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How to Read and Interpret FTIR Spectroscope of Organic Material

April 2019
Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology 4(1):97-118

DOI:10.17509/ijost.v4i1.15806

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CC BY-SA 4.0

Authors:

Asep Nandiyanto

Indonesia University of Education

Risti Ragadhita

Indonesia University of Education

Ijost Ijost

Indonesia University of Education

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) has been developed as a tool for the simultaneous determination of organic components, including chemical bond, as well as organic content (e.g., protein, carbohydrate, and lipid). However, until now, there is no further documents for describing the detailed information in the FTIR peaks. The objective of this study was to demonstrate how to read and assess chemical bond and structure of organic material in the FTIR, in which the analysis results were then compared with the literatures. The step-by-step method on how to read the FTIR data was also presented, including reviewing simple to the complex organic materials. This study is potential to be used as a standard information on how to read FTIR peaks in the biochemical and organic materials. .

Example of FTIR spectra 1. Adopted from: Coates (2000)

…

Example of FTIR spectra 2. Adopted from: Coates (2000)

…

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97| Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology,Volume 4 Issue 1, April 2019 Page 97-118

| DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ijost.v4i1.15806

| p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045

How to Read and Interpret FTIR Spectroscope of Organic

Material

Asep Bayu Dani Nandiyanto, Rosi Oktiani, Risti Ragadhita

Departemen Kimia, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Jl. Dr. Setiabudi no 229 Bandung 40154, Indonesia

Correspondence: E-mail: nandiyanto@upi.edu

A B S T R A C T S

A R T I C L E I N F O

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) has been developed as a

tool for the simultaneous determination of organic

components, including chemical bond, as well as organic

content (e.g., protein, carbohydrate, and lipid). However,

until now, there is no further documents for describing the

detailed information in the FTIR peaks. The objective of this

study was to demonstrate how to read and assess chemical

bond and structure of organic material in the FTIR, in which

the analysis results were then compared with the literatures.

The step-by-step method on how to read the FTIR data was

also presented, including reviewing simple to the complex

organic materials. This study is potential to be used as a

standard information on how to read FTIR peaks in the

biochemical and organic materials.

Article History:

Received 10 Jan 2019

Revised 20 Jan 2019

Accepted 31 Aug 2019

Available online 09 Apr 2019

____________________

Keywords:

FTIR,

infrared spectrum,

organic material,

chemical bond,

organic structure.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) is one

of the important analytical techniques for

researchers. This type of analysis can be used

for characterizing samples in the forms of

liquids, solutions, pastes, powders, films,

fibers, and gases. This analysis is also possible

for analyzing material on the surfaces of

substrate (Fan et al., 2012). Compared to

other types of characterization analysis, FTIR

is quite popular. This characterization

analysis is quite rapid, good in accuracy, and

relatively sensitive (Jaggi and Vij, 2006).

In the FTIR analysis procedure, samples

are subjected to contact with infrared (IR)

radiation. The IR radiations then have

impacts on the atomic vibrations of a

molecule in the sample, resulting the specific

absorption and/or transmission of energy.

This makes the FTIR useful for determining

specific molecular vibrations contained in the

sample (Kirk and Othmer, 1953).

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Many techniques for explaining in detail

regarding the FTIR analysis have been

reported (Coates, 2000; Jaggi and Vij, 2006;

Kirk and Othmer, 1953). However, most

papers did not report in detail about how to

read and interpret the FTIR results. In fact,

the way to understand in detail for beginner

scientists and students are inevitable.

This report was to discuss and explain

how to read and interpret FTIR data in the

organic material. The analysis was then

compared with the literatures. The step-by-

step method on how to read the FTIR data

was presented, including reviewing simple to

the complex organic materials.

As a model of complex organic materials,

Lumbricus rubellus (LR) was used. LR has

quite high protein (64-76%), fat (7-10%),

calcium (0.55%), phosphorus (1%), and crude

fiber (1.08%) (Istiqomah et al., 1958). LR also

has at least 9 types of essential amino acids

and 4 types of non-essential amino acids

(Desi, 2016; Istiqomah et al., 1958). As a

consequence, LR is classified as one of the

most complex organic materials. To ensure

the effectiveness in the step-by-step reading

procedure, various samples of LR that were

heated at specific temperatures were also

analyzed since LR is vulnerable against heat.

We believe that this paper can be used as a

basic knowledge for students and beginner

scientists in comprehending and interpreting

FTIR data.

2. CURRENT KNOWLEDGE FOR

UNDERSTANDING FTIR SPECTRUM

2.1. Spectrum in the FTIR analysis result.

The main idea gained from the FTIR

analysis is to understand what the meaning

of the FTIR spectrum (see example FTIR

spectrum in Figure 1). The spectrum can

result “absorption versus wavenumber” or

“transmission versus wavenumber” data. In

this paper, we discuss only the “absorption

versus wavenumber” curves.

In short, the IR spectrum is divided into

three wavenumber regions: far-IR spectrum

(<400 cm-1), mid-IR spectrum (400-4000 cm-

1), and near-IR spectrum (4000-13000 cm-1).

The mid-IR spectrum is the most widely used

in the sample analysis, but far- and near-IR

spectrum also contribute in providing

information about the samples analyzed. This

study focused on the analysis of FTIR in the

mid-IR spectrum.

The mid-IR spectrum is divided into four

regions:

(i) the single bond region (2500-4000 cm-1),

(ii) the triple bond region (2000-2500 cm-1),

(iii) the double bond region (1500-2000 cm-

1), and

(iv) the fingerprint region (600-1500 cm-1).

The schematic IR spectrum is available in

Figure 1, and the specific frequency of each

functional groups is available in Table 1.

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Functional group/assignment

Wavenumber (cm-1)

1. Saturated Aliphatic (alkene/alkyl)

a) Methyl (−CH3)

Methyl C-H asym./sym. Stretch

2970–2950/2880–2860

Methyl C-H asym./sym. Bend

1470–1430/1380–1370

gem-Dimethyl or ‘‘iso’’- (doublet)

1385–1380/1370–1365

Trimethyl or ‘‘tert-butyl’’ (multiplet)

1395–1385/1365

b) Methylene (>CH2)

Methylene C-H asym./sym. Stretch

2935–2915/2865–2845

Methylene C-H bend

1485–1445

Methylene ―(CH2)n― rocking (n ≥ 3)

750–720

Cyclohexane ring vibrations

1055–1000/1005–925

c) Methyne (>CH−)

Methyne C-H stretch

2900–2880

Methyne C-H bend

1350–1330

Skeletal C-C vibrations

1300–700

d) Special methyl (−CH3) frequencies

Methoxy, methyl ether O-CH3, C-H stretch

2850–2815

Methylamino, N-CH3, C-H stretch

2820–2780

Figure 1. Mid-IR spectrum regions

Table 1. Functional group and its quantified frequencies. Data was adopted

from reference (Coates, 2000)

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Functional group/assignment

Wavenumber (cm-1)

2. Olefinic (alkene)

Alkenyl C=C stretch

1680–1620

Aryl-substituted C=C

1625

Conjugated C=C

1600

Terminal (vinyl) C-H stretch

3095–3075

3040–3010

Pendant (vinylidene) C-H stretch

3095–3075

Medial, cis- or trans-C-H stretch

3040–3010

Table 1 (continue). Functional group and its quantified frequencies. Data was adopted from

reference (Coates, 2000)

Functional group/assignment

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Vinyl C-H in-plane bend

1420–1410

Vinylidene C-H in-plane bend

1310–1290

Vinyl C-H out-of-plane bend

995–985 + 915–890

Vinylidene C-H out-of-plane bend

895–885

trans-C-H out-of-plane bend

970–960

cis-C-H out-of-plane bend

700 (broad)

3. Olefinic (alkene)

Alkenyl C=C stretch

1680–1620

Aryl-substituted C=C

1625

Conjugated C=C

1600

Terminal (vinyl) C-H stretch

3095–3075

3040–3010

Pendant (vinylidene) C-H stretch

3095–3075

Medial, cis- or trans-C-H stretch

3040–3010

Vinyl C-H in-plane bend

1420–1410

Vinylidene C-H in-plane bend

1310–1290

Vinyl C-H out-of-plane bend

995–985 + 915–890

Vinylidene C-H out-of-plane bend

895–885

trans-C-H out-of-plane bend

970–960

cis-C-H out-of-plane bend

700 (broad)

4. Aromatic ring (aryl)

C=C-C Aromatic ring stretch

1615–1580

1510–1450

Aromatic C-H stretch

3130–3070

Aromatic C-H in-plane bend

1225–950 (several)

Aromatic C-H out-of-plane bend

900–670 (several)

C-H Monosubstitution (phenyl)

770–730 + 710–690

C-H 1,2-Disubstitution (ortho)

770–735

C-H 1,3-Disubstitution (meta)

810–750 + 900–860

C-H 1,4-Disubstitution (para)

860–800

Aromatic combination bands

2000–1660 (several)

Table 1 (continue). Functional group and its quantified frequencies. Data

was adopted from reference (Coates, 2000)

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Functional group/assignment

Wavenumber (cm-1)

5. Acetylenic(alkyne)

C≡C Terminal alkyne (monosubstituted)

2140–2100

C≡C Medial alkyne (disubstituted)

2260–2190

Alkyne C-H stretch

3320–3310

Alkyne C-H bend

680–610

Alkyne C-H bend

630 (typical)

6. Aliphatic organohalogen compound

Aliphatic fluoro compounds, C-F stretch

1150–1000

Aliphatic chloro compounds, C-Cl stretch

800–700

Aliphatic bromo compounds, C-Br stretch

700–600

Aliphatic iodo compounds, C-I stretch

600–500

7. Alcohol and hydroxy compound

Hydroxy group, H-bonded OH stretch

3570–3200 (broad)

Normal ‘‘polymeric’’ OH stretch

3400–3200

Dimeric OH stretch

3550–3450

Internally bonded OH stretch

3570–3540

Nonbonded hydroxy group, OH stretch

3645–3600 (narrow)

Primary alcohol, OH stretch

3645–3630

Secondary alcohol, OH stretch

3635–3620

Tertiary alcohol, OH stretch

3620–3540

Phenols, OH stretch

3640–3530

Primary or secondary, OH in-plane bend

1350–1260

Phenol or tertiary alcohol, OH bend

1410–1310

Alcohol, OH out-of-plane bend

720–590

Primary alcohol, C-O stretch

~1050

Secondary alcohol, C-O stretch

~1100

Tertiary alcohol, C-O stretch

~1150

Phenol, C-O stretch

~1200

8. Ether and oxy compound

Methoxy, C-H stretch (CH3-O-)

2820–2810

Alkyl-substituted ether, C-O stretch

1150–1050

Cyclic ethers, large rings, C-O stretch

1140–1070

Aromatic ethers, aryl -O stretch

1270–1230

Epoxy and oxirane rings

~1250 + 890–8001)

Peroxides, C-O-O- stretch

890–8201)

Table 1 (continue). Functional group and its quantified frequencies. Data

was adopted from reference (Coates, 2000)

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Functional group/assignment

Wavenumber (cm-1)

9. Ether and oxy compound

Methoxy, C-H stretch (CH3-O-)

2820–2810

Alkyl-substituted ether, C-O stretch

1150–1050

Cyclic ethers, large rings, C-O stretch

1140–1070

Aromatic ethers, aryl -O stretch

1270–1230

Epoxy and oxirane rings

~1250 + 890–8001)

Peroxides, C-O-O- stretch

890–8201)

a) Primary amino

Aliphatic primary amine, NH stretch

3400–3380 + 3345–3325

Aromatic primary amine, NH stretch

3510–3460 + 3415–3380

Primary amine, NH bend

1650–1590

Primary amine, CN stretch

1090–1020

b) Secondary amino

Aliphatic secondary amine, >N-H stretch

3360–3310

Aromatic secondary amine, >N-H stretch

~3450

Heterocyclic amine, >N-H stretch

3490–3430

Imino compounds, =N-H stretch

3350–3320

Secondary amine, >N-H bend

1650–1550

Secondary amine, CN stretch

1190–1130

c) Tertiary amino

Tertiary amine, CN stretch

1210–1150

d) Aromatic amino

Aromatic primary amine, CN stretch

1340–1250

Aromatic secondary amine, CN stretch

1350–1280

Aromatic tertiary amine, CN stretch

1360–1310

10. Carbonyl compound

Carboxylate (carboxylic acid salt)

1610–1550/1420–1300

Amide

1680–1630

Quinone or conjugated ketone

1690–1675/(1650–1600)2)

Carboxylic acid

1725–1700

Ketone

1725–1705

Aldehyde

1740–1725/(2800–2700)3)

Ester

1750–1725

Six-membered ring lactone

1735

Alkyl carbonate

1760–1740

Acid (acyl) halide

1815–1770

Aryl carbonate

1820–1775

Five-membered ring anhydride

1870–1820/1800–1775

Transition metal carbonyls

2100–1800

Table 1 (continue). Functional group and its quantified frequencies. Data

was adopted from reference (Coates, 2000)

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Functional group/assignment

Wavenumber (cm-1)

11. Nitrogen multiple and cumulated double bond compound

Aliphatic cyanide/nitrile

2280–2240

Aromatic cyanide/nitrile

2240–2220

Cyanate (-OCN and C-OCN stretch)

2260–2240/1190–1080

Isocyanate (-N=C=O asym. stretch)

2276–2240

Thiocyanate (-SCN)

2175–2140

Isothiocyanate (-NCS)

2150–1990

Open-chain imino (-C=N-)

1690–1590

Open-chain azo (-N=N-)

1630–1575

12. Simple hetero-oxy compounds

a) Nitrogen-oxy compounds

Aliphatic nitro compounds

1560–1540/1380–13504)

Organic nitrates

1640–1620/1285–12704)

Aromatic nitro compounds

1555–1485/1355–13204)

b) Phosphorus-oxy compounds

Organic phosphates (P=O stretch)

1350–1250

Aliphatic phosphates (P-O-C stretch)

1050–990

Aromatic phosphates (P-O-C stretch)

1240–1190/995–850

c) Sulfur-oxy compounds

Dialkyl/aryl sulfones

1335–1300/1170–11354)

Organic sulfates

1420–1370/1200–11804)

Sulfonates

1365–1340/1200–11004)

d) Silicon-oxy compounds

Organic siloxane or silicone (Si-O-Si)

1095–1075/1055–1020

Organic siloxane or silicone (Si-O-C)

1110–1080

13. Thiols and thio-substituted compounds

Thiols (S-H stretch)

2600–2550

Thiol or thioether, CH2-S-(C-S stretch)

710–685

Thioethers, CH3-S-(C-S stretch)

660–630

Aryl thioethers, ø-S (C-S stretch)

715–670

Disulfides (C-S stretch)

705–570

Disulfides (S-S stretch)

620–600

Aryl disulfides (S-S stretch)

500–430

Polysulfides (S-S stretch)

500–470

14. Common inorganic ions

Carbonate ion

1490–1410/880–8605)

Sulfate ion

1130–1080/680–6105)

Nitrate ion

1380–1350/840–8155)

Phosphate ion

1100–1000

Ammonium ion

3300–3030/1430–13905)

Cyanide ion, thiocyanate ion, and related ions

2200–2000

Silicate ion

1100–900

Note: 1) Normally, it is very weak in the infrared but more characteristic in the Raman spectrum; 2)Lower frequency band

because of the conjugated double bond; 3)Higher frequency band characteristic of aldehydes, related with the

terminal aldehydic C-H stretch; 4)Asymmetric/symmetric XO2 stretch (NO2 and SO2); 5)Normally, the first

absorption is intense and broad, and the second has weak to medium intensity and narrow. The both often exist

as multiple band structures, and it may be used to characterize individual compounds.

Table 1 (continue). Functional group and its quantified frequencies. Data

was adopted from reference (Coates, 2000)

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2.2. Step-by-step Analysis Procedure.

There are five steps to interpret FTIR:

1. Step 1: Identification of number of

absorption bands in the entire IR spectrum. If

the sample has a simple spectrum (has less

than 5 absorption bands, the compounds

analyzed are simple organic compounds,

small mass molecular weight, or inorganic

compounds (such as simple salts). But, if the

FTIR spectrum has more than 5 absorption

bands, the sample can be a complex

molecule.

2. Step 2: Identifying single bond area (2500-

4000 cm-1). There are several peaks in this

area:

(1) A broad absorption band in the range of

between 3650 and 3250 cm-1, indicating

hydrogen bond. This band confirms the

existence of hydrate (H2O), hydroxyl (-

OH), ammonium, or amino. For hydroxyl

compound, it should be followed by the

presence of spectra at frequencies of

1600–1300, 1200–1000 and 800–600

cm-1. However, if there is a sharp

intensity absorption in the absorption

areas of 3670 and 3550 cm-1, it allows

the compound to contain an oxygen-

related group, such as alcohol or phenol

(illustrates the absence of hydrogen

bonding).

(2) A narrow band at above 3000 cm-1,

indicating unsaturated compounds or

aromatic rings. For example, the

presence of absorption in the

wavenumber of between 3010 and

3040 cm-1 confirms the existence of

simple unsaturated olefinic compounds.

(3) A narrow band at below 3000 cm-1,

showing aliphatic compounds. For

example, absorption band for long-

chain linear aliphatic compounds is

identified at 2935 and 2860 cm-1. The

bond will be followed by peaks at

between 1470 and 720 cm-1.

(4) Specific peak for Aldehyde at between

2700 and 2800 cm-1.

3. Step 3: Identifying the triple bond region

(2000-2500 cm-1)

For example, if there is a peak at 2200 cm-1,

it should be absorption band of C≡C. The

peak is usually followed by the presence of

additional spectra at frequencies of 1600–

1300, 1200–1000 and 800–600 cm-1.

4. Step 4: Identifying the double bond region

(1500-2000 cm-1)

Double bound can be as carbonyl (C = C),

imino (C = N), and azo (N = N) groups.

(1) 1850 - 1650 cm-1for carbonyl

compounds

(2) Above 1775 cm-1, informing active

carbonyl groups such as anhydrides,

halide acids, or halogenated carbonyl,

or ring-carbonyl carbons, such as

lactone, or organics carbonate.

(3) Range of between 1750 and 1700 cm-

1, describing simple carbonyl

compounds such as ketones,

aldehydes, esters, or carboxyl.

(4) Below 1700 cm-1, replying amides or

carboxylates functional group.

(5) If there is a conjugation with another

carbonyl group, the peak intensities

for double bond or aromatic

compound will be reduced.

Therefore, the presence of

conjugated functional groups such as

aldehydes, ketones, esters, and

carboxylic acids can reduce the

frequency of carbonyl absorption.

(6) 1670 - 1620 cm-1for unsaturation

bond (double and triple bond).

Specifically, the peak at 1650 cm-1is

for double bond carbon or olefinic

compounds (C = C). Typical

conjugations with other double bond

structures such as C = C, C = O or

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aromatic rings will reduce the

intensity frequency with intense or

strong absorption bands. When

diagnosing unsaturated bonds, it is

also necessary to check absorption

below 3000 cm-1. If the absorption

band is identified at 3085 and 3025

cm-1, it is intended for C-H. Normally

C-H has absorption above 3000 cm-1.

(7) Strong intensity at between 1650 and

1600 cm-1, informing double bonds or

aromatic compounds.

(8) Between 1615 and 1495 cm-1,

responding aromatic rings. They

appeared as two sets of absorption

bands around 1600 and 1500 cm-1.

These aromatic rings usually followed

by the existence of weak to moderate

absorption in the area of between

3150 and 3000 cm-1(for C-H

stretching).

For the simple aromatic compounds,

several bands can be also observed

between 2000 and 1700 cm-1in the

form of multiple bands with a weak

intensity. It is also support the

aromatic ring absorption band (at

1600/1500 cm-1absorption

frequency), namely C-H bending

vibration with the intensity of

medium absorption to strong which

sometimes has single or multiple

absorption bands found in the area

between 850 and 670 cm-1.

5. Step 5: Identifying the fingerprint region

(600-1500 cm-1)

This area is typically specific and unique.

See detailed information in Table 1. But,

several identification can be found:

(1) Between 1000 and 880 cm-1 for

multiple band absorption, there are

absorption bands at 1650, 3010, and

3040 cm-1.

(2) For C-H (out-of-plane bending), it

should be combined with absorption

bands at 1650, 3010, and 3040 cm-1

which show characteristics of

compound unsaturation.

(3) Regarding vinyl-related compound,

about 900 and 990 cm-1 for identifing

vinyl terminals (-CH=CH2), between

965 and 960 cm-1 for trans unsatrated

vinyl (CH=CH), and about 890 cm-1 for

double olefinic bonds in single vinyl

(C=CH2).

(4) Regarding aromatic compound, a

single and strong absorption band is

around 750 cm-1 for orto and 830 cm-

1 for para.

3. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

To understand how to read and interpret

the FTIR analysis, the present study used

several FTIR patterns. Two FTIR patterns

were obtained from reference (Coates, 2000)

(as a standard comparison) and the others

are from LR microparticles.

In short of the experimental procedure

for the preparation of LR microparticles, LR

was obtained and purchased from CV

Bengkel dan Agrobisnis, Indonesia. Prior to

using, LR was washed in warm water

(temperature of 40°C) for several hours. The

washed LR was then dried at 70°C for about

15 minutes in the electrical drier. The dried

LR was then put into a batch-typed saw-

milling apparatus, in which the saw-milling

process was explained in our previous study

(Nandiyanto et al., 2018a). Then, for

evaluating the formation of carbon particles

from LR, 0.360 g of saw-milled LR was put

into an electrical furnace and heated in the

atmospheric condition under a fixed

condition: a heating rate of 50°C/min and a

holding time at a specific temperature for 30

min. To obtain the clear evaluation in the

transformation of LR into carbon particles,

heating temperatures were varied from 80 to

250°C in a small step of almost every 10°C.

The heated material was subsequently

cooled to room temperature with a cooling

rate of 50°C/min. To support the FTIR

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analysis, FTIR (FTIR-4600, Jasco Corp., Japan)

was utilized.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. FTIR analysis of sample gained from

literature

Figure 2 shows the analysis of 2-

propanone. To understand the appearance

peaks in the FTIR below, step-by-step process

can be used. The results can be concluded as

follows:

(1) Regarding the number of peaks, there

are more than five peaks, informing that

the analyzed chemical is not a simple

chemical.

(2) The peaks contained single bond area

(2500-4000 cm-1).

- No broad absorption band was found,

informing there is no hydrogen bond

in the material.

- There is a sharp bond at about 3500

cm-1, replying the existence of

oxygen-related bonding.

- No other peaks between 3000 and

3200 cm-1 was found, informing there

is no aromatic structure

- Narrow bond at less than 3000 cm-1

responded to the C-C bond.

- No specific peak for aldehyde has

been found at between 2700 and

2800 cm-1.

(3) No triple bond region (2000-2500 cm-1)

was detected, informing no C≡C bond in

the material.

(4) Regarding the double bond region

(1500-2000 cm-1), there is a huge and

sharp peak was detected at about 1700

cm-1. This informs some carbonyl double

bond, which can be from ketones,

aldehydes, esters, or carboxyl. Since

there is no specific peak for aldehyde at

between 2700 and 2800 cm-1 (as

desribed in the previous step), the

prospective peak for carbonyl should be

from ketone. No peak at about 1600 cm-

1, informing there is no C=C bonding in

the material.

(5) Based on above interpretation,

several conclusions can be obtained,

including the analyzed material has no

hydrate component. This material has

ketones-related component, no

double or triple bond in the material.

Since the peaks were only about 10

peaks, the material should be a small

organic compound.

(6) The other example in the FTIR analysis

is shown in Figure 3. This figure is the

FTIR analysis result of toluene

Figure 2. Example of FTIR spectra 1. Adopted from: Coates (2000)

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(7) The result showed that a lot of numbers

of peaks were detected, informing the

complex structure material

(8) In the single bond area (2500-4000 cm-1),

several peaks were detected.

- No broad absorption band in the range

of between 3650 and 3250 cm-1,

indicating no hydrogen bond.

- Peaks at between 3000 and 3200 cm-1,

replying the aromatic ring.

- Peaks at below 3000 cm-1, responding

the single bond of carbon.

- No aldehyde peak was detected at

between 2700 and 2800 cm-1.

(9) Regarding the triple bond region (2000-

2500 cm-1), no peak was detected,

informing no C≡C bonding.

(10) In the double bond region (1500-2000

cm-1), several peaks were detected:

- Above 1775 cm-1, informing active

carbonyl groups, in which this should

be from ring-carbonyl carbons.

- Range of between 1750 and 1700 cm-1,

describing simple carbonyl

compounds, in which this is due to the

bonding between methyl (CH3) to the

benzene ring.

- Huge band at about 1600 cm-1,

informing double bonds or aromatic

compounds.

(11) In the fingerprint region (600-1500 cm1),

strong signal was found at about 1500

cm-1 (informing aromatic ring). Vinyl-

related compound was also found at

about 1000 cm-1.

Based on the above analysis, the analysis

showed that the material has aromatic ring,

and simple functional bonding (methyl). This

is in a good agreement with the chemical

compound of toluene.

4.2. FTIR analysis of the LR microparticles

FTIR analysis results of saw-milled LR

particles are shown in Figure 4. This figure

shows the change of FTIR peak and pattern.

There is a change in the peaks after the

heating process. Informing there is a change

in the chemical structure. In short, since LR is

vulnerable against heat, this should be the

decomposition of organic component into

carbon material. The change in the FTIR peak

and pattern was found when heating at

temperature that higher than 180°C, in which

the FTIR pattern was near to the carbon as

explained in the literature (Nandiyanto et al.,

2016, Nandiyanto et al., 2017).

Using above interpreting method and

compared to the literature for some organic

material, ftir peaks are shown in Table 2. The

results shows that these peaks contained

several organic materials. This can be used as

a standard ftir peaks for organic materials,

related to protein, carbohydrate, fat, etc.

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Figure 3. Example of FTIR spectra 2. Adopted from: Coates (2000)

Figure 4. FTIR analysis results of saw-milled LR heated with various temperatures

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No Wavenumber Assignment Possible

nutrient type Ref.

Exp. Lit.

1 601 600-608 CH out-of-plane bending

vibrations

Organic material (Chiang et al., 1999)

Ring deformation of phenyl

(Schulz and Baranska,

2007)

2 929** about 930

carbon-related component

Carbon (Nandiyanto et al., 2016,

Nandiyanto et al., 2017)

3 1051 1045-1053 Gives an estimate carbohydrate

concentrations (lower in

malignant cells)

Carbohydrate (Huleihel et al.,

2002,Mordechai et al.,

2001)

C-O-O-C

(Paluszkiewicz and

Kwiatek, 2001)

C-O stretching coupled with C-O

bending of the C-OH of

carbohydrates

(Wang et al., 1997)

Glycogen (Wood et al., 1998)

C-O-C stretching (nucleic acids

and phospholipids), C-O-C

stretching of DNA and RNA

(Fabian et al., 1995)

Indicates a degree of oxidative

damage to DNA

(Andrus and Strickland,

1998)

Phosphate, oligosaccharides,

PO2- stretching modes, P-O-C

antisymmetric stretching mode of

phosphate ester, and C-OH

stretching of oligosaccharides

(Yoshida et al., 1997)

Phosphate I band for two

different C-O vibrations of

deoxyribose in DNA in A and B

forms of helix or ordering

structure

(Dovbeshko et al., 2002)

C-O in carbohydrates (Fung et al., 1996)

Table 2. FTIR peaks identified in LR

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Wavenumber

Assignment

Possible nutrient

type

Ref.

Exp.

Lit.

1160

1159-

1164

C-O of proteins and

carbohydrates, stretching

modes of the C-OH groups of

serine, threonine, and tyrosine

residues of cellular proteins,

hydrogen-bonded stretching

mode of C-OH groups

Protein (serine,

threosine, and

tyrosine) and

collagen

(Fung et al., 1996)

CO stretching, stretching

vibrations of hydrogen-bonding

C-OH groups

(Wang et al., 1997)

Mainly from the C-O stretching

mode of C-OH groups of serine,

threosine, and tyrosine of

proteins

(Fujioka et al.,

2004)

C-C, C-OH, C-O stretching

(Wong et al., 1993,

Yang et al., 2005)

C-O-C, ring (polysaccharides,

cellulose)

(Shetty et al.,

2006)

CH deformations

(Schulz and

Baranska, 2007)

C-O stretching band of collagen

(type I)

(Fukuyama et al.,

1999)

Mainly from the C-O stretching

mode of C-OH groups of serine,

threosine, and tyrosine of

proteins

(Yang et al., 2005)

n(CC), d(COH), n(CO) stretching

(Lucassen et al.,

1998, Yang et al.,

2005)

C-O stretching (in normal tissue)

(Rigas et al., 1990)

Table 2 (continue). FTIR peaks identified in LR

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No Wavenumber Assignment Possible nutrient

type Ref.

Exp. Lit.

5 1233 1230-

1238

Stretching PO2- asymmetric

Protein (Amide III) (Chiriboga et al.,

1998, Dovbeshko

et al., 2002)

Overlapping of the protein

amide III and the nucleic acid

phosphate vibration, composed

of amide III as well as phosphate

vibration of nucleic acids, amide

III

(Chiriboga et al.,

1998)

C-H component

(Schulz and

Baranska, 2007)

Amide III and asymmetric

phosphodiester stretching mode

(PO2-), mainly from the nucleic

acids

(Eckel et al., 2001)

PO2- of nucleic acids (Fung et al., 1996)

Relatively specific for collagen

and nucleic acids

(Andrus and

Strickland, 1998)

Stretching PO2- asymmetric

(phosphate I), PO2- asymmetric

(phosphate I), Stretching PO2-

asymmetric (phosphate I)

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

PO2- asymmetric (Barry et al., 1992)

Asymmetric phosphate [PO2-

(asym.)] stretching modes

(Wang et al., 1997)

Stretching PO2- asymmetric

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2002)

Asymmetric PO2- stretching

(Fukuyama et al.,

1999)

Table 2 (continue). FTIR peaks identified in LR

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Wavenumber

Assignment

Possible nutrient

type

Ref.

Exp.

Lit.

1401

1400-

1403

Symmetric stretching vibration

of COO- group of fatty acids and

amino acids

Protein and

Collagen

(Wood et al.,

1996)

CH3 of proteins, symmetric

bending modes of methyl

groups in skeletal proteins, CH3

of collagen

(Fung et al., 1996)

Specific absorption of proteins

(Argov et al.,

2004)

Symmetric stretch of methyl

groups in protein

(Fujioka et al.,

2004, Wood et al.,

1998)

Ring stretching vibrations mixed

strongly with CH in-plane

bending

(Schulz and

Baranska, 2007)

COO2 symmetric stretching of

acidic amino acids aspartate and

glutamate, and fatty acids

(Fabian et al.,

1995)

CH3 symmetric deformation

(Agarwal et al.,

2006)

Symmetric CH3 bending modes

of the methyl groups of proteins

(Fujioka et al.,

2004)

(CH3) symmetric

(Barry et al., 1992,

Fujioka et al.,

2004, Lucassen et

al., 1998, Rigas

and Wong, 1992,

Wu et al., 2001)

Stretching C-N, deformation N-

H, deformation C-H

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

C(CH3)2 symmetric

(Yang et al., 2005)

1410**

about

1410

Carbon-related component

carbon

(Nandiyanto et al.,

2016, Nandiyanto

et al., 2017)

Table 2 (continue). FTIR peaks identified in LR

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No Wavenumber Assignment Possible nutrient

type Ref.

Exp. Lit.

8 1457 1455-

1458 C-O-H

Protein and

Collagen

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

Less characteristic, due to

aliphatic side groups of the

amino acid residues

(Chiriboga et al.,

1998)

CH3 of proteins, symmetric

bending modes of methyl

groups in skeletal proteins, CH3

of collagen

(Fung et al., 1996)

Asymmetric CH3 bending modes

of the methyl groups of proteins

(Fujioka et al.,

2004)

(CH3) asymmetric

(Fujioka et al.,

2004, Lucassen et

al., 1998, Wong et

al., 1991, Yang et

al., 2005)

CH3 bending vibration (lipids

and proteins)

(Fabian et al.,

1995)

Extremely weak peaks of DNA &

RNA arises mainly from the

vibrational modes of methyl and

methylene groups of proteins

and lipids and amide groups

(Wang et al., 1997)

Asymmetric CH3bending modes

of the methyl groups of proteins

(Fujioka et al.,

2004)

9 1522 1517-

1526 Amide II

Protein (Amide II) (Paluszkiewicz and

Kwiatek, 2001)

Stretching C=N, C=C, C=N

guanine

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

10 1633 1630-

1635 Amide I

Protein (Amide I) (Wood et al.,

1998)

C-C stretch of phenyl

(Schulz and

Baranska, 2007)

C=C uracyl, C=O

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

Amide I (Eckel et al., 2001)

Table 2 (continue). FTIR peaks identified in LR

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Wavenumber

Assignment

Possible nutrient

type

Ref.

Exp.

Lit.

1651

1649-

1652

Unordered random coils and

turns of amide I

Protein (Amide I)

(Eckel et al., 2001)

C=O, C=N, N-H of adenine,

thymine, guanine, cytosine

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2002)

O-H bending (water)

(Fabian et al.,

1995)

Amide I absorption

(predominantly the C=O

stretching vibration of the

amide C=O)

(Wood et al.,

1996, Wood et al.,

1998)

Protein amide I absorption,

C2=O cytosine

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

C=O, stretching C=C uracyl, NH2

guanine Peptide amide I

(Andrus, 2006,

Sukuta and Bruch,

1999)

Amide I

(Mordechai et al.,

2004)

1747

1745-

1750

Ester group (C=O) vibration of

triglycerides

Fat

(Wu et al., 2001)

C=O, polysaccharides, pectin,

C=C, lipids, fatty Acid

(Shetty et al.,

2006)

2332

about

2350

NH component

Amino-related

component

(Nandiyanto et al.,

2018b)

2341

about

2350

NH component

Amino-related

component

(Nandiyanto et al.,

2018b)

2359

about

2350

NH component

Amino-related

component

(Nandiyanto et al.,

2018b)

2857*

2853-

2860

CH2 of lipids, Asymmetric CH2

stretching mode of the

methylene chains in membrane

lipids

Fat

(Fung et al., 1996)

Stretching C-H

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

2925

2923-

2930

C-H stretching bands in

malignant and normal tissues

Fat

(Wu et al., 2001)

Stretching C-H

(Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

CH2 lipids

(Fung et al., 1996)

CH2

(Yang et al., 2005)

2958**

2956-

2959

Asymmetric stretching vibration

of CH3 of acyl chains (lipids)

Fat

(Fabian et al.,

1995)

C-H stretching

(Wu et al., 2001)

CH3 of lipids, DNA, and proteins,

asymmetric stretching mode of

the methyl groups from cellular

proteins, nucleic acids, and

lipids

(Fung et al., 1996)

Table 2 (continue). FTIR peaks identified in LR

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No Wavenumber Assignment Possible nutrient

type Ref.

Exp. Lit.

19 2991** about

3000

Carbon-related component

Carbon (Nandiyanto et al.,

2016, Nandiyanto

et al., 2017)

20 3092 3078-

3111 C-H ring

Organic material (Dovbeshko et al.,

2000)

21 3284** 3273-

3293

Stretching O-H symmetric

Water (Dovbeshko et al.,

2000, Schulz and

Baranska, 2007)

Note: * appeared in the initial raw LR; ** appeared after heating LR with

temperature of more than 180°C

5. CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated the

simplest ways for understanding FTIR

analysis results. The step-by-step method on

how to read the FTIR data was presented in

detail, including reviewing simple to the

complex organic materials. This study also

tested to the analysis of LR microparticles

since this material has quite complicated

organic structure. To ensure the

effectiveness in the step-by-step reading

procedure, various samples of LR that were

heated at specific temperatures were also

analyzed, since LR is vulnerable against heat.

We believe that this paper can be used as a

basic knowledge for students and beginner

scientists in comprehending and interpreting

FTIR data.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by RISTEK

DIKTI.

7. AUTHORS’ NOTE

The author(s) declare(s) that there is no

conflict of interest regarding the publication

of this article. Authors confirmed that the

data and the paper are free of plagiaris.

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Biopolymers: Original Research on Biomolecules, 78(6), 311-317.

Yoshida, S., Miyazaki, M., Sakai, K., Takeshita, M., Yuasa, S., Sato, A., Kobayashi, T., Watanabe,

S., and Okuyama, H. (1997). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis of rat

brain microsomal membranes modified by dietary fatty acids: possible correlation

with altered learning behavior. Biospectroscopy, 3(4), 281-290.

Evaluating the Antibacterial Efficacy of Nanocomposite Rare Earth Oxide (CeO 2 : Nd 2 O 3 ): An Experimental and Analytical Study

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025
J Phys Conf

This research employed a biochemical synthesis approach to fabricate CeO2:Nd2O3 nanocomposite, accompanied by comprehensive characterization and evaluation of its antibacterial efficacy. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the formation of a highly crystalline cubic structure, with an average crystallite size of 9.25 nm calculated using the Scherrer equation. Transmission electron microscopy revealed uniform nanoparticles with a mean diameter of 14.53 nm. The nanocomposite demonstrated exceptional colloidal stability with a zeta potential of +79.01 mV. FTIR spectroscopy identified characteristic vibrational modes at 480.47 cm ⁻¹ (C-I stretching), 536.68 cm ⁻¹ (C-Br stretching), 1626.31 cm ⁻¹ (C=C stretching), and 3424.11 cm ⁻¹ (O-H stretching). The material exhibited concentration-dependent antioxidant activity through DPPH radical scavenging, ranging from 14.91% at 5 μg/mL to 34.72% at 60 μg/mL. Antibacterial assessment using the agar well diffusion method revealed significant inhibition zones against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria at 100 μg/mL concentration: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (28 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (23 mm), Streptococcus mutans (18 mm), and Escherichia coli (16 mm).

Effect of Additive Molecular Weight and Dope Composition on the Morphology and Performance of Poly(ε‐Caprolactone)/Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Asymmetric Membranes

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025
J APPL POLYM SCI

An eco‐friendly polyε−caprolactonePCL \mathrm{poly}\left(\upvarepsilon -\mathrm{caprolactone}\right)\left(\mathrm{PCL}\right) based asymmetric membrane was prepared using N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) pore former in a water medium by the nonsolvent‐induced phase separation method (NIPS). The current study investigates the effect of pore‐forming, hydrophilic agent PEG with molecular weights ranging from low to high in two different dope compositions of 10% and 12%. Structural and morphological features of the membranes were studied and confirmed asymmetric nature and finger‐like morphology. Porosity and pore size significantly reduced when the dope composition increased. Whereas increased porosity with a slight reduction in the pore size was observed with the increase in the additive molecular weight. The filtration performance, porosity, and hydrophilic properties were analyzed. The water contact angle of the membranes decreases from 69.2 to 56.2 in 10% dope and 73.9 to 59.1 in 12% dope composition. The pure water flux also increased from 68.23 to 153 Lm−2h−1

\mathrm{L}{\mathrm{m}}^{-2}{\mathrm{h}}^{-1}

as the additive molecular weight increased. Rejection studies were conducted with an oil and immunoglobulin protein as permeate and the membrane incorporating the highest molecular weight PEG showed 98% rejection for protein and 89% rejection for oil with a flux recovery ratio of 87.5%.

Extraction of plant wax from Colocasia esculenta using polar and non-polar solvents: A sustainable approach

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025

This research presents a comprehensive study on the extraction and characterization of natural wax from agro-waste such as Colocasia esculenta (L.), commonly known as taro. Taro is a widely cultivated plant known for its starchy corms and edible leaves. However, its wax, a lesser-explored aspect, holds significant potential for various industrial applications. The extraction process was done in the presence of one polar and two non-polar solvents by using a Soxhlet apparatus whose yield depends on the polarity of the solvent, temperature, and number of cycles. The extracted yield from chloroform and hexane (non-polar solvents) is 11.34% and 15.04% respectively while it is only 0.28% from ethanol (polar solvent). Characterization of the extract has been carried out using analytical techniques, which include Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). These analyses provided insights into the chemical composition and morphology of taro wax. The results indicate that taro wax mainly possesses a complex composition of alkanes, fatty acids, alcohols, and esters with potential applications in cosmetics, water-proofing, and coatings. Furthermore, the study highlights the sustainable aspect of utilizing taro wax as a renewable and biodegradable alternative to synthetic waxes. Overall, this research contributes to the understanding of the extraction and characterization of natural wax from Colocasia esculenta, opening avenues for further exploration and utilization of this underutilized natural resource. Graphical Abstract

Introducing carbon quantum dot-Capivasertib drug carrier complex for enhanced treatment of breast cancer

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025
PLOS ONE

Capivasertib (AZD5363) is a 2023 FDA-approved pyrrolopyrimidine-derived compound that treats hormone receptor positive, HER2 negative metastatic breast cancer in adult patients. It is a novel pan-AKT kinase catalytic inhibitor in ER + breast cancer cell lines, including MCF7. The dominant influence of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) in combination with multiple chemotherapy drugs is also demonstrated as a drug delivery system that significantly enhances the effectiveness of cancerous tumour treatments by providing reduced side-effects, through targeted delivery of the drug, controlled release, enhanced solubility, permeability and retention. In this study, the impact of the conjugation of AZD5363 drug to N-doped, S-doped, and N/S-doped CQDs was investigated on inducing apoptosis by inhibiting the AKT signalling pathway in the MCF7 cell line. Initially, hydrothermal and pyrolysis methods were used to construct CQDs. Then, the synthesized quantum dots were conjugated with AZD5363 at three different concentrations, i.e., 0.03, 0.3, and 3nM. The MTT test results, on MCF7 cells, showed that although all the studied CQDs were biocompatible, the complex of N/S-doped CQD-AZD5363 at a concentration of 0.03nM was the most effective. After obtaining immunocytochemistry results, flow cytometry and cell invasion tests were employed to demonstrate the high potential of the introduced drug carrier complex in reducing AKT protein expression, induction of apoptosis and prevention of cell metastasis and invasion. According to these results, the binding of N/S-doped CQD to AZD5363 increases the effectiveness of this drug, with reducing the IC50 concentration, and more specificity to cancerous cells, introducing it as a suitable candidate for the treatment of breast cancer.

ASSESSMENT OF THE BIODEGRADABILITY OF POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA) IN FRESHWATER USING EN ISO 14851:2019: CHALLENGES AND OUTCOMES

Article

Mar 2025
J HAZARD MATER

Quorum sensing luxI/R genes enhances cadmium detoxification in Aeromonas by up-regulating EPS production and cadmium resistance genes

Article

Mar 2025
J HAZARD MATER

Ying Ge

Thymoquinone loaded zinc oxide Nanoformulations synthesis, characterization and evaluation of their efficacy against carbon tetrachloride induced Hepatorenal toxicity in rats

Article

Mar 2025

Thymoquinone (THQ), a strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactive compound has been reported in numerous studies to prevent the hepatorenal toxicity caused by various xenobiotics. Similarly, the zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) have been used to protect against the hepatorenal damages caused by oxidative stress due to their potent antioxidant properties. The aim of this study was to synthesize and investigate the possible protective effects of THQ, ZnONPs and THQ-loaded ZnONPs against CCl4 induced hepatorenal toxicity in albino rats. ZnONPs and THQ-loaded ZnONPs were synthesized and characterized by various techniques. For the in-vivo study, thirty albino rats were randomly divided into five groups of six rats each. The control group received normal saline and 2nd group (injury group) received CCl4 only. The 3rd group (T1-group) received CCl4 + ZnONPs, the 4th group (T2-group) received CCl4 + THQ, and the 5th group (T3-group) received CCl4 + THQ-loaded ZnONPs. Renal and hepatic biomarkers (total bilirubin, AST, ALT, ALP, blood urea nitrogen and creatinine), lipid profiles, antioxidant levels and histopathological studies were investigated. The synthesized NPs showed a spherical shape with an average size of 16–30 nm and exhibited hexagonal structures. Results showed that THQ-loaded ZnONPs resulted in a decrease in liver and kidney biomarkers as well as a reduction in TC, TG, and LDL levels compared to groups received ZnONPs and THQ alone. CAT, SOD, GR and DPPH-radical scavenging ability were maintained at normal levels in group T3, which received THQ-loaded ZnONPs compared to T1 and T2 groups. Hepatic histopathological analysis revealed a reduction in hydropic degeneration and hepatocyte congestion in the central veins, alongside a decrease in tubular cell swelling and normalization of renal histology in the THQ-loaded ZnONPs groups. In conclusion, results of this investigation demonstrate that THQ-loaded ZnONPs can act as an efficient protectant and antioxidant against oxidative stress and hepatorenal toxicity caused by various xenobiotics.

Molecularly imprinted polymers-ZnS quantum dots based composite sensor for optical detection of chlorogenic acid

Article

Mar 2025

Removal of Tetracycline Antibiotic as a Hospital Waste by pH ‐Sensitive Degradable Composite Hydrogel Using Fenton‐Like System

Article

Jan 2025

Fenton‐like hydrogels crosslinked with imine bond were prepared for the removal of tetracycline. Initially, the oxidation process of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was performed, and it was named OX‐CMC. The confirmations were then obtained using NMR and FTIR analyses. The degree of CMC oxidation was investigated in relation to reaction time, and optimal time of 4 h was selected. In the second part, a pH‐sensitive hydrogel with imine bond was prepared from the crosslinking reaction between OX‐CMC and chitosan. The formation of the hydrogel through imine crosslinking was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. By increasing ratio of OX‐CMC to chitosan, the swelling rate for the hydrogel decreased. Turbidity measurements showed that a higher OX‐CMC to chitosan weight ratio resulted in slower hydrogel degradation in acidic environments. In the third part, Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles with concentrations of 5 and 10 wt% were incorporated into the hydrogel structure. TEM studies revealed a spherical morphology and uniform distribution of nanoparticles within the hydrogel network. SEM images revealed a porous structure which composed of interconnected pores in the hydrogel. The results of UV–visible spectroscopy indicated that the degradation of magnetic hydrogels would augment as magnetic nanoparticle content increases, pH decreases, and the hydrogen peroxide content increases.

Investigation of anti-microbial and cytotoxic potential of Streptomyces werraensis GRS9 derived from the sediments of river Ganga

Article

Mar 2025
BRAZ J MICROBIOL

The aim of the present work was to screen bacterial and actinomycetes strains from the sediments of river Ganga (India) as a promising source of anti-microbial and anti-cancer agents along with spectroscopic and chromatographic identification of bio-active compounds. The strain GRS9 exhibited broad-spectrum bio-activity against all the 15-test organisms incorporated in our study with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 16 µg/ml against Staphylococcus aureus MTCC3160 to 500 μg/ml for Escherichia coli (MTCC118). The cytotoxic profile of ethyl acetate extract was also evaluated against Human Colon Cancer Cell Line (HCT116) by Neutral Red Uptake (NRU) assay, followed by in silico study to determine its pre-qualification for drug suitability. The results indicated that Streptomyces werraensis GRS9 extract possessed anti-cancer properties (IC50 = 22.95 µg/ml) and found suitable for further drug development as reflected in Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion (ADME) prediction having no violation of Lipinski’s rule of five. Bioactive compounds associated with GRS9 were identified by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), revealing 29 compounds along with 10 major compounds identified via National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) /Wiley library. These compounds include N-(4-methyl-1-Piperzinyl)-1-Napthamide (a compound of immense pharmacological potential especially in oncology) along with anti-microbials i.e. Dodecanamide and 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, Diethyl ester. The findings revealed our sediment isolate Streptomyces werraensis GRS9 to be a suitable candidate for the isolation and purification of bio-active compounds that may act as a source of anti-microbial and anti-cancer agents.

Working Volume and Milling Time on the Product Size/Morphology, Product Yield, and Electricity Consumption in the Ball-Milling Process of Organic Material

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Analysis of ball-milling process under various conditions (i.e. working volume, milling time, and material load) on the material properties (i.e. chemical composition, as well as particle size and morphology), product yield, and electricity consumption was investigated. Turmeric (curcuma longa) was used as a model of size-reduced organic material due to its thermally and chemically stability, and fragile. Thus, clear examination on the size-reduction phenomenon during the milling process can be done without considering any reaction as well as time-consuming process. Results showed that working volume is prospective to control the characteristics of product. Working volume manages the shear stress and the collision phenomena during the process. Specifically, the lower working volume led to the production of particles with blunt-edged morphology and sizes of several micrometers. Although working volume is potentially used for managing the final particle size, this parameter has a direct impact to the product yield and electricity consumption. Adjustment of the milling time is also important due to its relation to breaking material and electrical consumption.

Amorphous content on the photocatalytic performance of micrometer-sized tungsten trioxide particles

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2018

The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlation between amorphous content and the characteristics of micrometer-sized photocatalyst particles. As a model of photocatalyst, tungsten trioxide (WO3) particles with controllable amorphous contents were used. To comprehend the amorphous content parameter precisely, the experiments were conducted by heating amorphous WO3 powders at a specific temperature without additional chemicals or solvents. Thus, the percentage of amorphous in the WO3 particles was controlled independently in the constant particle outer sizes and morphology. Micrometer-sized catalyst was used to avoid the misleading photocatalytic measurements due to the over-dominancy of other catalytic parameters (such as excessive surface area and quantum confinement effect). The results revealed that in the constant process condition, the photocatalytic properties were strongly dependent on the amorphous content in the catalyst. Decreases in this parameter had a strong influence to the enhancement of the photodecomposition rate of organic material. The tendency for the influence of amorphous content was also confirmed by varying the number of catalysts in the photocatalytic process. The study was also completed with the theoretical consideration for the phenomenon happening during the WO3 crystallization (transformation of amorphous into hexagonal and monoclinic crystal structure) and the photocatalytic process.

Porous activated carbon particles from rice straw waste and their adsorption properties

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017

The purpose of this research was to synthesize porous activated carbon particles from rice straw waste and investigate their adsorption properties. Production of porous carbon particles involved several steps: (i) burning rice straw waste; (ii) ball-mill process; and (iii) the activation treatment. To achieve the optimum process in the activation treatment, the concentration of activating agent (i.e. potassium hydroxide) was varied. Experimental results showed that this method is effective to create porous carbon particles. Control of the porosity is also possible by managing the amount of activation agent (i.e. potassium hydroxide). The higher concentration of activation agent has a direct correlation to produce more cavities in the material. The study also confirms that the change in porosity has a direct impact to the ability of the product for adsorbing molecules. Since the present method is converting rice straw waste into useful and valuable porous carbon particles, further development of this study would give a positive impact for the reduction of rice straw waste emission.

Synthesis of carbon nanoparticles from commercially available liquified petroleum gas

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2016

The aim of this study was to synthesize carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) from commercially available liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). In the research procedure, LPG was reacted with air to construct CNPs. To confirm the successful synthesis of CNPs, we conducted several sample analyses: Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Infrared Spectra (FTIR). We also varied LPG and oxygen mole ratios at 0.8; 2.4; 4.8; and 7.2. The GC-MS results indicated the composition of LPG was propane (58.90%), isobutane (18.35%), butane (22.26%), and butane, 2-methyl (0.48%). The TEM results showed that the particles were spheres with sizes of between 25 and 35 nm. The sizes of particles were controllable, depending on the mole ratio. The XRD results showed mole ratios of LPG and oxygen of 0.80 and 2.40 were natural graphite, whereas the mole ratios of 4.80 and 7.20 were hexagonal graphite. FT-IR results showed CNPs have absorption peaks at wave number (i) 752 (C-H bend sp2); (ii) 835 (C=C); (iii) 1274 (C-O-C vibration); (iv) 1400 and 1600 (C-C stretch aromatic); (v) 2800 (C-H sp2); (vi) 2900 (CH sp3); (vii) 3100 (C-H aromatic); and (viii) 3400 cm-1 (O-H). From the FTIR analysis results, the sample contained allotrope graphite due to detection of peaks at 1400 and 1600 cm-1 (C-C stretch aromatic) and 3100 cm-1 (C-H aromatic).

AMINO ACID PROFILE OF EARTHWORM AND EARTHWORM MEAL (Lumbricus rubellus) FOR ANIMAL FEEDSTUFF

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2009

Earthworm meal (Lumbricus rubellus) has become one of natural material that could be used asfeed additive. Powdering method of earthworm was done by using formic acid addition. The study wascarried out (1) to evaluate the essential amino acid profile of earthworm and earthworm meal, (2) tocalculate the value of essential amino acid index (EAAI) of both materials. A modified EAAI equationwas developed from the essential amino acid profile of earthworm and earthworm meal. The resultshowed that essential amino acid of earthworm was dominated by histidine (0.63% of dry matter basis),meanwhile the earthworm meal was dominated by isoleucine (1.98% of dry matter basis). The nonessential amino acid of earthworm and earthworm meal was dominated by glutamic acid (1.52% and3.60% of dry matter basis respectively). The value of essential amino acid index obtained fromearthworm meal was higher (58.67%) than those from earthworm (21.23%). It is concluded thatpowdering method of earthworm by using formic acid addition had higher amino acid balance thanearthworm.

3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres

Article

Full-text available

May 2012

Chromatography of Amino Acids on Sulfonated Polystyrene Resins. An Improved System

Article

Jan 1958

A comparative infrared spectroscopic study of human breast tumors and breast tumor cell xenografts

Article

Jan 1995
Biospectroscopy

Pressure-tuning Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic study of carcinogenesis in human endometrium

Article

Jan 1996
Biospectroscopy

Fourier-transform infrared spectra were obtained from the endometrial tissues from 17 females. Thirteen of them had grade I (well differentiated) endometrial adenocarcinoma and four of them had grade III (poorly differentiated) adenocarcinoma. The infrared spectra of the corresponding normal tissues obtained from 1-3 cm away from the tumor were also measured. The spectra of all the normal tissues were essentially identical and differed from those obtained from both the grade I and grade III adenocarcinomas. In order to determine the structural changes at the molecular level, infrared spectra and their pressure dependences of the exfoliated epithelial cells from the normal and grade III adenocarcinoma tissues of the endometrium were studied. Changes in the spectra of malignant samples were observed in the symmetric and asymmetric stretching bands of the phosphodiester backbones of nucleic acids, the CH stretching region, the C-O stretching bands of the C-OH groups of carbohydrates and cellular protein residuals, and the pressure dependence of the CH2 stretching mode. These spectral changes in the malignant endometrium are reproducible and are the result of the structural changes involving an increase in the nuclear size, in the number of hydrogen-bonded phosphodiester groups in DNA, in the intermolecular interaction and packing in nucleic acids, in the conformational and reorientational disorder in the methylene chains of membrane lipids, changes in the membrane fluidity, as well as a decrease in the methyl-to-methylene ratio, and in the number of hydrogen-bonded C-OH groups in carbohydrates and protein residuals. It was also found for the first time from the present work that the epithelium in the normal endometrium exhibits unique structural properties compared with the epithelium of other normal human tissues.

Characteristic infrared spectroscopic patterns in the protein bands of human breast cancer tissue

Article

Dec 2001
VIB SPECTROSC

Infrared (IR) spectra of normal, hyperplasia, fibroadenoma and carcinoma tissues of human breast obtained from 96 patients have been determined and analyzed statistically. Several spectral differences were detected in the frequency regions of NH stretching, amide I, II and III bands: (1) the bands in the region 3000–3600cm−1 shifted to lower frequencies for the carcinomatous tissue; (2) the A3300/A3075 absorbance ratio was significantly higher for the fibroadenoma than for the other types of tissues; (3) the frequency of the α-helix amide I band decreased for the malignant tissue, while the corresponding β-sheet amide I band frequency increased; (4) the A1657/A1635 and A1553/A1540 absorbance ratios were the highest for fibroadenoma and carcinoma tissues; (5) the A1680/A1657 absorbance ratio decreased significantly in the order of normal>hyperplasia>fibroadenoma>carcinoma; (6) the A1651/A1545 absorbance ratio increased slightly for the fibroadenoma and the carcinoma tissues; (7) the bands at 1204 and 1278cm−1, assigned to the vibrational modes of the collagen, did not appear in the original spectra as resolved peaks and were distinctly stronger in the deconvoluted spectra of the carcinoma tissue and (8) the A1657/A1204 and A1657/A1278 absorbance ratios, both yielding information on the relative content of collagen, increased in the order of normal

How to Read and Interpret FTIR Spectroscope of Organic Material

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