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How to Use the Field Manual?
Abstract
This Manual is based on the research work carried out by the authors in the Kashmir Himalaya. For documentation of the alien flora, we regularly surveyed the study region for field sampling, collection of data and plant specimens from 2019 to 2021. The study region lies between coordinates 33° 20′ to 34° 50′ North Latitude, 73° 55′ to 75° 35′ East Longitude and altitude of the region ranges from 1600 to 5420 m amsl [74]. Kashmir Himalaya covers an area of ~15,000 km2 with 64% of the area being mountainous [85]. The 'Karawas’, which are plateau-like tablelands developed during the Pleistocene Ice Age and made of clay, sand, and silt of lacustrine origin, are a prominent geological feature of the region [86]. The region, located at the junction of the Holarctic and Paleotropical Floristic Realms, is home to a rich floristic diversity of considerable scientific interest and economic promise [87]. The stunning scenery of this biodiversity-rich area has drawn visitors from far and wide from very early times. This is one of the key reasons for the intentional or unintentional introduction of various floral elements from various phytogeographical regions of the world, which have been supported by distinct bioclimates, a wide range of elevations, and habitat heterogeneity. In fact, the region has long served as a major halting point for historical trade routes travelling from far-east Asia to the Mediterranean coast via Central Asia and vice versa [88]. The climate is primarily of continental temperate type with cold and wet winters and relatively dry and hot summers [89]. The temperature of the region ranges from an average daily maximum of 31°C and minimum of 15°C during summer to an average daily maximum of 4°C and minimum of -4°C during winter and receives an average annual precipitation of 1055 mm, mostly in the form of snow. The natural vegetation of the region mostly consists of alpine meadows and coniferous forests [74] (Fig. 2.1).
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Symphyotrichum subulatum (Michx.) G.L.Nesom (Asteraceae) is reported as a new alien plant record for Kashmir Himalaya. The taxonomic identification of species is confirmed on the basis of shape of involucre, floral and seed characters. Detailed description, distribution map, and comments on distribution and ecology are also provided along with photographic illustration to facilitate easy identification of this species.
Kashmir Valley has been witnessing erratic snowfall events in recent autumns which severely impacted apple orchards and harvests. Here, we combine remotely sensed data and field observations to map snowfall distribution and snow depths during the recent snowfall events in November 2018 and November 2019. Besides, we used ERA-5 reanalysis climate datasets to investigate the causes of these erratic snowfall events, pointing to an early arrival of Western Disturbances (WD) to the area. Analysis of these untimely snowfall episodes indicates that snow depths varied from 5-122 cm and 31-152 cm during the 2018 and 2019 snowfall events, respectively. In turn, satellite data analysis reveals that the apple orchards cover roughly 9.8% (1329 km 2) of the entire surface of Kashmir Valley, out of which 32.6% were mildly to severely damaged by snow. The areas in South Kashmir suffered the most from the untimely snowfall with an area affected estimated to~264 km 2 , followed by North Kashmir (~151 km 2) and Central Kashmir (18 km 2). The snowfall caused substantial harvest losses in orchards ranging from 4-50% with an average of~35%. The geopotential analysis from the ERA-5 dataset provides insights into the synoptic weather patterns leading to the snowfall events and point to a trough in the high-troposphere (200 mb), along with a col at lower levels (850 mb) over the Kashmir Valley from November 2-5, 2018. The lower levels (850 mb) experienced intense cyclonic circulation which favored advection of moisture from the Arabian Sea during the November 6-7, 2019, snowfall event. The large economic losses related to early arrival of WD led to a virtual grounding of the horticultural sector in 2018 and 2019. Therefore, more baseline research is critically needed along with a comprehensive evaluation of the suitability of horticulture as an economically viable sector that is being promoted over the Kashmir region, also under climate change.
The Himalaya, a global biodiversity hotspot, sustains about one-fifth of the humankind. Nestled within the north-western mountain ranges of the Himalaya, the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) State harbours more than half of the biodiversity found in the Indian Himalaya. The wide expanse of State, spread across the subtropical Jammu, through the temperate Kashmir valley, to the cold arid Ladakh, is typical representative of the extensive elevational and topographical diversity encountered in the entire Himalaya.
This book, the most comprehensive and updated synthesis ever made available on biodiversity of the J&K State, is a valuable addition to the biodiversity literature with global and regional relevance. The book, arranged into 7 parts, comprises of 42 chapters contributed by 87 researchers, each of whom is an expert in his/her own field of research. The precious baseline data contained in the book would form the foundation for assessing current status of knowledge about the bioresources, identify the knowledge gaps, and help prioritization of conservation strategies to steer the sustainable use of biodiversity in this Himalayan region. Given the breadth of topics covered under the banner of biodiversity in this book, it can surely serve as a model for documentation of biodiversity in other regions of the world. The book will be of immense value to all those who, directly or indirectly, have to deal with biodiversity, including students, teachers, researchers, naturalists, environmentalists, resource managers, planners, government agencies, NGOs and the general public at large.
The Kashmir Himalaya, being nestled within north-western folds of the Himalaya, harbours a rich floristic diversity of immense scientific interest and enormous economic potential. Though scientific studies on the floristic diversity in the Kashmir Himalaya have been started about two centuries ago, yet they fall short of the requirements needed urgently in the post-Rio Summit. In fact, at the spatial scale, many far flung areas and difficult terrains in the hinterland are still either least- or totally-unexplored; and at the taxon scale, floristic studies especially with regard to the lower plants are insufficient, thus posing serious problems in assessing the floristic diversity in the region. With such a perspective in hindsight, the present paper dilates upon the progress achieved so far, highlights the problems being faced and envisages the future prospects with regard to floristic diversity in this region. First, a broad overview of the current status of floristic diversity in this Himalayan region is presented, followed by a critical analysis of the knowledge base presently available on various taxonomic groups of plants. The yawing gaps in our knowledge of floristic diversity in this region are identified and an action plan to bridge these gaps is also outlined. Hopefully, addressing these challenges in the immediate future could facilitate the documentation, conservation and sustainable use of plant resources in this region, so as to steer this 'Himalayan Paradise' towards the path of sustainable development.
Compilation of alien flora from phytogeographically distinct regions is of immediate relevance not only for better understanding
the patterns of plant invasion but also for explicating the processes promoting invasion at local, regional or global scales.
Despite being at higher risk of invasion by plants because of its European colonial past, south Asia has received very little
attention in respect of characterization of its alien flora. This paucity of baseline data necessitated compilation of the
first catalogue of alien flora from the Kashmir Himalaya—a phytogeographically distinct south Asian region nestled in the
northwestern folds of Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Total alien flora of the region is represented by 571 plant species,
belonging to 352 genera and 104 families. It constitutes a relatively higher (29%) proportion of the total flora of the region.
Families with largest number of alien representatives are Poaceae (60 species), Asteraceae (54 species), and Brassicaceae
(30 species). However, families such as Amaranthaceae (83%) and Chenopodiacae (71%) show higher percentage of aliens relative
to their total number of plant species in the region. Most of the alien plant species (38%) trace their origin to Europe,
followed by Asia (27%) and Africa (15%). Present study also reports, for the first time, occurrence of seven plant species
in this region. Each alien plant species is provided with information on the origin, habit, mode/purpose of introduction,
current invasion status, altitudinal range and the primary published source.
An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification of the orders and families of angiosperms is presented. Several new orders are recognized: Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusiales and Vahliales. This brings the total number of orders and families recognized in the APG system to 64 and 416, respectively. We propose two additional informal major clades, superrosids and superasterids, that each comprise the additional orders that are included in the larger clades dominated by the rosids and asterids. Families that made up potentially monofamilial orders, Dasypogonaceae and Sabiaceae, are instead referred to Arecales and Proteales, respectively. Two parasitic families formerly of uncertain positions are now placed: Cynomoriaceae in Saxifragales and Apodanthaceae in Cucurbitales. Although there is evidence that some families recognized in APG III are not monophyletic, we make no changes in Dioscoreales and Santalales relative to APG III and leave some genera in Lamiales unplaced (e.g. Peltanthera). These changes in familial circumscription and recognition have all resulted from new results published since APG III, except for some changes simply due to nomenclatural issues, which include substituting Asphodelaceae for Xanthorrhoeaceae (Asparagales) and Francoaceae for Melianthaceae (Geraniales); however, in Francoaceae we also include Bersamaceae, Ledocarpaceae, Rhynchothecaceae and Vivianiaceae. Other changes to family limits are not drastic or numerous and are mostly focused on some members of the lamiids, especially the former Icacinaceae that have long been problematic with several genera moved to the formerly monogeneric Metteniusaceae, but minor changes in circumscription include Aristolochiaceae (now including Lactoridaceae and Hydnoraceae; Aristolochiales), Maundiaceae (removed from Juncaginaceae; Alismatales), Restionaceae (now re-including Anarthriaceae and Centrolepidaceae; Poales), Buxaceae (now including Haptanthaceae; Buxales), Peraceae (split from Euphorbiaceae; Malpighiales), recognition of Petenaeaceae (Huerteales), Kewaceae, Limeaceae, Macarthuriaceae and Microteaceae (all Caryophyllales), Petiveriaceae split from Phytolaccaceae (Caryophyllales), changes to the generic composition of Ixonanthaceae and Irvingiaceae (with transfer of Allantospermum from the former to the latter; Malpighiales), transfer of Pakaraimaea (formerly Dipterocarpaceae) to Cistaceae (Malvales), transfer of Borthwickia, Forchhammeria, Stixis and Tirania (formerly all Capparaceae) to Resedaceae (Brassicales), Nyssaceae split from Cornaceae (Cornales), Pteleocarpa moved to Gelsemiaceae (Gentianales), changes to the generic composition of Gesneriaceae (Sanango moved from Loganiaceae) and Orobanchaceae (now including Lindenbergiaceae and Rehmanniaceae) and recognition of Mazaceae distinct from Phrymaceae (all Lamiales).
The number of studies dealing with plant invasions is increasing rapidly, but the accumulating body of knowledge has unfortunately also spawned increasing confusion about terminology. Invasions are a global phenomenon and comparison of geographically distant regions and their introduced biota is a crucially important methodological approach for elucidation of the determinants of invasiveness and invasibility. Comparative studies of alien floras provide substantial new insights to our understanding of general patterns of plant invasions. Such studies, using information in previously published floras and checklists, are fundamentally dependent on the quality of the assessment of particular species with respect to their taxonomic identity, time of immigration and invasion status. Three crucial decisions should be made when defining the status of a plant species in a given region: (1) whether the taxon is native or alien to that region (origin status); (2) what is its position in the invasion process, i.e., when was it introduced (residence status); and (3) what is the degree of its naturalization and possible invasion (invasion status). Standard floras differ hugely in their treatment of non-native species and those with appropriate categorization of alien species according to their status are rather rare. The present paper suggests definitions of terms associated with plant invasions and places these into the context of floras. Recommendations are outlined on how to deal with the issue of plant invasions in standard floras with the aim of contributing to a better understanding between taxonomists and ecologists and allowing more detailed comparative analyses of alien floras of various regions of the world.
Much confusion exists in the English-language literature on plant invasions concerning the terms ‘naturalized’ and ‘invasive’ and their associated concepts. Several authors have used these terms in proposing schemes for conceptualizing the sequence of events from introduction to invasion, but often imprecisely, erroneously or in contradictory ways. This greatly complicates the formulation of robust generalizations in invasion ecology.
Based on an extensive and critical survey of the literature we defined a minimum set of key terms related to a graphic scheme which conceptualizes the naturalization/invasion process. Introduction means that the plant (or its propagule) has been transported by humans across a major geographical barrier. Naturalization starts when abiotic and biotic barriers to survival are surmounted and when various barriers to regular reproduction are overcome. Invasion further requires that introduced plants produce reproductive offspring in areas distant from sites of introduction (approximate scales: > 100 m over < 50 years for taxa spreading by seeds and other propagules; > 6 m/3 years for taxa spreading by roots, rhizomes, stolons or creeping stems). Taxa that can cope with the abiotic environment and biota in the general area may invade disturbed, seminatural communities. Invasion of successionally mature, undisturbed communities usually requires that the alien taxon overcomes a different category of barriers.
We propose that the term ‘invasive’ should be used without any inference to environmental or economic impact. Terms like ‘pests’ and ‘weeds’ are suitable labels for the 50–80% of invaders that have harmful effects. About 10% of invasive plants that change the character, condition, form, or nature of ecosystems over substantial areas may be termed ‘transformers’.
International plant names index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens; 2021
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