness versus Recovery Class (REC) psychoeducation control condition. A total of 84 participants were enrolled of which 41 participants were randomized to IE and 43 participants to REC. There were no significant pre-post differences in change in the WHOQOL Psychological Domain in either group. There was a modest reduction in the total CAPS-5 score in both groups (IE: -8.2 (9.9), p < .001: REC: -7.8 (2.0), p < .001) but no differences across the two conditions. In the IE subsample that was remote, there was a greater improvement in PTSD symptom severity (F[1, 50] = 4.62, p = .036) and in in the WHOQOL Psychological Domain (F(1, 47) = 6.46, p = .014) in those who attended more sessions.
Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02856412 (registration date: February 27, 2017)
... By strategically adjusting and combining these variables, various innovative training modalities can be derived. Pyramid training involves alternating between lighter and heavier intensities, such as a repetition scheme of 3-5-7-5-3, gradually increasing and subsequently decreasing the training load (Fleck and Kraemer, 2014;Cuevas-Aburto et al., 2020). Superset training entails performing two or more exercises targeting the same muscle group consecutively, such as pairing seated rows with pull-ups, augmenting metabolic stress and muscular fatigue (Robbins et al., 2010;Iversen et al., 2021). ...
Introduction
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of varied resistance training modalities on physical fitness components, body composition, maximal strength assessed by one-repetition maximum (1RM), isokinetic muscle functions of the shoulder and knee joints, and biomechanical properties of core muscles.
Methods
Forty participants were randomly assigned to four groups: control group (CG, n = 10), compound set training group (CSG, n = 10), pyramid set training group (PSG, n = 10), and superset training group (SSG, n = 10). Excluding the CG, the other three groups underwent an 8-week resistance training program, three sessions per week, at 60%–80% of 1RM intensity for 60–90 min per session. Assessments included body composition, physical fitness components, 1RM, isokinetic muscle functions, and biomechanical properties (muscle frequency, stiffness, etc.) of the rectus abdominis and external oblique muscles.
Results
The PSG demonstrated the most significant improvement in relative peak torque during isokinetic testing of the shoulder and knee joints. Compared to the CG, all exercise groups exhibited positive effects on back strength, sprint performance, 1RM, and core muscle biomechanics. Notably, the PSG showed superior enhancement in external oblique stiffness. However, no significant differences were observed among the exercise groups for rectus abdominis biomechanical properties.
Discussion
Structured resistance training effectively improved maximal strength, functional performance, and core muscle biomechanics. The pyramidal training modality conferred specific benefits for isokinetic muscle functions and external oblique stiffness, suggesting its efficacy in enhancing force production capabilities and core stability.
... Bodybuilding machines are widely used in strength or resistance training and can be found in most of the gyms and sport centers. Exercises in bodybuilding machines are intended to increase muscular strength (Fleck and Kraemer 2004), improving endurance (Sorace and LaFontaine 2005), muscular power and hypertrophy, or enhancing a particular characteristic for a specific sport (Murray et al. 2007). ...
... Strength increases are commonly explained with morphological and/or neuromuscular adaptations [31]. Although Goldspink and Harridge [32] suggested that the striated muscle cross-sectional area reflects force production potential, previous studies did not obtain a meaningful relationship between stretch-mediated hypertrophy and strength increases induced via stretching [17,33]. ...
Purpose: While there is reported superior effectiveness with supervised training, it usually re-quires specialized exercise facilities and instructors. Previous literature reported high volume stretching improved pectoralis muscles strength under supervised conditions while practical rel-evance is discussed. Therefore, the study objective was to compare the effects of volume equated, supervised- and self-administered home-based stretching on strength performance. Methods: Sixty-three recreational participants were equally assigned to either a supervised static stretch-ing, home-based stretching, or control group. The effects of 15 minutes pectoralis stretch; 4 days per week for 8 weeks were assessed on dynamic and isometric bench press strength and force de-velopment. Results: While there was a large magnitude maximal strength increase (p < 0.001 – 0.023, ƞ2= 0.118 – 0.351), force development remained unaffected. Dynamic maximal strength in both groups demonstrated large magnitude increases compared to the control group (p < 0.001 – 0.001, d=1.227 – 0.905). No differences between intervention group for maximal strength (p = 0.518 – 0.821, d = 0.101-0.322) could be detected. Conclusion: Results could potentially be at-tributed to stretch-induced tension (mechanical overload) with subsequent anabolic adaptations, while alternative explanatory approaches are discussed. Nevertheless, home-based stretching seems a practical alternative to supervised training with potential meaningful applications in different settings.
... Takeuchi et al. 27 showed acute muscleÀtendon unit stiffness reduction, which could harm tendon energy storage and, in turn, reduce stretchshortening cycle output by decreasing energy storage and releasing capability. 28,29 In contrast, more frequently suggested stretch-specific effects, such as H-reflexes, exteroceptive (E-) reflexes, muscle spindle-or Golgi-tendon reflexes, remain significantly unchanged or were shown to dissipate within seconds and so were classified as unlikely to affect subsequent performance. 21 However, it is noteworthy that the currently available systematic reviews with meta-analyses 13,14 pooled study effects extracted from uncontrolled (e.g., Refs. ...
When recommending avoidance of static stretching prior to athletic performance, authors and practitioners commonly refer to available systematic reviews. However, effect sizes in previous reviews were in major parts extracted from studies lacking control conditions and/or pre-post testing designs. Also, currently available reviews conducted the calculations without accounting for multiple study outcomes, with effect sizes (ES)=-0.03 – 0.1 that would commonly be classified trivial. Since new meta-analytical software and controlled research articles arose since 2013, we revisited the available literature and performed a multilevel meta-analysis using robust variance estimation of controlled pre-post trials to provide updated evidence of the current state of literature. Furthermore, previous research described reduced EMG activity – also attributable to fatiguing training routines – as being responsible for decreased subsequent performance. The second part of this study opposed stretching and alternative interventions sufficient to induce general fatigue to examine if static stretching induces higher performance losses compared to other exercise routines. Including n=83 studies with more than 400 effect sizes from 2012 participants, our results indicate a significant, small ES for a static stretch-induced maximal strength loss (ES=-0.21, p=0.003), with high magnitude ES (ES=-0.84, p=0.004) for ≥60s stretching durations per bout when compared to passive controls. When opposed to active controls, the maximal strength loss ranges between ES=-0.17 – -0.28, p<0.001 – 0.04 with mostly no to small heterogeneity. However, stretching did not negatively influence athletic performance in general – neither when compared to passive nor active controls – while even a positive effect on subsequent jumping performance (ES=0.15, p=0.006) was found in adults. Regarding strength testing of isolated muscles (e.g., leg extensions or calf raises), our results confirm previous findings. Nevertheless, since no (or even positive) effects could be found for athletic performance, our results do not support previous recommendations to exclude static stretching from warm-up routines prior to, e.g., jumping or sprinting.
... -that in middle-aged persons who regularly engage in physical exercise, and who were detected as research entities, a certain connection between perceived quality of life and preferred lifestyle can be observed. P eriodisation can be defined as a planned distribution of specific variations introduced into training methods at regular time intervals to optimise gains in strength, power, muscular hypertrophy, and motor skills, while at the same time minimising the risks of overtraining (Fleck, 1999;Fleck & Kraemer, 1997;Zatsiorsky, 1995). Physical training should be organised with preplanned, systematic variations in training specificity, intensity and volume in different periods or cycles within the overall training programme for the season (Michalsik, 2015). ...
Background: In 2019, a new type of coronavirus was discovered that caused a new global pandemic within a few
months, affecting all spheres of the world’s population. This coronavirus was named SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19.
Today, this new coronavirus is living with the population with better control and lower death rates among those
who suffer from it. However, this coronavirus continues to be a health problem for a part of the population that
has suffered from the disease, affecting different areas. This is the so-called long-COVID. Aim: To carry out a
bibliometric analysis of the scientific production related to long-COVID, respiratory sequelae and their implication
with the practice of physical activity. Methods: The databases of PubMed, Scopus, Dialnet, and SportDiscus were
reviewed. The results obtained were processed with the bibliographic manager Mendeley Reference Manager and
the Microsoft Excel V. 16.75 spreadsheet for subsequent statistical analysis. Results: Given the topicality of the
subject under study, the search was carried out without time restriction, and a total of 39 articles were selected.
The years with the highest scientific production on the subject studied were 2021 and 2022 (46.15% and 41.03%,
respectively). The scientific production was carried out in 17 different countries headed by Spain and Italy. All
articles were of collaborative authorship between 12.00 and 7.00 authors. Conclusion: It is concluded that there is
a need for more research related to long-COVID and respiratory sequelae associated with physical activity.
... -that in middle-aged persons who regularly engage in physical exercise, and who were detected as research entities, a certain connection between perceived quality of life and preferred lifestyle can be observed. P eriodisation can be defined as a planned distribution of specific variations introduced into training methods at regular time intervals to optimise gains in strength, power, muscular hypertrophy, and motor skills, while at the same time minimising the risks of overtraining (Fleck, 1999;Fleck & Kraemer, 1997;Zatsiorsky, 1995). Physical training should be organised with preplanned, systematic variations in training specificity, intensity and volume in different periods or cycles within the overall training programme for the season (Michalsik, 2015). ...
This study aimed to compare the effect of 8 weeks of different plyometric training volumes on measures of physical fitness in futsal players. The study randomly assigned twenty-six male futsal players into two groups: low-volume plyometric training (LVPT: n=13) and high-volume plyometric training (HVPT: n=13). All subjects participated in an 8-week plyometric training (PT) program, twice a week, with varying training volumes. The LVPT group performed 50-120-foot contact per session, and the HVPT group performed 110-225-foot contact per session for the entire 8-week PT program. Pre- and post-test measurements consist of a countermovement jump to assess power, a 20-meter sprint for speed, and the t-test for agility. The results demonstrated a significant difference in the HVPT group regarding CMJ (p < 0.05), 20-m sprint (p < 0.05), and t-test (p < 0.05) during 8 weeks of plyometric training compared to the LVPT groups. In conclusion, HVPT is suitable for short-term performance enhancement and can be utilized by teams in the pre-season phase to prepare players for high physical demands. In contrast, LVPT is more suitable for gradual strength development and long-term injury risk reduction.
The plyometric training program currently used almost all kinds of sports. Athletes use them to improve their performance in specific movements, such as throws, jumps, starts, etc. Especially basketball is considered a very explosive, dynamic and fast- paced sport in which plyometric training is widely used. For the highest explosive power, two training methods must be recommended: strength and plyometric training. PT is commonly used method for developing of the lower limb explosive power by natural dynamic movements, such as various jump and jumps with counter movement.
Background
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 8-week resistance training with different training volumes on body composition, maximum strength, peak power, and muscle thickness in non-training women.
Methods
This was a 3-arm, prospectively designed, randomized controlled trial. A total of 45 adult women aged 20.7 ± 1 years, the mean heights of the participants were 166 ± 0.07 cm, body weight was measured as 54.5 ± 8.8 kg, and body mass index was 19.9 ± 2.1 kg/m ² . They were randomized to low-volume training resistance training (LVT; n = 15, 3 sessions of 12 exercises per week), moderate-volume training resistance training (MVT; n = 15; 4 sessions of 12 exercises per week), and high-volume resistance training (HVT; n = 15; 5 sessions of 12 exercises per week) for 8 weeks. The muscle thickness (MT) of the vastus lateralis was assessed at baseline and 8 weeks later using a portable ultrasound device.
Results
A total of 39 adult women completed the study, with 2 participants from each group lost to follow-up. All experimental groups 1RM increased ( P = .001, effect size (ES) = 0.463) All groups showed improved muscle thickness (MT) ( P = .001) and CMJ ( P = .004). The group × time interaction is statistically significant ( P = .001) suggests that the changes in muscle thickness over time differ significantly between the different training volume groups (η p ²) is 0.368.
Conclusion
In untrained young women, resistance training improved muscle hypertrophy, maximal strength, power, and body composition in untrained young women. However, 4 sessions MVT per week were superior to LVT and HVT sessions, suggesting a nonlinear dose-response relationship favoring moderate volume over low or high volumes, at least in previously untrained young women.
Trial Registration
ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT06449300)
The present study aimed to investigate the effects of 8 weeks spirulina supplementation and circuit resistance training (CRT) on asprosin, appetite, and energy balance in men with obesity and overweight.
The study comprised a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Sixty men with obesity and overweight (BMI > 25) were selected and randomly divided into four equal groups (n = 15 each) of training plus spirulina, training plus placebo, spirulina, and placebo. The participants of the training groups performed 12 movements with 40–90% maximal repetition (three sessions per week) and the supplemental groups consumed 1000 mg of spirulina per day for 8 weeks. Asprosin, appetite using visual analog scales, calorie intake, energy expenditure, and body composition were measured before and after the intervention. To analyze the data, the paired sample t-test, analysis of covariance, Bonferroni post-hoc, and Pearson correlation tests were employed using SPSS (version 20) at a significance level of p < 0.05.
After the intervention, asprosin level (P = 0.015, P = 0.015, and P = 0.020, respectively), weight (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, and P < 0.001, respectively), calorie intake (P = 0.015, P = 0.011, and P = 0.004, respectively), and hunger (P = 0.011, P = 0.015, and P = 0.015, respectively) declined in the training plus spirulina, training plus placebo, and spirulina groups (p < 0.05). In addition, energy expenditure (P = 0.012 and P = 0.015, respectively) and fullness (P = 0.015 and P = 0.011, respectively) increased in the training plus spirulina and training plus placebo groups. The mean changes of the research indicators in the training plus spirulina group were significantly more than those of the other groups (p < 0.001).
It was shown that 8 weeks of CRT and spirulina supplementation decreases the level of asprosin and improves appetite and energy balance in men with obesity and overweight.
Football players need to be physically fit so that they can run with strength, change directionquickly off the mark to control the game, pass properly, and tackle effectively for the duration of the game.In addition, players need to be able to tackle well for the duration of the game. In addition to having theskills required to play the game, individuals who are interested in playing football need to be inexceptional physical condition in order to participate. Plyometric exercises, as their name suggests, aremeant to aid a muscle in reaching its maximal strength in the quickest length of time possible. Plyometricexercises are often performed in a jumping motion. There is a large variety of different types of physicalactivities that may be done in addition to jumping, which is the primary focus of the vast majority of theexercises in this category. The phrase measurable growth derives from a combination of two Latinwords increase and measure. Both the English term measure and the Latin word increase havetheir origins in the Latin language.
Background
High-Intensity Multimodal Training (HIMT) refers to all styles of high-intensity combined aerobic, resistance and/or bodyweight exercise. Previous heterogeneity in exercise prescription and reporting in HIMT reduces the understanding of which factors should be considered when prescribing HIMT (e.g., exercise volume, intensity, duration). Previous studies have demonstrated positive effects of HIMT on health and performance outcomes. However, methodological disparities limit comparisons between findings. The objective of this systematic mapping review was to examine which prescriptive considerations and health and performance outcomes have been reported on in HIMT. This review also examined the quantity and trends of research conducted on HIMT.
Methods
A systematic literature search was conducted using Ovid Medline, SPORTDiscus and Cochrane Library databases and additional sources to identify studies up until February 2023. A total of 37,090 records were retrieved, of which 220 were included for review. 246 individual HIMT protocols were included for categorical analysis against the Consensus on Exercise Reporting Template (CERT) and Applied Research Model for the Sport Sciences (ARMSS).
Results
A total of 85 unique terms were used to describe HIMT. Included studies most commonly prescribed HIMT using a consistent exercise selection and circuit format. Exercise intensity was inconsistently reported on and a large proportion of studies prescribed ‘high-intensity’ exercise at a level lower than the American College of Sports Medicine criteria for high-intensity (i.e., < 77% heart rate maximum). Participation location, supervision and participation format were the most commonly reported non-training variables. The most frequently reported outcomes were cardiovascular health, perceptual outcomes, body composition and biochemical outcomes. A large proportion of previous HIMT research was experimental in design.
Conclusions
Previous HIMT research demonstrates a lack of standardisation in reporting. Future studies should seek to follow guidelines (i.e., CERT) to improve reporting rigour. Additionally, forthcoming research should attempt to actively involve practitioners in implementation studies to improve ecological validity among interventions. Finally, future outcome measures should be accessible in practice and reflect common training goals of participants.
Registration
This review adhered to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Preregistration: osf.io/yknq4.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui ada tidaknya hubungan daya ledak otot tungkai dengan hasil smash open spike pada peserta ekstrakurikuler bola voli putri di SMAN 1 Tanjungsari Tahun 2023/2024.
Penelitian ini menggunakan desain penelitian kuantitatif dengan metode korelasional. Populasi dan sampel penelitian terdiri dari 15 siswi yang aktif mengikuti ekstrakurikuler bola voli putri. Daya ledak otot tungkai diukur menggunakan tes vertical jump, sedangkan hasil smash open spike diukur menggunakan battery test smash bola voli. Data yang terkumpul dianalisis menggunakan uji korelasi Pearson.
Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan daya ledak otot tungkai dengan hasil smash open spike bola voli, dapat diketahui bahwa nilai pearson correlation daya ledak otot tungkai dan hasil smash open spike adalah 0,809 maka keeratan hubungan antar variabel memiliki tingkat hubungan yang sangat kuat. Nilai signifikansi yang dihasilkan <0,01 atau lebih kecil dari 0,05. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa daya ledak otot tungkai memiliki kontribusi yang positif dengan hasil smash open spike peserta ekstrakurikuler bola voli putri di SMAN 1 Tanjungsari. Keadaan ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin baik daya ledak otot tungkai maka semakin baik pula hasil smash open spike bola voli.
Kata Kunci : Daya Ledak Otot Tungkai, Smash Open Spike, Permainan Bola Voli
Osteosarcopenia e Intervención Multidisciplinaria es una obra inédita que aspira a convertirse en una guía esencial para comprender, detectar y enfrentar la osteosarcopenia desde un abordaje multidisciplinario. Con diez capítulos redactados de manera clara y concreta logra fusionar el conocimiento científico con estrategias prácticas, en donde cada capítulo ofrece una mirada completa a este fenómeno complejo.
El libro comienza revisando la importancia de la nutrición, destacando el papel crucial del nutricionista en la prevención y tratamiento de la osteosarcopenia. Luego continúa explorando los efectos de esta condición en la región craneocervicomandibular, poniendo de relieve aspectos que a menudo pasamos por alto, como la masticación y la función oral. La rehabilitación, la práctica del ejercicio físico y la terapia ocupacional se presentan como elementos clave para mejorar la funcionalidad motriz y la calidad de vida de quienes enfrentan esta realidad. Este libro va más allá, al abordar el papel educativo del profesorado de Educación Física y la prevención en mujeres durante el climaterio, resaltando la importancia de identificar tempranamente y abordar factores de riesgo. La dimensión psicológica de la osteosarcopenia y un análisis farmacológico detallado completan esta obra multidisciplinaria.
Escrito con rigurosidad científica, pero manteniendo la accesibilidad, este libro aspira a convertirse en un recurso esencial tanto para estudiantes como para profesionales vinculados a la atención de personas mayores al ofrecer un valioso aporte a la atención integral de las personas con osteosarcopenia en Chile para el logro del envejecimiento saludable.
The pelvic floor and its associated disorders are a unique and often overlooked aspect of women's rugby. This review discusses relevant biopsychosocial considerations specific to the pelvic floor and rugby. Pelvic floor disorders can present at any time across the female lifespan but are more prevalent during pregnancy and postpartum. This is due to the substantial physiological and anatomical changes experienced during pregnancy and vaginal childbirth. Consequently, pelvic floor disorders can impact a player's ability to perform, maintain engagement with, or return to, rugby due to symptoms. Players need to be informed, supported, and guided through focused pelvic floor muscle training to condition the muscles and ‘ready’ them for the varied demands of rugby. Health and fitness professionals should understand the risk of pelvic floor disorders across the female lifespan and screen players for symptoms when supporting them to maintain or return to rugby. Rugby players who are symptomatic of pelvic floor disorders should be signposted to specialist services and/or resources to manage their symptoms. Once engaging in rugby training, ongoing evaluation of player load tolerance and implementation of individualized strategies to support managing rugby‐related loads to the pelvic floor should be considered. Finally, surveillance and research focusing specifically on rugby players and pelvic floor function are needed.
Conditioning and rehabilitation are sometimes viewed as two distinct processes in the healing of sports injuries. For targeted return to sport training, an athlete often moves from the rehabilitation setting under the supervision of an athletic trainer, physical therapist, or both to the strength and conditioning coach. It's well known that these two aspects of returning to sport have different objectives. Because the period of their application encompasses distinct stages of recovery following an accident, the initial aims of each are frequently different. Post-injury rehabilitation's primary goals are to reduce dysfunction, promote tissue healing, and offer a methodical progression of strength and range of motion. Specific return-to-play objectives are crucial throughout the recovery-to-function stages. While creating and carrying out an athlete's rehabilitation program, a thorough understanding of particular guidelines and program specifications is required. It is imperative that all those providing care for the athlete work together and interact with each other. This study aims to present the data that currently supports the application of training principles in sports recovery and offer recommendations for how these principles may be used at various stages of a planned rehabilitation program.
Osteosarcopenia e Intervención Multidisciplinaria es una obra inédita que aspira a convertirse en una guía esencial para comprender, detectar y enfrentar la osteosarcopenia desde un abordaje multidisciplinario. Con diez capítulos redactados de manera clara y concreta logra fusionar el conocimiento científico con estrategias prácticas, en donde cada capítulo ofrece una mirada completa a este fenómeno complejo.
El libro comienza revisando la importancia de la nutrición, destacando el papel crucial del nutricionista en la prevención y tratamiento de la osteosarcopenia. Luego continúa explorando los efectos de esta condición en la región craneocervicomandibular, poniendo de relieve aspectos que a menudo pasamos por alto, como la masticación y la función oral. La rehabilitación, la práctica del ejercicio físico y la terapia ocupacional se presentan como elementos clave para mejorar la funcionalidad motriz y la calidad de vida de quienes enfrentan esta realidad. Este libro va más allá, al abordar el papel educativo del profesorado de Educación Física y la prevención en mujeres durante el climaterio, resaltando la importancia de identificar tempranamente y abordar factores de riesgo. La dimensión psicológica de la osteosarcopenia y un análisis farmacológico detallado completan esta obra multidisciplinaria.
Escrito con rigurosidad científica pero manteniendo la accesibilidad, este libro aspira a convertirse en un recurso esencial tanto para estudiantes como para profesionales vinculados a la atención de personas mayores al ofrecer un valioso aporte a la atención integral de las personas con osteosarcopenia en Chile para el logro del envejecimiento saludable.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.