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Abstract

"While tropical forests are being cleared at an alarming rate, the clearing is rarely complete and is often not permanent. A considerable amount of tropical forest exists as remnants that have significant value both for the conservation of biological diversity and for meeting the needs of local people.This volume brings together world-renowned scientists and conservationists to address the biological and socio-economic value of forest remnants and to examine practical efforts to conserve those remnants. An outgrowth of a year-long study by the policy program at the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, Forest Patches in Tropical Landscapes provides a broad overview of theory and practice, and will help foster both interdisciplinary research and more effective approaches to tropical conservation and development.
Forest Patches
in Tropical Landscapes
Edited by
John Schelhas
ancl
Russell Greenberg
f?rc A
ISLAND PRESS
Washington, D.C. . Covelo, California
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l::l:r:l I
Crnsrpn 19
Challenges in Promoting Forest Patches in
Development Efforts 381
Lany Fisher and Roland Bunch
Rural
Contribators 401
Index 409
Preface
This volume is the culmination of a policy research initiative of the
Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center (SMBC) begun in 1991. Over the
past five years the SMBC has sponsored a symposium, produced a pol-
white paper (available in Spanish antl English), developed a forest
h project directory and offered briefings on the topic to organiza-
ions interested in conservation and development in the tropics. How is
that an organization dedicated to the conservation of migratory son$-
irds has become so involved in a topic that involves so many issues
ingly unrelated to birds? The answer to this question can be found
a brief history of the field of migratory bird consewation.
Like many of my colleagues, I have long been interested in the ecol-
of migratory birds on their tropical wintering $rounds. During the
and 1980s, many ornithologists beganto realize that the birds we
in North America spend a substantial portion of their lives in
itats and climates quite different from those with which we are
familiar. This realization led to an intense interest in traveling
and discovering the secrets of the tropical lives of migratory
JCL
xii Preface
The pioneering work of a number of tropical ornithologists led to an-
other, more ominous, realization. The habitat for migratory birds, in-
deed for many tropical birds, was being destroyed or severely altered at
unimaginable rates. For the past two decades ornithologists have been
feveristrly trying to document the changes that occur when natural veg-
etation communities (mostly forest) are transformed. From the begin-
ning the comparisons have often been dichotomous, comparing o1d-
growth forest to a myriad of habitats under the rubric of "disturbed"
habitats. This perspective has led to a long debate about the value of dis-
turbed second-growth habitats to migratory birds.
However, when one actually examines the distribution of migratory
birds, the dichotomy seems less useful. The seemingly monolithic agri-
cultural landscapes of the tropics are in reality a patchwork quilt. Some
patches consist of fields or pastures that are devoid of all but a few
species of migratory birds. Other patches, dark green with trees, often
sustain very high populations of migratory birds. In fact, these islands
of trees (which include remnants of forest, shade coffee plantations,
and gallery forest) support the highest densities of many migratory
species. Because migratory bird populations spread out over Targe re-
gions of the tropics, these patches of native arboreous vegetation scat-
tered in the countryside seem to be a necessary component of their
habitat, particularly as intact forests become smaller and more isolated.
The SMBC was founded in 1990 to develop creative approaches to the
conservation of Neotropical migrant birds. The growing realization of
the potential for forest patches to harbor otherwise dwindling popula-
tions of migratory birds made the issue of forest patch conservation a
natural priority for the nascent cetter. However, it is the philosophy of
the SMBC that conservation actions that benefit migratory birds cannot
be accomplished for the love of birds alone.
The purpose of the syrnposium and this book was to bring togiether a
wide variety of workers in the areas of tropical conservation and rural
"development to consider what we know about forest patches and to de-
velop the common ground to promote forest patch conservation where
it is appropriate.
People love birds. Migratory birds, in particular, catch the imagina-
tion of millions. While there are many good reasons to promote the pro-
tection of forest patches in agricultural areas, we believe that migratory
birds and the interest they engender provide a natural rallying point for
promoting programs that focus on these neglected, but increasingly im-
portant habitats. _R. G.
Acknowledgments
I acknowledge the support of the Cornell Program in Ecological and So-
cial Science Challenges of Conservation (NSF Grant # BIR-9113293)
during the preparation of this manuscript. Marian Hovencamp, Nancy
Bowers, and Carol Rundle provided much needed help with figures, ta-
bles, and translating files from diverse word-processing programs. Dia-
logue with Janis Alcorn on community conservation and comanage-
ment has broadened my view of social and cultural factors in
conservation. Discussions with students and faculty at Cornell and
with scientists at the Smithsonian Institution have enhanced my inter-
disciplinary understanding of tropical forest conservation issues. I
thank the many farmers in Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, and
Guatemala who have welcomed me into their homes and shown me
their farms and forests. Most important, I would like to thank Susie and
Robinson for their support throughout this project. -r s
I would like to acknowledge Judith Gradwohl for her continued help
and critical thought on issues of tropical conservation. The staff of the
xtLt,
Acknowledgmen*
smithsonian Migratory Bird center assisted in every phase of the re-
search and preparation of this manuscript. The Smithsonian Institu-
tion, particularly Eugene Morton, Bob Hoffman, Ross Simons, and
Mike Robinson, has supported the work of the Migratory Bird Center
on this and other issues. The Pew environmental scholars program has
provided an informal forum for discussing innovative conservation
ideas. I particularly thank Janis Alcorn for influencing my thinking
about tropical conservation early on in this project.
R. G. :
r . I a.
lntrooucuon:
The Value of Forest Patches
John. Schelhas and Russell Greenberg
Millions of hectares of tropical forest arebein$ converted to agricultural
fields and pastures every year, threatenin$ many species with extinc-
tion. Efforts to consetve tropical biological diversity have usually con-
centrated on setting aside large tracts of forest in national parks and in
other protected areas. These 1arge, relatively undisturbed forests afe es-
sential for the effective conservation of complex tropical ecosystems
and many forest species. Yet only 5.9 percent of the world's land area is
in designated protected areas, and only 19 out of 131 countries in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America have more than 10 pelcent of their land pro-
tected (wRI 1994). Furthermore, these protected areas are concen-
trated in inaccessible areas and on less economically usefu1 1ands, and
do not provide representative protection for different ecological habi-
tats. In any event, because of social, economig and political constraints,
there is often 1ittle hope of expanding protected area systems. It is be-
coming increasingly clear that a conservation strategy focusing only on
large, protected areas will leave the conservation needs of some ofgan-
isms and habitats unmet, and that consewation efforts in the tropics
must include areas that lie outside lar$e reserves.
xvi Introduction
while deforestation in the tropics has been extensive over the past
few decades, forest clearing is rarely complete and often not permanent.
Patches of primary, secondary, and managed forests remain in many
agricultural landscapes. Although these forest patches lack some of the
biological diversity oflarge forest tracts, they do contain many species
and habitats that are not found in large reserves. Forest patches provide
habitat for many organisms with smal1 home ranges, for organisms that
range widely over the landscape, and for an array of species that toler-
ate some human disturbance.
Forest patches, which are widely dispersed through human-occupied
landscapes, are owned and controlled by rura1 people. Because of this,
protectionist conservation strategies that would lock up these lands in
reserves are neither ethically acceptable nor possible to effectively im-
plement. Forest patches can only be conserved by the people who own
and use them. Although some protectionists would have us believe that
entrusting the care of forest patches to their rural owners is a prescrip-
tion for disaster, there is substantial evidence that this course may be
the best hope for the conservation of many tropical species and habitats.
Forest patches are not simply left-over and unutilized rand areas, they
are critical components in the livelihoods of mral people. Forest patches
provide products for sale and subsistence, protect watersheds, and have
cultural and social benefits. Forest patches can be managed to provide
niches for the growing of forest products and crops. As a result, rural
people maintain forest patches for their economic, social, and cultural
benefits, thereby protecting the diversify of organisms that inhabit
them.
Yet forest patches are changing, and in many cases disappearing,
under the pressures of human population growth, increased integration
of rural households into the world economy, the breakdown of tradi-
tional patterns of forest use and conservation, and government policies
that create incentives for conversion of forest patches into croplands
and pastures. Not only will the loss of forest patches, and the products
and environmental services they provide, hurt rural people, it will also
have national and global impacts, because of the value of forest patches
for watershed protection, biological conservation, and guarding against
adverse global environmental changes.
while it is clear that rural people and conservationists have a shared
interest in forest patch consewation, there is much that we need to
learn and do. we must learn more about which species can suryive and
thrive in different types and arrangements of forest patches. we must
Introduction XTLL
understand the social and economic conditions that promote forest
patch conservation and how government policies can promote or harm
forest patches. We must develop management schemes that improve the
capacity of forest patches to protect biodiversity and that increase their
value to local people. And, most important, we must apply this infor-
mation to develop programs and institutions that support and promote
forest patch conservation. This book addresses these concerns by tak-
ing a broad, interdisciplinary look at forest patches in tropical land-
scapes, and presents examples of forest patch conservation strate$ies
that have both social and biological benefits.
Types of Forest Patches
The reader will soon note the diversity of habitats treated by different
papers under the rubric "forest patch." This diversity is deliberate-we
include everything from patches of trees in pastures and lines of trees
along rivers to large fragments of primary forest. Because of the hade-
quin nature of tropical landscapes, different forest patch types can often
be found in close proximity. These forest patch types do not exist in iso-
lation, but together contribute to the resoufce management system for
the region. The interaction of diverse patch types helps to protect bio-
diversity, since patches may harbor different sets of species, or even the
same species, at different times of year. In short, a mosaic of different
patch types will provide habitat for the maximum number of species
and provide benefits for the most people.
The following is a brief lexicon of the different types of forest patches
considered in the different chapters of this book.
Flrest remnants ate largely unused fra$ments of old-girowth forest, in-
cluding forest intentionally left uncleared for watershed protection,
wildlife conservation, and other benefits, or patches that simply have
not been cleared yet because of inaccessibility or recency of human oc-
cupation.
Managed fore.sfs are patches of forest that are used for timber produc-
tion and the extraction of nontimber resources.
Natural forest plantations are agricultural systems that integrate the
use of native trees with the production of agricultural and other com-
modities, as well as fuel wood and other household necessities.
Sacred forests are patches of forest protected for their cultural signifi-
XNtrLL Introduction
Gallery oriparianforests ate linear strips offorest habitat, a few trees
to hundreds of meters wide, that protect streams from erosion and in-
solation.
In addition, we discuss a number of smaller formations of trees in
agricultural settings, including living fences, farm-field border strips,
and shade patches for livestock.
Beyond Fragmentation: Biological
Considerations for Forest Patches
The value of forest patches to biodiversity conservation is heatedly de-
bated by biologists studying tropical ecosystems. The issue is becoming
increasingly important as region after region loses its last remaining
tracts of forest and the landscape is increasingly settled. In many areas
where natural forest cover has been lost, wooded patches of various
kinds are the only remaining habitat for forest flora and fawa. On the
other hand, in regions where continuous forest cover remains, it is easy
to see that these patches have become highly depauperate. Large wildlife
is being hunted out, and even very small organisms are vanishing be-
cause their specialized requirements cannot be met in a small and de-
graded habitat patch.
Observers agree that forest patches contain a higtrly altered and usu-
ally depauperate subset of the original forest fauna. However, assigning
a value to these patches is a subjective exercise that results in a wide
array of opinions on the matter. One need only read the chapters in this
book to gain a sense of this diversity. In general, those authors whose
work focuses on rural development and takes place in settled land-
scapes emphasize the positive contributions that forest patches can
make. More skeptical views of the value of forest patches can be found
in contributions by ecologists whose work focuses on the conservation
of intact tropical forest ecosystems (see Robinson, chapter 6; and Bier-
regaard and Dale, chapter 10). This has 1ed some to argue that forest
patches are "empfy forests" and that assigning biological value to them
provides justification to developers for further deforestation and frag-
mentation. There is some truth to this, but it is equally true that in
many areas these patches are the only forested habitats left.
To simplify a complex subject, the evaluation of the biodiversity value
of forest patches is an intrinsically comparative exercise, and the value
placed on forest patch conservation largely depends on the comparison
Introduction xix
being made. When the comparison is made between intact systems and
forest patches, forest patches are invariably shown to be lacking in bio-
diversity (Robinson, chapter 6; Bierregaard and Dale, chapter 10; Kat-
tan and Alvarez-L6pez, chaptet 11 Power, chapter 5). Many of the most
common forest orgianisms are lost at even the most moderate levels of
fragmentation and modification of tropical forest habitats. Because of
thaloss of top predators (Robinson, chapter 6), as well as the a$ents of
pollination (Murcia, chapter 2), seed dispersal (Guindon, chapter 9),
nutrient cycling (Kattan and Alvarez-L6pez, chapter 1; Power, chapter
5) and other interspecific interactions, loss of species is usually accom-
panied by large changes in the entire biological community. However, if
the forest patches are compared to alternative land uses in a human-
dominated landscape, the patches can easily be shown to increase local
diversity and provide refuge for at least some of the species associated
with intact forest (Nepstad et a1., chapter 7lPower, chapter 5; Kattan
and Alvarez -L6pez, chapter 1; Greenber$, chapter 4).
Forest patch conservation and mana$ement plays a particularly criti
cal role in certain landscapes and circumstances:
1. As many forest generalists and edge species survive or prosper
in forest patches, patches play an important role in increasin$ local bi-
ological diversity in areas where forest cover of any kind is threatened
by development. This increase in diversity may be of great importance
in regions where most of the intact forest has been lost, and particularly
where forests host many endemic species. There are certainly many ex-
amples of such regions (sao Paulo province of Btazil, Haiti, Pacific
coastal plain of Central America). Forest patches in these areas may
provide the "seed" for the reestablishment of larger tracts of ve$etation
when ecological restoration becomes feasible.
2. Forest patches may be critical in the buffer zones of large re-
Sefves, providin$ seasonal resources and movement corridors for or-
ganisms that spend most of their time in the protected forests. In this
regard, streamside ve$etation (gallery forests) may play a very impor-
tant role in regional conservation efforts. It is common for protected
forests to occupy a particular elevation in a mountainous region (often
the tops of ridges), and clearing up to the boundary of the reserve rnay
eliminate some of the more mobile species (see Guindon, chapter 9;
Kattan and Alvarez-Ldpez, chapter 1).
3. Forest patches may provide stepping-stone resources for local or
long-distance migratory organisms (Greenberg, chapter 4). This is par-
ticJarly apparent for temperate-zone migratory birds, which often find
Introduction
refuge in the smallest and most modified of "forest" habitats. But it may
be equally true for other groups of migratory organisms that are less
well known, such as arthropods that move into patches of woods for dry
season refuges.
Having set some general priorities, we hasten to add that even where
there is little global significance to the species protected in forest
patches, the species that find refuge in forest patches in settled areas
provide local human populations access to some remnants of forest
flora and fauna that are not locked away in distant and inaccessible re-
serves. In this rcgard, rather than focusing on particular regions, forest
patch conservation will be most effective if it is woven into the fabric of
rural development everywhere.
Forest patches will almost always provide some biorogicar benefit
when compared to other land uses, such as pasture and farming. The
critical question is, at what point is it worth investing resources to man-
age forest patches, particularly in light ofthe often stretched budgets for
protecting large tracts of forest? Several authors have pointed out that
the value forest patches have is dependent upon human intervention
and management (Viana and Tabanez, chapter 8; Lyon and Horwich,
chapter 11; Kellman et al., chapter 3). Generating forest patches in agri-
cultural areas may require the initial establishment of small vegetation
nuclei (Lyon and Horwich, chapter 11). Established forest patches are
particularly sensitive to disturbances, such as blowdowns, fire, and
grazing; and invasion of exotic plants and animals, native vines, and ag-
gressive weeds discourages regeneration. cefiain important trees must
be raised in nurseries and planted, because they lack porlinators and
dispersers or because they arc aTready locally extinct. Even strategies
that do not necessarily require technical interventions, such as encour-
aging the conservation of riparian corridors, may require resources for
extension programs.
In many cases, there is no necess,rry trade-off between providing re_
sources for forest patch and natural forest conservation efforts. As
Pinedo-Vasqtez and Padoch (chaper 16), Alcorn (chapter 12), Lyon and
Horwich (chapter 11), and Poffenberger (chapter 18) show, landhold-
ers, when given an opportunity and some support, often manage forest
patches for both the economic products and the ecological services they
provide, and the work can be largely self-supported. In other cases,
however, active management of forest patches will require the assis-
tance of outside organizations and institutions. These resources need
not be the same as those that would go into wildland management. Be-
Introduction xxL
cause the efforts can be complementary, we believe that it is important
that biologists pool their shared interests with the rural development
community and work to make forest patch conservation an inte$ral
part of long-term, ecologically sound development. Alcorn (chapter 12),
Firh"t and Bunch (chapter 19), and Poffenber$er (chapter 18) outline
and provide examples for strategies in which national and international
institutions function as partners with loca1 landholders.
In any case, forest patches seldom are isolated and unused fra$ments
of habitat. Rather, with the possible exception of recently colonized
frontiers (where forestpatches may existbecause they are inaccessible),
forest patches owe their existence to the value placed on them by iocal
people. Because of thiS, forest patch conservation is a unique and com-
plex challenge. Many of the decisions affecting forest patch manage-
ment are made by landholders responding to local or even household
concerns. At the same time, even the most isolated patches are cur-
rently battlegrounds for conflicts between the different economic forces
influencing development in the countryside of most tropical countries.
As described by Pinedo-Vasquez and Padoch (chapter 16), traditional
forest patch management is part of an overall agricultural system that
creates a diverse vegetational mosaic. Small-scale swiddens in these sys-
tems may cfeatehabitat for forest or$anisms adapted to small-scale dis-
turbance (Power, chapter 5). The management strate$ies in these sys-
tems afe primarily aimed at producing items for the household or local
community, or for domestic markets. These local1y adapted systems ale
giving way to ones developed primarily to produce commodities for the
global market and provide cash for landowners. Traditional manage-
ment systems are being replaced or altered by the infusion of external
capital into every nook and $anny of the tropical countryside. Schelhas
(chapter 13) and Browder (chapter 14) show that economic chan$es
driven by events far away from the land in question have an increas-
ingly important influence.
Given the desire to stay in touch with nature, it is easy to understand
the hesitancy of some biologists to become mired in the political and
economic complexities of forest patch management. At the very least,
however, the realization that forest "fragments" are actually actively
managed forest patches has tremendous implications for biolo$ists
studying these systems. The island biology and fra$mentation paradigm
that governed the study of forest patches for the past few decades is giv-
ing way to a more holistic approach to forest patch research. Forest
put"tt"r are seldom just fragments; they are novel habitats that owe
ih"it .o-position and function to a variet5i of human and natural forces
xxtL Introduction
(Lyon and Horwich, chapter 11). These human influences need to be
overlaid on the biological factors controlling the "natural" biological
community, including soil type, climate, and natural disturbance regime
(lightning fires, hurricanes, flooding).
Fragmentation
Fragmentation refers to the reduction in size and the increased isola-
tion of forest patches. The effect of just these two factors is well de-
scribed by Bierregaard and Dale (chapter 10). Fragmentation exposes
the forest organisms to increased edge effect,bringing with it increased
light levels, invasion by open-country species, and desiccating winds. A
forest patch may simply be too smal1 to provide resources for animals
with large home ranges. More often, a forest patch can support only
smal1 populations, which are prone to local extinction from a variety of
factors, including stochastic variation in population size. Low-popula-
tion size introduces a number of potential additional problems related
to the loss of genetic diversity. As Bierregaard and Dale point out, sen-
sitivity to fragmentation will vary considerably between species or
higher taxonomic groups of species, depending on such things as the de-
gree of ecological specialization, body size, and movement patterns-
features that are poorly understood for most tropical organisms. In ad-
dition to this within-community variation, the work of Kellman et al.
(chapter, 3) suggests that different communities may be comprised of
species thatvary systematically in how they respond to fragmentation,
which may he a result of the different vegetational histories. For exam-
ple, ga7lery forests may have provided habitat for forest organisms
through dry periods ofthe Pleistocene, and therefore their trees and or-
ganisms are more resistant to extinctions resulting from current isola-
tion in agricultural settings.
Tropical ecosystems not only support a large number of species but
consist of a very large number of complex biological interactions as
well. Therefore, species loss is not just a numbers game. The loss of
large predators and herbivores, for example, has implications for the en-
tire biological community (Robinson, chapter 6). The issue of how frag-
mentation affects processes that depend on the ecological interplay be-
tween species is only beginning to be addressed. For example, Murcia
(chapter 2) outlines the potential short- and long-term impacts that
fragmentation might have on the pollination of tropical plants, many of
which depend on animal vectors and are obligatorily out-crossed. Seed-
dispersal systems do not achieve the levels of coevolutionary specializa-
Introduction XXLLL
tion found in pollination systems;however, Guindon (chapter 9) tack-
les the problem of maintaining healthy populations of dispersers for
specialized fruiting trees of the wild avocado family.
Arrested Succession
Much of the forest present in patches in settled landscapes is secondary
having been cleared or selectively cut at least once or' more likely, nu-
merous times. Eventually, old-growth species may disappear, soil qual-
ity will decline, specialized soil symbionts vanish, and the habitat will
be retained in a state of continued secondary succession (S. Purata,
pers. comm.). In addition, loss of key dispersal or pollination agents
may favor plants that can regenerate ve$etatively or are pollinated and
dispersed by wind (Lyon and Horwich, chapter 11).
Resource De$eneration
Local human populations can systematically harvest certain plants and
animals without a sustainable management scheme, thereby reducing
the abundance or even causing loca1 extinction of the tar$et or$anisms
in a patch. The effect of hunting on the wildlife of forest patches
throughout the tropics provides a graphic example of this type of impact
(Robinson, chapter 6). Systematic degradation can apply to patch struc-
ture as well as to species composition (Viana and Tabanez, chapter 8).
Large trees or palms canbe high-graded from the fotest, changing the
physical structure of the forest. More subtle, but equally as devastatin$,
is pruning, weeding, and vine removal. Such activities, found in silvi-
cultural systems and shade plantation management, will remove epi-
phytes, vines, mosses, and the dead leaves and detritus captured by
these plants-microhabitats that provide niches for many of the most
speciaJized tropical organisms.
Resource Mana$ement
Alternatively, people can favor particular plants because of their use-
fulness or commercial value. (Techniques that favor particulariy valu-
able timber species in forest patches are described by Stanley and
Greztinger, chapter 17.) Modern silvicultural systems provide a promis-
ing avenue for improving the value of forest patches and thereby their
probability of being protected as wel1. Howevet, these treatments will
inevitably change the species composition and the very structure of the
xxiv Introduction
forest patch, generally decreasing plant diversity. pinedo-vasquez and
Padoch (chapter 16) discuss traditional systems where individual rather
than tree species selection favors the maintenance of forest diversitv.
Res ource Augimentation
People can add valued plants to a forest patch. These added plants pro-
duce foods or materials used in local households and influence the re-
sources available for wildlife and the functioning of other aspects of the
ecosystem. The practice of augmentation provides a tremendous oppor-
tunity for improving the biodiversity of human-managed forests. Many
common agroforestry species provide fruit or nectar for a wide range of
species. However, by decreasing plant diversity and increasing the num-
ber of trees of a few species, the resource base for the entire community
will be affected. First the presence of a few seasonally abundant tree
crops will increase the seasonality of the habitat for animals using these
crops. As species decline, the probability of phenological gaps (periods
with no fmit or nectar resources available) increases and the needs of
only mobile organisms will be met. second, systematically favoring cer-
tain types of plants with particular fruiting or floweringl syndromes will
alter the types of organisms favored. For example, resources available to
frugivorous animals in an agroforestry system will depend on human
preferences. A large proportion of trees managed in diverse shade cof-
fee and cacao plantations produce fruit favored by people and other
mammals, but bird-dispersed fruit is not favored as often in these svs-
tems.
Change in Disturbance Regime
Increased proximity to agricultural fields, change in locar crimate, and
an increase in edge expose forest patches to higher fire frequency (Nep-
stad et al., chapter 7). In addition, grazing animals often find refuge in
forest patches, particularly during the dry season. Because of their iso-
lated and islandlike nature, forest patches may receive high levels of
browsing.
Understory Cultivation
As stated earlier, the understory of forest patches is often managed for
commodity production or cleared and burned for agricultural, silvicul-
ture [Pinedo-vasquez and Padoch, chapter 16) or livestock use. cultiva-
Introduction
tion or grazing in forest understory clearly affects understory organ-
isms. For example, coffee and cacao plants appear to support far fewer
insectivorous birds, eitherbecause of 1ow insect densities or insufficient
cover for nesting. The active management of the forest floor will also
impact tree regeneration and thus, canopy composition.
Matrix Managlement
As a number of chapters point out (Bierregaard and Da1e, chapter 10;
Murcia, chapter 2;Greenl:erg, chapter 4),the nature of the surrounding
vegetation has tremendous implications for patch use. The theory of is-
land biogeography is most usefu1 where the island (patch) is sur-
rounded by an inhospitable barrier that is thoroughly discoura$ing to
travel. In fact, in tropical areas the dichotomy between forest and sec-
ond growth or field organisms is often quite sharp (Power, chapter 5;
Bierregaard and Dale, chapter 10). However, the island model for forest
patches is unrealistic for the many organisms that move in and out of,
or between, patches if enough trees or shrubs are present in the sur-
rounding fields. Furthermore, it is well known that for birds, the ten-
dency to move through or across clearings varies with the feeding guild
or strata used by a species. The permeability of the field-forest border
also raises the possibility of influencing the agroecosystem through for-
est patch management (Power, chapter 5). Preliminary data suggest that
forest patches may harbor a high diversity of predatory or parasitic
arthropods (although numbers of predators may at times be higher in
farm fields). How these shifts affect the dynamics of pest insect popu-
lations is an important area of future work.
Creating a Forest Patch Mosaic
Each forest patch type is an altered and often depauperate ecosystem
with distinct characteristics. Some of this variation is a result of sys-
tematic differences in management, such as that which leads to the cre-
ation of diverse shade canopy coffee plantations or stands of thorny
acacias in eastern Chiapas (Greenberg, chapter 4). Other differences
may result from seemingly idiosyncratic decisions, such as which rem-
nant trees are left standing (Lyon and Horwich, chapter 11). However,
the different patch types are usually found intermingled in a complex
mosaic of habitats; and as Greenberg emphasizes, there is a need to ex-
amine this mosaic. Not only will the different patch types support a dif-
ferent anay of forest organisms, but for the mobile species usin$ sea-
Introduction
sonally available resources in different patches, a proper balance may be
required to eliminate regiional phenological gaps to sustain their annual
activity.
Many factors operate simultaneously to shape the biota of a particu-
lar forest patch. This complexity creates a potential epistemological
conflict. The best science is often that which examines the effect of in-
dividual variables through controlled experiments or, at the very least,
comparisons where few factors are varyinf simultaneously. However,
since these systems are the outcome of myriad interrelated inputs, the
more controlled experimental result may present an incomplete or even
misleading picture. It seems to us that while we pursue standard reduc-
tionistic approaches to untangle cause and effect, we also need a basic
description of what these different forest patch systems are like from
the viewpoint of biology and human activity. More holistic and inter-
disciplinary studies of the patches, which for better or worse are prob-
ably the forest habitats of the future, would be a good first step in un-
derstanding what biological diversity will be like in the coming
millennium.
Human Dimensions of Forest Patches
Large areas of the tropics have been converted to mosaics of fields, pas-
tures, and forest patches. Although rural people c7eafly require fie1ds
and pastures to survive, the often more subtle values of forest patches
should not lead them to be regarded as simpiy leftover and unutilized
lands. Forest patches provide a wide array of benefits to rural people,
who in turn value, manage, and protect them. Nevertheless, forest
patches have often been overlooked by social scientists, and have rarely
been taken into consideration in rural development activities.
Forest patches are used by rural people in many ways, and are an in-
tegral part of rural landscapes in the tropics:
Products. Products extracted from forest patches meet diverse house-
hold subsistence and income needs. Trees are widely harvested by
households for house construction, fence posts, fuelwood, and com-
mercial timber. Wild plants and animals are important sources of pro-
tein and other nutrients for many rural dwellers. Forests also provide
other products, including medicines, fodder for livestock, thatch, raw
materials for handicrafts, leaf litter to maintain soil fertility, and in-
come throu$h nonconsumptive uses such as ecotourism.
Ecological prlcesses. Forest patches provide many ecological serwices.
Forest fallows, which are temporary forest patches, maintain and im-
Introduction
prove soils in several ways, includin$ restorin$ fertility by bringing up
subsoil and leached nutrients, improvin$ soil aeration and structure,
and preventing erosion. Although forest fallows move around the
landscape over time, they often remain an important landscape com-
ponent.
Lanclholders maintain forests alon$ streams and rivers, around
springs, and in other areas to prevent erosion, modulate water runoff'
and maintain water quality. In many tropical landscapes, riparian for-
est strips are both common and highly valued by landholders for their
watershed protection benefits. Forest patches may ditectly benefit
agriculture by supporting species that pollinate agricultural crops or
prey or parasitize on agricultural pests (Power, chapter 5; Poffen-
berger, chapter 18).
Forest patches are also mana$ed for forest- and shade-$rown crops
under a range of intensities. In some cases, predominantly natural
forests are subject to low-level management by occasionally either
planting useful plants or favorin$ them by removing competin$ ve$e-
tation. In other cases, management is intensified to produce forests
that are a mix of planted and naturally regenerated plants. Mana$e-
ment can be intensified further to produce anthropo$enic forests such
as home gardens and shade-grown crops, which often include native
species in the overstory or understory.
Cultural and. social values. Itural people maintain forest patches be-
cause of their cultural significance, both religious and secular. Sacred
groves are found throughout Asia, Africa, and the Americas (t ebbie
ancl Freudenbetger, chapter 15). These sacred groves often have mul-
tiple uses, including serving as sites for religious rituals and conflict
resolution, and providing medicines or other forest products throu$h
carefully controlled extraction. Forests also have secular cultural
value. Formal private reserves that protect forests' natural heritage
value are becoming increasingly common in many tropical countries
(Alderman 1991), and rural landholders often informally protect for-
est patches for their legacy and heritage value (Browder, chapter 14;
Schelhas, chapter 13).
Dffirences in forest patch values. There are many different ways that
forest patches are used and valued by rural people. Forest patches are
social spaces, shaped by human uses and values (Browdet, chapter
14). In some cases, forest patches play important economic and social
roles, and hence are valued, mana$ed, and protected by people' In
other cases, in which the benefits and uses of forest patches $o unrec-
ogrized, forest destruction and de$radation is high. In yet other cases,
forest products are used and forest patch values reco$nized, but eco-
nomig polifical, or demographic consffaints lead to overexploitation
ot unsustainable use.
Case study examples and efforts by social scientists to draw broad
conclusions from research results present a confusin$ and conflicting
xx\,Lt,
Introduction
array of trends, issues, and proposed strategies to promote forest patch
conseryation. Many patterns of forest patch consewation and de-
struction are site specifig and so, too, must be the solutions. But pat-
terns can also be discovered, and understanding the relationships be-
tween different variables can help in planning consewation and
sustainable development strate6iies.
Forest Patches in Farming Systems
The chapters in this book not only address many of the ways that rural
people use forest patches but also discuss why people do or do not con-
sewe forest patches. Forest patch use and conservation is influenced by
factors at the household, community, and national levels. Supporting
and enhancing forest patch conservation requires a broad approach that
understands the interactions between these multiple levels and the in-
terest groups within them.
Many decisions about forest patches are made by households. House-
hold land-use strategies are often diversified, and forest patches, as a
component of diversified land-use systems, meet a variefr of household
needs (Fisher and Bunch, chapter 19; Browder, chapter 14; Pinedo-
Vasquez and Padoch, chapter 16; Schelhas, chapter i3). We have al-
ready described the many products extracted from forest patches to
meet cash and subsistence needs. Forest patches also reduce economic
and subsistence risk, since they can be drawn on during periods of re-
duced employment opportunities, famines and seasonal food shortages,
or to meet both expected and unexpected cash needs. Forest patches are
often particularly important to poorer people who lack sufficient agri-
cultural land. The ways in which forest patches are used in a particular
place depends on a variety offactors. Rural people choose among alter-
native land uses by seeking to optimize the returns they receive from
their available 1and, as well as by choosing options that provide attrac-
tive returns to 1abor, make efficient use of household labor resources,
and have acceptable levels of risk. Many places, because of forest char-
acteristics and markets, present unique opportunities for forest patch
uses. Forest patch use and conservation can only be adequately under-
stood and influenced by viewing it within the broader household and
community farming systems and economic strategies within which it
occurs (tr'isher and Bunch, chapter 19; Schelhas, chapter 13).
Household use of forest patches is also influenced by cultural, politi-
cal, and macroeconomic contexts. The cultural value of forest patches is
often particularly high among indigenous and traditional communities.
Introduction
Communities that have lived in long association with forest patches
often have livelihood systems that are closely tied to them. Traditional
village institutions regulate access to forest resources and often protect
them from overexploitation (Alcorn, chapter L2; Lebbie and Freuden-
berger, chapter 15; Pinedo-Vasquez and Padoch, chapter 16). Today,
economic and cultural patterns of communities with strong traditional
ties to forests are undergoing unprecedented change, and economic
pressures resulting from population growth and market involvement,
along with the breakdown of cultural-based protection, can lead to for-
est patch loss (Lebbie and Freudenberger, chapter 15; Schelhas, chapter
13). However, forest patch conservation by indigenous groups today
still often compares favorably to that of colonists (Alcorn, chapter 72;
Donovan 1994), and it may be possible to combine secular and sacred
values of forest patches to reinforce them a$ainst the pressures of a
changing world (I-ebbie and Freudenberger, chapter 15).
Colonists moving to forested frontiers from other re$ions are fra$-
menting remaining areas of continuous forest. While $overnment in-
centives and the logic of shifting cultivation and speculative land mar-
kets often lead to initial widespread deforestation in frontier areas
(Schelhas, chapter 13), some forest remnants $enera11y remain un-
cleared. Over time, additional forest patches appear in degraded land-
scapes as cleared areas that were unsuitable for lon$-term agriculture,
return to forest (Bierregaard and Dale, chapter 10; Browder, chapfet 141,
Nepstad et a1., chapter 7) and as landholders inte$rate managed forest
patches into their farming systems for both human and ecological ben-
efits (Browder, chapter 14; Schelhas, chapter 13).
Government and international agency policies play an important role
in influencing the forest patch choices of individual landholders (A1-
corn, chapter 12; Browder, chapter 4; Schelhas, chapter 13). Govern-
ment policies often include incentives for forest clearing as a means to
claim and hold 1and, which promotes expansion of unproductive a$ri-
cultural lands. Economic subsidies for crops and cattle promote a$ricul-
tural land uses that would be unprofitable if they were competing with
forest land uses on a 1evel playing field. Policies can have positive effects
as wel1, such as programs and incentives that directly promote refor-
ll,' estation and forest conservation. Many countries have laws in place to
. limit forest clearing, such as those protectin$ streamside corridors in
'' Brazil and Costa Rica or the BraziTian law requiring forest on 50 per-
i, cent of landholdings in new settlements to be left uncleared (Bierre-
f, gaard and Dale, chapter 10; Browder, chapter 14; Schelhas, chapter 13).
These laws. however, are often not effective, bothbecause they have not
Introduction
been integrated into landholder and community land management sys-
tems and because they are often beyond the enforcement capability of
the state.
Although forest patches provide many useful products to rural peo-
ple, there is a need for new forest management options to increase those
benefits. Many of the forest management systems that have been pro-
moted in conservation and development projects provide returns that
are too low, to distant, or too uncertain for widespread adoption by
landholders. There are many ways that new strategies can be developed.
These strategies should draw on both indigenous and scientific knowl-
edge (Pinedo-Vasquez and Padoch, chapter 16; Stanley and Gretzinger,
chapter 77) andbe developed in collaboration withlandholders through
on-farm experimentation (Fisher and Bunch, chapter 19; Poffenberger,
chapter 18).
The livelihood systems of traditional and indigenous groups often in-
clude complex forest management systems that can serve as models of
sustainable forest patch use and conservation. Care must be taken to
allow for the adaptation of these practices to new social, economic, and
political contexts (Schelhas 1994), but marketable crops and cultivation
strategies developed over long periods of time for a specific site repre-
sent an important knowledge base. Farmer-to-farmer exchange pro-
grams, in which newer colonists learn forest patch management strate-
gies from long-term inhabitants, are one possible way to improve forest
management by more recent colonists.
Natural forest management for timber has potential to provide eco-
nomic returns from forests that are relatively diverse biologically and
therefore of high conservation value. Many natural forest management
systems provide low returns to land, and the high costs of planning and
management have led foresters to believe they are only appropriate for
large tracts of forest. Stanley and Gretzinger (chapter 1 7) present an ex-
ample of a scientific natural forest management system appropriate for
use in forest patches. They are implementing this system at sites
throughout Central America, where the sustainable timber manage-
ment potential of forest patches has not been previously recognized.
Pinedo-Vasqtez and Padoch (chapter 16), on the other hand, provide an
example of traditional natural forest management in the Peruvian Ama-
zon. Traditional management is long term, often beginning in an agri-
culture stage and oriented toward the multiple values of the riberefros,
and results in a diverse forest. Not every community will have similar
knowledge and tradition of forest management, but traditional forest
management models have lessons to teach scientists about the ways
Introduction
forests can be managed both to meet people's needs and to promote bi-
ological diversity.
Forest patch management that focuses only on timber ignores many
forest resources that are important to local people (Poffenber$er, chap-
ter 18). The management of forest patches for nontimber forest prod-
ucts (either alone or in co4junction with management for timber) can
provide more immediate and, at times, higher retrrns than timber man-
agement, increasing the attractiveness of forest management to land-
holders and communities. While management for one product may af-
fect the returns from others (Stanley and Gretzin$er, chaptet 17),
integration of different forest uses into mana$ement systems often pro-
motes landholder and community conservation of forest patches.
Pinedo-Vasqu.ez and, Padoch (chapter 16) provide an example of forest
management for a combination of marketable fruits and subsistence
products that is carried out under relatively high population density
conditions in Kalimantan.
Many mral landholders are interested in reforestation to obtain ben-
efits from forest patches that have been lost on their farms through for-
est clearing (Browder, chapter 14; Schelhas, chapter 13). Although the
more diverse forest that occurs through natural re$eneration generally
provides better bioiogical habitat than monocultural plantations, it may
provide too few economically valuable resources over too lon$ a time
period to he attractive to landholders. Landholders often prefer refor-
estation with fast-growing, high-value timber species-although high
plantation establishment costs for any type of tree are often unattrac-
tive to landholders unless subsidies are provided. If widespread refor-
estation is to occur, alternatives with lower costs and higher returns
must be developed. There maybe many possibilities. Nepstad (in Doyle
and Schelhas 1993: 18) suggests taking advantage of natural seed dis-
p€rsers such as birds and mammals to promote the re$eneration of eco-
nomically valuable forests by, for example, planting lines of disperser-
attracting trees out of forest patches into degraded lands. Poffenberger
notes that in India natural regeneration through voluntary community
protection, with management often oriented toward nontirnber forest
products, has only 3 to 5 percent of the cost of plantation establishment.
In places where the economic value of early successional forest is low,
there is a need to develop strategies to enrich re$eneratin$ forest with
economically valuable species.
More intensively managed forest patch types, such as shade-$rown
crops and complex agroforestry systems, often have high economic pro-
ductivity. Where such systems are being used, their bioiogical, water-
xxxL
xxxlt Introduction
shed, and risk-reduction benefits should be taken into account in agri-
cultural research and extension efforts aimed at "improving" or replac-
ing these systems. Opportunities should also be sought out to enhance
these systems, such as through canopy management, to improve biolog-
ical and economic values.
Forest patches are also conserved as private resefves, often in associ-
ation with ecotourism (Alderman 1991; Schelhas, chapter 13). In some
cases the benefits of this type of forest patch conservation go dispro-
portionately to expatriates and wealthier segments of society, and op-
portunities need to be enhanced for rural landholders and communities
to benefit through employment or small-scale, 1ocal tourism operations
(see, for example, Lopez Vasquez 1993).
Communities and Forest Patches
Many of the benefits of forest patches are either widely dispersed or
very long term, accrl7ing to other landholders, to the community at
large, or to later generations. People often make decisions based on
short-term, tangible benefits. Long-term occupancy of an area often
builds community-level social and cultural incentives for forest patch
conservation decisions with dispersed and long-term benefits. Many in-
digenous and traditional communities have strong cultural values and
tenure anangements supporting the conservation of remnant forests
and forest patches (A1corn, chapter 12). Yet in many places, indigenous
and community forest management is under assault from loggers,
colonists, and governments. Governments have often supported extrac-
tive industries, such as logging, or represented the interests ofa narrow
and elite segment of the nationa-l population to the detriment of com-
munity rights and forest management (A1corn, chapter 12; Peluso
1993). Even government conservation programs may lead to deforesta-
tion. State capability to manage forests is often weak, and government
expropriation of community forest rights can convert community man-
agement and conservation systems to open access situations which en-
courage resource depletion (Alcorn, chapter 72; Lebbie and Freuden-
berger, chapter 15). Defending the right of indigenous people and
communities to continue to use and manage forest patches against the
encroachment of colonists, loggers, or the state may in some areas be
the most important action that can be taken in support of forest patch
conservation (Alcorn, chapter 72).
Watershed protection is widely recognized by landholders in the trop-
ics as a significant value of forest patches, and landholders often retain
Introduction XXXLLL
or re-establish forests around springs and along streams (Greenberg,
chapter 4; Poffenberger, chapter 18; Schelhas, chapter 13). However,
many of the benefits of streamside corridors are received by down-
stream landholders. Maintaining watershed values depends on land-
scape-1eve1 patterns of forest coveq which may not be consistent with
the ways in which people have divided up the landscape or with the
land-use choices individual landholders have made, and therefore may
require community management. Communities will often organize to
manage watersheds when faced with clear threats to soil and water re-
sources (Little 1994; White 1992). Riparian forests, which have water-
shed protection benefits widely recognized by rural people, can form a
network over the landscape that connects many different types of for-
est patches, also providing biological conservation benefits. Community
support for biological conservation is likely to be greater when it is com-
bined with programs that address more immediate and direct conserva-
tion needs such as soil conservation and watershed protection (pisher
and Bunch, chapter 19). Projects and programs such as the Community
Baboon Sanctuary in Belize (Lyon and Horwich, chapter 11), joint for-
est management in India (Poffenberger, chapter 18), and the Forests on
Farms project in Costa Rica (Guindon, chapter 9) provide examples of
innovative ways of integrating forest conservation across landscapes in
mixed ownership to provide forest benefits to rural people as well as bi-
ological conservation benefi ts.
Collaboration for Forest Patch Use and Conservation
it Forest patches are of interest to a diverse and widespread group ofpeo-
ple, including locai rural people in the tropics, regional and national
beneficiaries of forest products and ecological services, and distant peo-
p1e connected to forest patches by migratin$ species and patterns of
global environmental changle. Interest groups at different levels-global,
national, regional, community, and household-generally receive only
aparl of the value of forest patches and often ignore other values.
Rural households and communities benefit in many ways from forest
patches and manage them for diverse products. This may promote bio-
logical diversity in ways that managiement of forests for a single use,
ir,, such as timber, does not (Pinedo-Vasquez and Padoch, chapter 16; Pof-
fenberger, chapter 1 B). But although local landholders and communities
often conserve resources that are important to their livelihoods, they
iir may neglect species without recognized local values. Biolo$ical conser-
li ,vation, as defined by ecologists, may to some extent be an incidental ef-
xxxiy Introducti.on
fect of the management systems of mral people, who may place a higher
value on the maintenance of their social and cultural systems than on
the ecosystem attributes valued by ecologists (Spooner 1987). In addi-
tion, many species valued at national or international levels, such as
large mammals, may be undesirable to and actively discouraged by local
people (Lebbie and Freudenherger, chapter 15; Poffenberger, chapter
1B).
On the other hand, interest groups at national and international lev-
els often make decisions without taking into account the value of forest
patches to rural people. Government and private development efforts
often ignore the benefits local people receive from forest patches, and
instead promote production of a narrow range of commodities through
development policies, p1ans, and projects. Forest patches and rural peo-
ple suffer adverse consequences from these narrow approaches to rural
development and resource management. Governments may also trade
off rural values while promoting the interests of urban populations or
development at the national level, such as facilitating or subsidizing log-
ging to earn foreign exchange and encouraging colonization of lands
claimed and occupied by indigenous people. Conservationists have
often sought absolute protection of forest patches, setting conservation
in opposition to local interests, rather than looking for mutually bene-
ficial solutions.
Forest patches occur on private and community lands, and if forest
patch conservation programs are to be successful they must work with,
not against, rural people. Use and conservation interests related to for-
est patches are often not in conflict, and neither are the interests of
local people and broader groups. There is ample evidence that rural peo-
ple can often be empowered to manage forest patches in ways that also
conserve biological diversity (A1corn, chapter 12; Pinedo-Vasquez and
Padoch, chapter 16; Poffenberger, chapter 18). In fact, community in-
stitutions often regulate natural resource use to avoid carrying out ex-
treme scenarios of resource degradation (Lebbie and Freudenberger,
chapter 15). Alliances between diverse tlpes of organizations, includ-
ing community groups, NGOs, government agencies, and university re-
searchers, are a critical step in sustaining and promoting forest patch
conservation (nisher and Bunch, chapter 19).
The mutual biological and human benefits from forest patches pro-
vide the starting point for sustainable forms of landscape management
that considers a broad range of human and ecological benefits. Local
households and communities already value forest patches and engage
in many practices that protect and conserve them. Although often
weighted toward short-term tangible benefits for products and ecologi-
Tntroduction
cal services, these values also include long-term social and cultural ben-
efits. Many household and community forest patch management strate-
I gies also have biological diversity benefits. Conservation and rural de-
velopment agencies, both government and pivate, can support and
supplement rural people's efforts in a variety of ways, including by
(1) rccoSnizing the ways that rural people value and consewe forest
patches;
(2) facilitating community and regional planning to link forest fragments
and provide benefits beyond those achievable by the actions of indi-
vidual landholders alone;
(3) enhancing and creating institutions for conflict resolution, both
within and between communities;
(4) promoting processes for policy changes that remove disincentives
and/or create incentives for consewation;
(5) promoting interchanges between landholders to share existing tech-
nologies between communities and fostering collaborative work by re-
searchers and communities to develop, adapt, and promote new tech-
nologies for forest patch management;
(6) promoting the development of biologically valuable forest patch man-
agetnent systems that provide economig social, and cultural benefits
to rural people, or are otherwise compatible with rural people's liveli-
hoods;
(7) enhancing understanding of the ecological services and other under-
recoSnized values of forest patches;
(B) assisting communities and governments in strengthening tegulations
and enforcement mechanism to sanction misuse of forest resources by
individuals for short-term gains; and
(9) monitoring biological, watershed, and socioeconomic values in land-
scapes to evaluate management success and failures and to develop
adaptive responses.
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Part I
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In the current scenario of rapid conversion of tropical forests into human-dominated activities landscape, the present study was undertaken to understand the role of existing agroforestry systems in conservation of avian species. Three types of agroforestry systems namely tea gardens, homegardens and agrisilviculture were selected in the Brahmaputra North Bank Landscape of Assam, northeast India for the study. A total of 468 point counts revealed 164 bird species belonging to 51 families and 18 orders across all the three different types of agroforestry systems. Tea gardens showed significantly higher bird species richness followed by homegardens and agrisilviculture systems. As per IUCN, four species were categorized as Near Threatened and one species was categorized as Vulnerable. Out of 164 species recorded, 68.3% species were residents, 30.5% species were winter visitors and remaining were summer visitors (1.2%). Majority of the species (45.7%) were common to all the three types of selected agroforestry systems. The feeding guilds revealed that most of the species were insectivorous (50.0%) in habit. A total of 167 tree species belonging to 54 families and 24 orders was recorded across all the three different types of agroforestry systems. The highest tree species richness was recorded in the homegardens (160), followed by agrisilviculture systems (19) and least in tea gardens (11). No statistically significant correlation was found among bird species richness and patch size, tree species richness and number of bird species individuals. The selected agroforestry systems have provided shelter, nesting space, feeding and foraging grounds for birds during the winter season. This data can be useful for the policy makers, tea garden managers, homegarden owners for framing conservation policies of avian species in an era of natural wildlife habitat loss and degradation.
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We have generally become used to the idea that ethnographers are a part of what they study. They live in the community they study and participate in the events and (ideally) in the social and cultural processes which they analyze and interpret. They cannot stand either theoretically or method­ologically outside what they study - even though we do not perhaps all of us always manage to follow through with the implications of this con­dition. The evolutionary ecologist knows implicitly that his professional ac­tivity, like all other human activity, takes place within the evolutionary process. But this orientation towards his subject matter tends to be very different from that of the ethnographer. Other investigators, and particu­larly economists and development planners, study unequivocally from without - they translate the laboratory-objectivity tradition of Western scientific method into the field. The growing emphasis on popular partic­ipation in development planning and implementation draws attention to these differences of orientation. In this chapter a case from Baluchistan will illustrate the significance of the difference.
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Privately owned lands: Their role in nature tourism, education, and conseryation
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Alderrnan, C. L. 1991. "Privately owned lands: Their role in nature tourism, education, and conseryation." In Ecotourism and, Resource Cornetation, editedbyJon A. Kusler, pp.289-323. Berne, NY: Ecotourism and Resource Conservation Project.
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The link between local participation and improved con-servation: A review of issues and experiences In Natu,ral Connectiotts: Perspectives in Community-Based Conser-vationThe farmers of ASACODE lead the way: Social foresfiz development in San Miguel, Costa Rica
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