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RESEARCH ARTICLE
The myth of the De Geer Zone [version 1; peer review:
awaiting peer review]
Jean-Baptiste Koehl 1,2
1Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Québec, H3A 0E8, Canada
2Department of Geosciences, Universitetet i Oslo, Oslo, 0371, Norway
First published: 03 Jan 2024, 4:1
https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.16791.1
Latest published: 03 Jan 2024, 4:1
https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.16791.1
v1
Abstract
Background
Cenozoic rifting in the Arctic and the resulting opening of the
Labrador Sea and the Fram Strait are typically associated with the
movement of the Svalbard Archipelago c. 400 km southwards and its
separation from Greenland. Thus far, most of this tectonic
displacement was ascribed to lateral movement along the N–S-striking
De Geer Zone, a thousand-kilometer-long paleo-transform fault
believed to extend from northwestern Norway to northern Greenland.
Methods
The study presents a new interpretation of tectonic structures on
seismic reflection data north and west of Svalbard.
Results
The present study reports the presence of two km-thick, hundreds of
kilometers long, E–W- to WNW–ESE-striking shear zones, northwest
and west of the island of Spitsbergen, Svalbard, in the Norwegian
Arctic. Contractional structures within the shear zones, their strike, the
inferred transport direction, and the great depth at which they are
found indicate that they formed during the Timanian Orogeny in the
late Neoproterozoic (c. 650–550 Ma). These structures extend at least
80–90 km west of the coastline of Spitsbergen. The presence of
continuous, late Neoproterozoic Timanian thrusts this far west of
Spitsbergen invalidates the occurrence of c. 400 km lateral
movements along the N–S-striking De Geer Zone along the western
Barents Sea–Svalbard margin in the Cenozoic.
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Conclusions
The present results suggest that the De Geer Zone does not exist and
that related fault complexes (e.g., Hornsund Fault Complex) did not
accommodate any strike-slip movement. In addition, the formation of
major NW–SE-striking transform faults in the Fram Strait was
controlled by Timanian thrust systems. The present results call for
major revisions of all current plate tectonics models for the opening of
the Fram Strait and Arctic tectonics in the Cenozoic and for critical
reviews of major fault zones inferred from indirect observations.
Plain language summary
Thus far, the Svalbard Archipelago and Greenland are thought to have
started drifting away from one another during the opening of the
Labrador Sea and subsequently of the Fram Strait in the last 60 million
years. This resulted in the displacement of Svalbard c. 400 km to the
south at its present location. Thus far, most of this lateral
displacement was commonly believed to have occurred along the De
Geer Zone, a major, N–S-striking, presently inactive fault that was
proposed to run in a linear fashion along the coastline of western
Svalbard and extending from northwestern Norway to northern
Greenland. The present results indicate the presence of two, 650–550
million years old, several kilometers thick, hundreds of kilometers
long, WNW–ESE-striking fault zones, which extend well past the
speculated location of the <60 million years old De Geer Zone. The
present study therefore suggest that the De Geer Zone does not exist
and that the area’s tectonic history was largely controlled by
WNW–ESE-striking fault zones, e.g., controlling the location of major
active lateral fault zones in the Fram Strait (e.g., Molloy Fracture Zone).
The study also suggests a need for a revision of the nomenclature
related to fault zones.
Keywords
Svalbard, Fram Strait, transform fault, thrust fault, shear zone,
Cenozoic, De Geer Zone, Hornsund Fault Complex
This article is included in the Earth and
Environmental Sciences gateway.
This article is included in the Horizon 2020
gateway.
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Corresponding author: Jean-Baptiste Koehl (jeanbaptiste.koehl@gmail.com)
Author roles: Koehl JB: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Funding Acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project
Administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Grant information: This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme
under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No [101023439]. This research was also supported by the Research Council of
Norway and the Tromsø Research Foundation through the SEAMSTRESS project (grant number 287865).
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Copyright: © 2024 Koehl JB. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
How to cite this article: Koehl JB. The myth of the De Geer Zone [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] Open Research
Europe 2024, 4:1 https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.16791.1
First published: 03 Jan 2024, 4:1 https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.16791.1
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Introduction
The De Geer Zone is a major structural element of the west
Spitsbergen transform margin that is believed to have accom-
modated 400 kilometers of dextral strike-slip movement during
the opening of the Northeast Atlantic and Arctic oceans and
of the Fram Strait in the Cenozoic (De Geer, 1926; du Toit,
1937; Faleide et al., 1993; Faleide et al., 2008; Harland, 1961;
Harland, 1967; Harland, 1969; Horsfield & Maton, 1970;
Piepjohn et al., 2016; Wegmann, 1948), thus facilitating the
movement of Svalbard towards the south. Despite numerous
studies both onshore and offshore along the western Svalbard
margin, the actual trace of the De Geer Zone remains a
matter of debate (Bergh & Grogan, 2003; Geissler & Jokat,
2004; Myhre et al., 1982; Vogt et al., 1981). This is notably
related to the striking lack of evidence of lateral movement
on seismic datasets (e.g., Austegard et al., 1988; Eiken, 1994;
Gabrielsen et al., 1990; Lasabuda et al., 2018; Riis & Vollset,
1988), apart from a few evidence of minor sinistral strike-slip
displacement (Eiken & Austegard, 1987), which markedly con-
trast with the inferred, dominant dextral component of move-
ment along the De Geer Zone (du Toit, 1937; Faleide et al.,
1993; Harland, 1961; Harland, 1967; Harland, 1969; Horsfield
& Maton, 1970; Lepvrier, 1990; Lepvrier & Geyssand, 1985;
Steel & Worsley, 1984; Steel et al., 1981; Steel et al.,1985;
Wegmann, 1948).
The present study targets two E–W- to WNW–ESE-striking
structures northwest and west of Spitsbergen, respectively the
Risen and Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zones, which
extend c. 80–90 km west of the coastline of Spitsbergen. The
structures appear on several, NNW–SSE- to NNE–SSW-
as well as E–W-oriented 2D seismic lines. The present
contribution describes their overall geometry and that of minor
internal structures. The latter are further discussed to resolve
the kinematics and reactivation history of the main shear
zones. The geometry and kinematics were then used to infer the
possible timing of formation of the structures. The results
have major implications for the opening of the Fram Strait,
fault kinematics along sheared margins (e.g., western Barents
Sea–Svalbard margin) and for the interpretation of major
paleo-transform faults (e.g., De Geer Zone).
The results of the present study suggest that all the current plate
tectonics models for the opening of the Fram Strait should be
updated with new fault lines and kinematics. In addition, the
study calls for a serious reconsideration of all major faults
inferred from indirect observations, generally as necessities to
make up for paleogeographic reconstructions shortcomings,
rather than observed on specific datasets (e.g., Wegener Fault).
A methodology should be set for the classification of major
faults to clearly distinguish tentative faults (e.g., Wegener
Fault and De Geer Zone), e.g., by calling them “lineaments”
or “zones” instead of “faults”, from beyond-reasonable-doubts
faults (e.g., San Andreas fault – Crowell, 1979; Grant
Ludwig et al., 2019; Molnar & Atwater, 1973; Huffman, 1972;
– and Timanian thrusts systems in the Norwegian Barents Sea
and Fram Strait – Klitzke et al., 2019; Koehl, 2020; Koehl
et al., 2022a; Koehl et al., 2023a). Another implication of
the present study is the need to adopt an interdisciplinary
approach when mapping and interpreting major faults, including
at least some regional (e.g., geophysical) datasets, rather than
using exclusively local fieldwork data.
Geological setting
Timanian Orogeny. The Timanian Orogeny is a major episode
of overall top-SSW, late Neoproterozoic (650–550 Ma)
contraction, during which continental lithosphere formed in
the Arctic (e.g., Estrada et al., 2018a; Estrada et al., 2018b;
Gee et al., 2000; Pease et al., 2004; Rekant et al., 2019;
Rosa et al., 2016). This tectonic episode was initially thought
to be restricted to northeastern Norway (Dallmeyer & Reuter,
1989; Gorokhov et al., 2001; Siedlecka, 1975; Siedlecka &
Siedlecki, 1971) and northwestern Russia (Kostyuchenko et al.,
2006; Kuznetsov et al., 2007; Larionov et al., 2004; Lorenz
et al., 2004; Olovyanishnikov et al., 2000; Pease et al., 2004;
Remizov, 2006; Remizov & Pease, 2004). However, recent
studies in Greenland (Estrada et al., 2018a; Rosa et al., 2016),
Arctic Canada (Estrada et al., 2018b), the Lomonosov Ridge
(Rekant et al., 2019), Svalbard (Dallmeyer et al., 1990a;
Faehnrich et al., 2020; Koglin et al., 2022; Majka et al., 2008;
Majka et al., 2012; Manecki et al., 1998; Peucat et al., 1989),
and the Barents Sea (Klitzke et al., 2019; Koehl, 2020; Koehl
et al., 2022a; Koehl et al., 2023a) show that the Timanian
Orogeny extends over a much broader area (Figure 1). These
findings also indicate that the Svalbard Archipelago and the
Barents Sea were already accreted to northern Norway in
the late Neoproterozoic (Koehl, 2020; Koehl et al., 2022a;
Koehl et al., 2023a).
Most Timanian structures strike WNW–ESE to E–W and con-
sist of asymmetric folds and mylonitic brittle–ductile thrusts and
shear zones. These structures were later reworked into dome-
and trough-shaped folds during Caledonian contraction, and
reactivated and/or overprinted during Devonian–Carboniferous
extension, early Cenozoic Eurekan contraction, and late
Cenozoic rifting (Faehnrich et al., 2020; Gabrielsen et al.,
2022; Koehl & Rimando, 2023 submitted; Koehl et al., 2022a;
Koehl et al., 2023a; Siedlecka & Siedlecki, 1971).
A structure of particular interest is the Kinnhøgda–
Daudbjørnpynten fault zone, a 60 km wide, hundreds of
kilometers long thrust system, which extends from the north-
ern Barents Sea to Wedel Jarlsberg Land in southwestern
Spitsbergen (Figure 1). There, the Vimsodden–Kosibapasset
Shear Zone (Mazur et al., 2009) is believed to represent the
onshore continuation of the southern edge of the thrust system
(Koehl et al., 2022a).
Caledonian Orogeny. Caledonian contraction resulted in
the formation of N–S-striking fabrics and structures, both in
Svalbard and the Barents Sea (Birkenmajer, 1975; Birkenmajer,
2004; Braathen et al., 1999; Dumais & Brönner, 2020;
Gernigon et al., 2014; Gudlaugsson et al., 1987; Gudlaugsson
et al., 1998; Hjelle, 1979; Johansson et al., 2004; Johansson
et al., 2005; Koehl et al., 2022a; Koehl et al., 2023a; Manby,
1986; Witt-Nilsson et al., 1998). Major structures include
a well-developed foliation (Gee et al., 1992; Witt-Nilsson
et al., 1998), brittle–ductile thrusts (Birkenmajer, 1975;
Birkenmajer, 2004; Manby, 1986), tens of kilometers wide,
gently north-plunging folds and antiformal (thrust) stacks
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Figure 1. Location of the study area north and northwest of Spitsbergen. The white lines show the location of the seismic sections
discussed. The topographic–bathymetry map is from Jakobsson et al. (2012). The geology of the area is from Gee and Hjelle (1966), Johnson
and Eckho (1966), Faleide et al. (1993), Myhre and Thiede (1995), Bergh et al. (1997), Witt-Nilsson et al. (1998), Bergh and Grogan (2003),
Blinova et al. (2013), Braathen et al. (2018), Koehl and Allaart (2021), Kristoersen et al. (2020), Koehl et al. (2022a). Abbreviations: AA:
Atomfjella Antiform; BA: Bockfjorden Anticline; BeFZ: Bellsundbanken fault zone; Bi: Billefjorden; BiFZ: Billefjorden Fault Zone; DB: Danskøya
Basin; DGZ: De Geer Zone; F: Forlandsundet; HFC: Hornsund Fault Complex; HR: Hovgård Ridge; KCFZ: Kongsfjorden–Cowanodden fault
zone; KDFZ: Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zone; KR: Knipovich Ridge; MFZ: Molloy Fracture Zone; MR: Molloy Ridge; N: Nordaustlandet;
NB: Nansen Bank; NF: Ny-Friesland; NL: Nordenskiöld Land; PKF: Prins Karls Forland; RFZ: Risen fault zone; SFZ: Spitsbergen Fracture Zone;
VR: Vestnesa Ridge; YP: Yermak Plateau.
(Dumais & Brönner, 2020; Gee & Hjelle, 1966; Witt-Nilsson
et al., 1998; Figure 1), and blueschist and eclogite metamor-
phism (Dallmeyer et al., 1990b; Horsfield, 1972; Ohta et al.,
1995). In northwestern Spitsbergen (i.e., closest to the study
area), basement rocks consist of Grenvillian metasedimen-
tary and metaigneous rocks, which were later reworked and
intruded by granitic plutons during the Caledonian Orogeny
(Gee & Hjelle, 1966; Hjelle, 1979; Myhre et al., 2008; Pettersson
et al., 2009a; Pettersson et al., 2009b).
Devonian–Carboniferous extension. Late- to post-orogenic
extensional collapse of the Caledonides resulted in the deposi-
tion of thick (c. 9–10 km thick) Devonian sedimentary rocks
(Dallmann & Piepjohn, 2020; Friend, 1961; Friend et al., 1997;
Friend & Moody-Stuart, 1972; Gernigon et al., 2014; Murascov
& Mokin, 1979) along low-angle detachments (Braathen
et al., 2018; Chorowicz, 1992; Koehl et al., 2018; Maher
et al., 2022; Roy, 2007; Roy, 2009) in northern Spitsbergen.
In the Carboniferous, extension slowed down, and kilometre-
thick sedimentary rocks of the Billefjorden and Gipsdalen
groups were deposited in subsiding basins, both along inherited
Timanian and Caledonian fabrics (Cutbill & Challinor, 1965;
Cutbill et al., 1976; Koehl et al., 2018; Koehl-Muñoz-
Barrera, 2018; McCann & Dallmann, 1996; Samuelsberg et al.,
2003; Smyrak-Sikora et al., 2018). Note that the Late Devonian
Svalbardian Orogeny is now thought not to have occurred in
Svalbard and will therefore not be discussed in the present
contribution (Koehl et al., 2022b and references therein).
Early Cenozoic Eurekan contraction. In the Paleocene,
the opening of the Labrador Sea and possibly of Baffin Bay
was accompanied by an episode of contraction in northern
Greenland and western Spitsbergen, which resulted in the
formation of the West Spitsbergen Fold-and-Thrust Belt
(Dallmann et al., 1993; Gion et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2017;
Oakey & Chalmers, 2012). Major folds and thrusts in the belt
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strike N–S to NNW–SSE, i.e., parallel to the coastline in western
Spitsbergen (Bergh & Grogan, 2003; Dallmann et al., 1993;
Lyberis & Manby, 2001; Maher, 1988; Maher et al., 1986;
Maher et al., 1989; Maher et al., 1997; Manby, 1986; Manby
& Lyberis, 2001a; Manby & Lyberis, 2001b; Tessensohn
et al., 2001a; Tessensohn et al., 2001b; Tessensohn et al.,
2001c; von Gosen & Piepjohn, 2001; Welbon & Maher, 1992).
Contraction faded as rifting and seafloor spreading initiated
in the northeastern Atlantic and Arctic oceans at ca. 56 Ma
near the Paleocene–Eocene boundary. Svalbard and Greenland
are then believed to have gradually sled past one another along
a major paleo-transform fault, the De Geer Zone, which is
thought to have accommodated c. 400 km of dextral strike-slip
movement prior to breakup in the Fram Strait (du Toit,
1937; Faleide et al., 1993; Harland, 1961; Harland, 1967;
Harland, 1969; Horsfield & Maton, 1970; Piepjohn et al.,
2016; Wegmann, 1948). The main segment of the De Geer
Zone, the Hornsund Fault Complex, was mapped on seismic
data as a series of steep, east- and west-dipping faults bound-
ing N–S-trending basement ridges, e.g., Nansen Bank in the
west, from sedimentary basins, e.g., the Danskøya Basin in the
east (Figure 1; Austegard et al., 1988; Bergh & Grogan, 2003;
Eiken, 1994; Eiken & Austegard, 1987; Faleide et al., 1993;
Gabrielsen et al., 1990; Geissler & Jokat, 2004; Grogan
et al., 1999; Mann & Townsend, 1989; Myhre et al., 1982;
Riis & Vollset, 1988; Vogt et al., 1981). However, indica-
tors of strike-slip movements along the De Geer Zone and
Hornsund Fault Complex are difficult to identify and are
thought to have been overprinted by later extensional structures,
which dominate the margin at present.
According to previous studies, the De Geer Zone and
Hornsund Fault Complex are either one and the same
structure (e.g., Bergh & Grogan, 2003; Faleide et al., 1993) or
discrete structures (e.g., Kristoffersen et al., 2020; Piepjohn
et al., 2016; Figure 1). However, should they be separate
structures, there is no direct evidence of the western one (the
De Geer Zone). Nevertheless, the lack of evidence support-
ing strike-slip movement along the Hornsund Fault Complex
(Austegard et al., 1988; Eiken, 1994; Riis & Vollset, 1988)
generates a need for an extra tentative (yet to be observed) fault
zone to the west, farther offshore.
Late Cenozoic rifting. Breakup in the Fram Strait may have ini-
tiated at ca. 24 Ma (Chron 7; Engen et al., 2008), i.e., much
later than the northeastern Atlantic and the Arctic oceans (at ca.
56 Ma; Faleide et al., 1993; Faleide et al., 2008). From then,
transform movements are thought to have been accommo-
dated by two, c. 200 km long transform faults, the Molloy and
Spitsbergen fracture zones (Crane et al., 1982; Johnson &
Eckhoff, 1966; Myhre & Thiede, 1995; Thiede et al., 1990).
At that time, N–S-striking faults such as the Hornsund Fault
Complex were reactivated as normal faults, developed a listric
geometry, and accommodated the deposition of thick mid–upper
Cenozoic (Oligocene–?) Miocene–Quaternary sediments (e.g.,
Danskøya Basin; Eiken, 1993; Eiken, 1994; Geissler & Jokat,
2004; Geissler et al., 2011). The Forlandsundet Graben is
generally thought to have formed during this stage although
accurate age constraints for sediment deposition are still
lacking (Livshits, 1992; Manby, 1986; Schaaf et al., 2020).
In addition, the relationship of the graben sediments with
adjacent basement rocks (not necessarily faulted) indicates
that a formation during the Eurekan event might be possible
too (Gabrielsen et al., 1992; Kleinspehn & Teyssier, 1992;
Kleinspehn & Teyssier, 2016; Lepvrier, 1990). Rifting was
accompanied by magmatism in the Miocene as documented by
lava flows onshore northern Svalbard (Prestvik, 1978; Skjelkvåle
et al., 1989).
Methods
Two-Way Time (TWT) 2D seismic data from the Norwegian
National Data Repository for Petroleum Data (DISKOS data-
base) and of the University of Bergen around Spitsbergen
were analyzed to map a basement-seated structure west of
Spitsbergen (see Extended data: Supplement S1 for an over-
view of the database used (Koehl, 2023b)). Petrel (version
2021.3) was used to interpret the data, which may also be
interpreted via OpendTect, a free open-source alternative
software. The figures were designed using CorelDraw 2017
(GIMP is a freely available open-source alternative). High-
resolution versions of the figures and supplements are avail-
able on DataverseNO (Koehl, 2023a; https://doi.org/10.18710/
J98MLA). These are necessary to observe the described structures
in their full resolution. Additional seismic sections are also avail-
able online as electronic supplements on DataverseNO (Koehl,
2023b; https://doi.org/10.18710/KUQNII).
To interpret the data, our descriptions were compared to previ-
ous seismic studies around the Svalbard Archipelago and the
Barents Sea and onshore field studies in Svalbard, as well as to
other studies of seismic reflection data worldwide. Notewor-
thy, in order to be as conservative as possible, it was assumed
that the De Geer Zone and the Hornsund Fault Complex are
discrete structures, i.e., that the De Geer Zone might be located
west of Prins Karls Forland although no tangible evidence sup-
porting this has been found thus far (Figure 1). This implies
that the hereby drawn conclusions would also be valid, if
not more resounding, should these two structures be one.
When analyzing seismic data, numerous examples of seismic
artifacts were identified. These are indicated on the interpreted
seismic sections but are not further discussed as they are not the
focus of the present work. Notable artifacts include multiples,
diffraction, and bottom-simulating reflections.
Phanerozoic sedimentary successions north of Spitsbergen were
previously studied and extensively described by previous stud-
ies (among others, Eiken, 1993; Eiken, 1994; Eiken & Austegard,
1987; Geissler & Jokat, 2004) and are therefore not mentioned
because they are out of scope of the present contribution.
Results
Description
Seismic reflection data reveal the occurrence of two seismic
packages of interest displaying moderate-amplitude, asymmet-
ric seismic reflections separated by linear disruption surfaces
within basement rocks north and west of Spitsbergen (Figure 2,
Figure 3, and Figure 4). The package north of Spitsbergen is
5–8 km wide and 1.0–1.5 second (TWT) thick and shows
reflections and disruption surfaces dipping dominantly to the
south (Figure 2). The package west of Nordenskiöld Land
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Figure 2. (a) Interpreted and (b) uninterpreted N–S-oriented seismic section showing the south-dipping geometry of the Risen fault zone
and that of internal north-verging folds, extensional duplexes, and mylonitic shear surfaces. Notice the reverse oset of the Top-basement
reection by a minor top-south thrust in the south and a number of seismic artifacts just north of the Risen fault zone (dashed white lines).
Location is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 3. (a) Interpreted and (b) uninterpreted along-strike seismic section showing the undulating, gently folded geometry of the Risen
fault zone and related basement structures within and around the shear zone (dominantly symmetric open folds). Notice the washed-out
zone below the conical ridge in the east (dotted black lines), which is possibly related to magmatic intrusions below a volcanic cone and
associated lava ows (dotted white lines). See location in Figure 1 and legend in Figure 2.
(Figure 1) is 5–12 km wide, 1.0–2.5 second (TWT) thick and
displays a general dip to the north-northeast (Figure 4). The
package of south-dipping reflections extends from a depth
of ca. 2.5 (locally 2.0) seconds up to 9.0 seconds in the west
(TWT) and is bounded by two prominent disruption sur-
faces that truncate adjacent gently undulating basement
reflections (Figure 2 and Figure 5a–b and Supplement S2
(Koehl, 2023a)). The package west of Nordenskiöld Land
extends from a minimum depth of 0.5 second (TWT) just west
of the coast to a depth of at least 5.5 second (TWT) in the west
(Figure 4 and Supplement S3 (Koehl, 2023a)).
In N–S- to NNW–SSE-oriented seismic cross sections, the
upper part of the package north of Spitsbergen (ca. 2.5 to
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Figure 4. (a) Interpreted and (b) uninterpreted NNW–SSE seismic section showing the northern ank of the NNE-dipping Kinnhøgda–
Daudbjørnpynten fault zone and that of internal south-verging folds, duplexes, and mylonitic shear surfaces. Notice the steeply to moderately
NNE-dipping geometry of the shallow brittle faults in the south indicating mostly dip-slip kinematics, whereas shallow brittle over the
northernmost edge of the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zone in the north are subvertical thus indicating a strike-slip component.
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5.0 seconds TWT) and the entirety of the package west of
Nordenskiöld Land show strongly curving, typically a few hun-
dreds of meters wide reflections with large (curving) amplitude.
Within both packages, the strongly curving reflections show a
pronounced asymmetry. North of Spitsbergen, the reflections
consist dominantly of long and gently dipping southern limbs
and of narrower, more steeply dipping northern limbs as if
“leaning” towards the north (Figure 2 and Figure 5a–b and
Supplement S2 (Koehl, 2023a)). The opposite is true for the
package west of Nordenskiöld Land, where asymmetric curv-
ing reflections show elongated, gently dipping northern limbs
and shorter, steeply dipping southern limbs (Figure 4 and
Supplement S3 (Koehl, 2023a)). Above the described packages,
the Top-basement reflection displays a rugose geometry,
which differs from its generally smooth character elsewhere
(Figure 2 and Figure 4). The lower part of the package of south-
dipping reflections in the north (below 5.0 seconds TWT)
displays dominantly Z-shaped reflections (yellow lines in
Figure 5c–d) occurring in elongated aggregates, which parallel
and are separated from one another by major disruption
surfaces (red lines in Figure 2 and Figure 5c–d). The package
west of Nordenskiöld Land also displays Z-shaped reflections
in places (Supplement S3 (Koehl, 2023a)), but reflections
with S-shaped geometries are also observed (Figure 4).
In E–W-oriented (along-strike) seismic sections, both packages
display a gently undulating geometry with a wavelength of
c. 10–20 km (e.g., Figure 3). Internal reflections also show
gently undulating, open, and rather symmetric geometries
(locally slightly asymmetric) with wavelengths in the range
of 0.5–1.0 km (Figure 3). The overall undulating geometry of
the two major packages also appears on the depth map, which
shows that the 10–15 km wide folds are characterized by a
south-plunging geometry for the package northwest of
Spitsbergen and by a northern plunge for the package west of
Nordenskiöld Land (Figure 6). Both packages also shows a
gently undulating geometry in map view and pinch out below the
Top-basement reflection in places, with a dominant E–W strike
alternating with ENE–WSW and WNW–ESE strikes locally
for the northern package, and alternating WNW–ESE- and
E–W-striking segments for the package west of Nordenskiöld
Land (Figure 1 and Figure 6).
Seismic cross sections also show the presence of asymmetric
curving reflections in basement rocks adjacent to both pack-
ages at depth of 2.5 to 3.5 seconds (TWT) north of Spitsbergen
(Figure 2) and 0.7–3.0 seconds (TWT) west of Nordenskiöld
Land (Figure 4). In the north, a notable difference is the oppo-
site vergence of the reflections, i.e., “southward-leaning” with
Figure 5. (a) Interpreted and (b) uninterpreted zoom in the upper part of the Risen fault zone consisting of asymmetric, north-verging
folds and mylonitic surfaces. Notice the rugose morphology of the Top-basement reection above the Risen fault zone. (c) Interpreted and
(d) uninterpreted zoom in the lower part of the Risen fault zone showing down-south extensional duplexes separated by mylonitic shear
surfaces. See location and legend in Figure 2.
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large, gently dipping northern limbs and short, steeply dipping
southern limbs (Figure 2). These reflections are crosscut
by gently north-dipping disruption surfaces across which
they are offset and may, in places, be correlated with their
offset counterpart. One of these disruption surfaces extends
across the Top-basement reflection, showing a minor (a few hun-
dreds of meters) top-south reverse offset, but does not extend
into overlying seismic reflections. By contrast, several shal-
low disruption surfaces are seen to crosscut the Top-basement
surface west of Nordenskiöld Land (Figure 4). Above the major
NNE-dipping package, these surfaces show steeply to moderately
NNE-dipping, listric geometries, merge at depth with major
disruption surfaces within the NNE-dipping package and are
associated with reverse and normal offsets of the Top-basement
reflection in the south (black lines in Figure 4). Just
north of the major package, a few subvertical disruption
surfaces are associated with narrow, triangular uplifts and minor
vertical offsets of the Top-basement reflections (orange lines
Figure 6. Depth map (in seconds TWT) of the south-dipping Risen fault zone lower envelope. The map shows that the Risen and
Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zones extend well across and past the location of the De Geer Zone and Hornsund Fault Complex
west of Spitsbergen. Notice the similar strike and width of the south-plunging folds of the Risen fault zone and of the north-plunging
fold of the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zone west of Spitsbergen to that of major Caledonian fold structures onshore Spitsbergen
(e.g., Bockfjorden Anticline and Atomfjella Antiform). Abbreviations: AA: Atomfjella Antiform; AL: Andrée Land; BA: Bockfjorden Anticline; Bi:
Billefjorden; Bø: Brøggerhalvøya: DGZ: De Geer Zone; F: Forlandsundet; HFC: Hornsund Fault Complex; KCFZ: Kongsfjorden–Cowanodden
fault zone; KDFZ: Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zone; NF: Ny-Friesland; PKF: Prins Karls Forland; RFZ: Risen fault zone; WJL: Wedel
Jarlsberg Land.
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in Figure 4). Most of these disruption surfaces die out ca. 0.1
second (TWT) below the seafloor reflection except for one
subvertical surface, which extends all the way to the seafloor
(Figure 4). Both the listric and the subvertical disruption
surfaces correlate with gentle open folding of the seafloor
(Figure 4).
North of Spitsbergen, the southeastern part of the package of
south-dipping reflections is seemingly crosscut by a zone with
subvertical disruptions below a 3–5 km wide conical ridge
(dotted black lines in Figure 3). Above the Top-basement
reflection, the ridge is associated with ca. 0.1 second thick
packages of moderate amplitude reflections, which pinch
out within 5 km from the ridge giving the ridge and the related
pinching out packages a Christmas-tree geometry (dotted
white lines in Figure 3).
Interpretation
The asymmetric and curving reflections in the upper part of the
package of south-dipping reflections north of Spitsbergen in
seismic cross sections are interpreted as tightly folded bed-
ding surfaces in Precambrian–early Paleozoic metasedimentary
rocks (Figure 2 and Figure 5a–b). The “northward-leaning”
geometry of individual reflections suggests that they corre-
spond to north-verging folds reflecting top-north thrusting
(Figure 2 and Figure 5a–b and Supplement S2). Conversely,
“southward-leaning” asymmetric reflections within the major
NNE-dipping package west of Nordenskiöld Land are inter-
preted as SSW-verging folds (Figure 4 and Supplement S3). The
interpretation is supported by previous seismic studies in the
Barents Sea reporting similar reflection geometries (Koehl,
2020; Koehl et al., 2022a; Koehl et al., 2023a).
The S- and Z-shaped reflections in the lower part of the pack-
age of south-dipping reflections in the north and locally in the
NNE-dipping package west of Nordenkiöld Land are inter-
preted as tightly folded bedding surfaces in metasedimen-
tary rocks offset and stacked onto one another by minor brittle
faults (Figure 2 and Figure 5c–d). The resulting aggregates of
S- and Z-shaped reflections are interpreted as duplex structures
(Boyer & Elliott, 1982; McClay, 1992). Such geometries
are not unusual for pre-Caledonian basement rocks in
the Barents Sea (Koehl, 2020; Koehl et al., 2022a; Koehl
et al., 2023a) and onshore Svalbard (Bergh et al., 1997; Bergh
et al., 2000; Braathen et al., 1999). The dominant Z-like
shape for reflection aggregates in the lower part of the south-
dipping package north of Spitsbergen and locally within the
NNE-dipping package west of Nordenskiöld Land suggest a
down-south and down-NNE component of extensional move-
ment respectively (Figure 2 and Supplement S3). On the
contrary, S-shaped reflections within the package west of
Nordenskiöld Land suggest top-SSW contractional movement
(Figure 4).
Both the disruption surfaces bounding and within the two
major packages truncate the interpreted duplexes and asym-
metric folds. They are therefore interpreted as major faults
(Figure 2). Furthermore, the rugose geometry of the Top-basement
reflection above these major packages indicates differen-
tial erosion of basement rocks within the two packages
(Figure 2 and Figure 4). This suggests the occurrence of
significant rheological contrasts within the packages. A probable
cause may be the presence of relatively strong mylonitic shear
zones around major faults and slip surfaces alternating with
weaker zones of non- to less-mylonitic zones (e.g., Fountain
et al., 1984; Hurich et al., 1985), i.e., reflecting strain partition-
ing within a major shear zone. Thus, the 5–12 km wide packages
are interpreted as major south- and NNE-dipping shear zones.
This interpretation is consistent with basement subcrops above
shear zones and with the geometry of major shear zone else-
where (Collanega et al., 2019; Fazlikhani et al., 2017;
Fountain et al., 1984; Koehl et al., 2018; Koehl et al.,
2022a; Koehl et al., 2023a; Lenhart et al., 2019; Phillips &
McCaffrey, 2019; Phillips et al., 2016; Phillips et al., 2019). The
package north of Spitsbergen is hereby named the Risen fault
zone. The package west of Nordenskiöld Land is interpreted
as the continuation of the northern flank of the Kinnhøgda–
Daudbjørnpynten fault zone. This is supported by the alignment
of the shear zone location and matching strike, dip and geom-
etry with the northern edge of the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten
fault zone in Storfjorden just east of southern Spitsbergen
(Koehl et al., 2022a; Figure 1). As a result, the Kinnhøgda–
Daudbjørnpynten fault zone is now believed to extend the
entire width (along a N–S axis) of Wedel Jarlsberg Land
(Figure 1).
Comparably, asymmetric, “southward-leaning” reflections
within shallow basement rocks (depth of 2.5–3.5 seconds TWT)
and truncating disruption surfaces south of the south-dipping
shear zone north of Spitsbergen are interpreted as south-
verging folds and top-south brittle (–ductile?) thrusts (Figure 2).
The truncation of the Top-basement reflection by the largest
top-south thrust suggests a reactivation of this thrust during a
subsequent event of contraction, possibly in the early Cenozoic
during the Eurekan event as suggested by its truncation of the
Top-basement reflection but not of overlying upper
Cenozoic sedimentary strata (Figure 2). Alternatively, this thrust
might be younger than all the surrounding structures, but this
is considered highly unlikely because the strong rheological
discontinuities at and around the Risen fault zone and other
north-dipping thrusts would certainly have been reactivated
or overprinted. This would have probably resulted in the
truncation of the Top-basement reflection elsewhere prior to
the formation of a brand-new thrust.
West of Nordenskiöld Land, the shallow disruption sur-
faces are interpreted as Cenozoic brittle faults because they
crosscut overlying, probably lower Cenozoic (Blinova et al.,
2009; Gabrielsen et al., 1992) sedimentary rocks and coin-
cide with mild folding of the seafloor (Figure 4). The listric
faults are associated with both reverse and normal offsets of the
Top-basement reflection (black lines in Figure 4), therefore
suggesting that they correspond to early Cenozoic Eurekan
thrusts reactivated as normal faults during the opening of
the Fram Strait. The merging geometry of these faults with
mylonitic surfaces within the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten
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fault zone suggest that the latter controlled the formation of the
former (Figure 4). By contrast, the subvertical geometry of the
brittle faults just north of the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten
fault zone and the associated triangular uplift and minor
or lack of vertical offset of seismic reflections across these
faults suggest that they accommodated dominantly strike-slip
movement (orange lines in Figure 4).
The gently folded geometry of the Risen and Kinnhøgda–
Daudbjørnpynten fault zones and internal symmetric (to mildly
asymmetric) reflections in E–W-oriented (along-strike) seismic
sections and their undulating geometry in map view suggest
reworking of the shear zones into open folds during a subse-
quent tectonic event involving contraction (sub-) parallel or
slightly oblique to the shear zones (Figure 3 and Figure 6). This
is further discussed in the first chapter of the discussion.
The relationship of the conical ridge with pinching out reflec-
tion packages within mid-upper Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
overlying basement rocks suggest that the ridge consists
of material younger than the age of the local Precambrian–
early Paleozoic basement rocks. The Christmas-tree geom-
etry of the ridge and associated pinching-out packages suggest
that it may represent a salt diapir with mass transport depos-
its and carbonate mounds on a diapir’s flanks (e.g., Giles &
Rowan, 2012), or a volcanic cone with draping lava sequences
(Magee et al., 2019; Phillips & Magee, 2020). Based on the
geology of nearby onshore areas, the presence of evaporites in
metamorphosed pre-Caledonian basement rocks is considered
highly unlikely. However, Miocene lava flows are found at
various localities in northern Spitsbergen (Prestvik, 1978;
Skjelkvåle et al., 1989). It is therefore probable that the
conical ridge and pinching-out packages reflect Miocene
magmatism.
Discussion
Timing of formation of the margin-oblique shear zones
and related structures
The E–W and WNW–ESE strikes and top-north and top-SSW
kinematics of internal structures (e.g., north- and SSW-
verging folds; Figure 2, Figure 4, and Figure 5a–b) of the two
interpreted shear zones northwest and west of Spitsbergen
suggest that they unlikely formed during the Caledonian or
Eurekan events, which resulted in margin-parallel, N–S- to
NNW–SSW-striking, dominantly east-verging folds and top-east
thrusts (e.g., Bergh & Grogan, 2003; Birkenmajer, 1975;
Birkenmajer, 2004; Dallmann et al., 1993; Dumais & Brönner,
2020; Gee et al., 1994; Hjelle, 1979; Johansson
et al., 2004; Johansson et al., 2005; Lyberis & Manby, 1999;
Lyberis & Manby, 2001; Maher, 1988; Maher et al., 1986;
Maher et al., 1989; Maher et al., 1997; Manby, 1986; Manby
& Lyberis, 2001a; Manby & Lyberis, 2001b; Tessensohn
et al., 2001a; Tessensohn et al., 2001b; Tessensohn et al.,
2001c; Welbon & Maher, 1992; Witt-Nilsson et al., 1998;
von Gosen & Piepjohn, 2001). The shear zones strike (sub-)
parallel to Timanian structures in northern Norway, northwest-
ern Russia, the Barents Sea, and Svalbard (Faehnrich et al.,
2020; Gabrielsen et al., 2022; Herrevold et al., 2009; Klitzke
et al., 2019; Koehl et al., 2022a; Koehl et al.,
2023a; Koehl et al., 2023b; Korago et al., 2004;
Kostyuchenko et al., 2006; Lopatin et al., 2001; Lorenz et al.,
2004; Majka et al., 2008; Majka et al., 2012; Mazur et al.,
2009; Olovyanishnikov et al., 2000; Siedlecka, 1975). In addi-
tion, they show a similar geometry (i.e., moderately dipping
in seismic cross section and undulating geometry in map view
and in along-strike seismic sections; Figure 3 and Figure 6),
consist of similar structures (e.g., mylonitic fault surfaces,
duplexes, asymmetric folds and thrusts), and are located at a
similar depth (i.e., c. 0.5–9.0 s TWT) as most Timanian thrusts
in the Barents Sea and Svalbard. It is therefore probable that
both shear zones formed during the Timanian Orogeny in
the late Neoproterozoic. This is notably supported by the
alignment of the shear zone west of Nordenskiöld Land with
the northern edge of the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault
zone in Storfjorden in the Barents Sea (Figure 1 and Figure 6).
The undulating geometry of the shear zones both in map view
and in along-strike seismic sections suggests folding during
a post-Timanian event involving E–W-oriented contraction.
This is consistent with the largely accepted occurrence of the
Caledonian Orogeny in Svalbard, which partly reworked Tima-
nian thrusts and shear zones into N–S-striking folds in northern
Norway, the Barents Sea, and Svalbard (Gabrielsen et al., 2022;
Koehl et al., 2022a; Koehl et al., 2023a; Siedlecka & Siedlecki,
1971). Notice the coincidence along a N–S- to NNW–SSE-
trending axis of the wide, south- and north-plunging anticlines
respectively of the Risen and Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten
fault zones and of Prins Karls Forland, which may very well
be part of the same Caledonian anticline (Figure 6). Further
reworking and overprinting occurred during the Eurekan
event in the early Cenozoic and in the late Cenozoic during
rifting. Eurekan contractional deformation is suggested by
the minor reverse offsets (a few hundreds of meters) of the
Top-basement reflection by a north-dipping brittle thrust
northwest of Spitsbergen (Figure 2) and by listric reverse
faults west of Nordenskiöld Land (Figure 4). Late Cenozoic
rift-related overprinting is supported by normal offsets by listric
faults and strike-slip faulting west of Nordenskiöld Land
(Figure 4). The coincidence of the strike-slip faults with
gentle folding of the seafloor and the propagation of one
of them up to the seafloor reflection suggest very recent
strike-slip movement. The location of these faults and their
strike coincide and align with that of the Molloy Fracture Zone
(Figure 1). Since the minor strike-slip faults seem to die out
to the west (Supplement S3), they are not directly linked with
the Molloy Fracture Zone. Nevertheless, the 60 km wide,
hundreds of kilometers long Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten
fault zone represents a major discontinuity in the crust and
it is therefore probable that it controlled the formation and
NNE-dipping geometry (e.g., Koehl et al., 2021; Thiede
et al., 1990) of the Molloy Fracture Zone in the late Cenozoic.
The study area north of Spitsbergen was previously suggested
to consist of a U-shaped Devonian collapse basin based on seis-
mic refraction data (Ritzmann & Jokat, 2003). The northern
flank of the basin (see their Figure 8) coincides with the loca-
tion c. 50 km north of Spitsbergen and mimics the south-dipping
geometry of the Risen fault zone (depth of ca. 2.5–3.0 seconds
TWT; Figure 2). The E–W trend of the basin does not fit that of
Devonian basins in Svalbard, e.g., N–S-striking Andrée Land
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and Raudfjorden basins in northern Spitsbergen (Braathen
et al., 2018; Braathen et al., 2020; Burov & Semevskij, 1979;
Dallmann & Piepjohn, 2020; Friend & Moody-Stuart, 1972;
Friend et al., 1966; Friend et al., 1997; Gee & Moody-Stuart,
1966; Manby & Lyberis, 1992; McCann, 2000; Murascov &
Mokin, 1979). In addition, the overall U-shaped (folded?) geom-
etry of the basin is not compatible with that of a Devonian
basin in Svalbard because of the lack of a major N–S-oriented
contractional event after the Timanian Orogeny. Notably,
recent studies suggested that the Late Devonian Svalbardian
Orogeny did not occur in Svalbard (Berry & Marshall,
2015; Koehl et al., 2022b; Lindemann et al., 2013; Marshall
et al., 2015; Newmann et al., 2019; Newmann et al., 2020;
Newmann et al., 2021; Scheibner et al., 2012). It is therefore
more probable that the basin north of Spitsbergen consists of
pre-Caledonian metasedimentary rocks, which were folded dur-
ing the Timanian and Caledonian orogenies. Nevertheless,
post-Caledonian collapse may have occurred along the inher-
ited Timanian Risen fault zone as indicated by the extensional
duplexes within the shear zone (Figure 2 and Figure 5c–d).
West of Nordenskiöld Land, part of the interpreted continua-
tion of the Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zone was previ-
ously interpreted as an extensional detachment crosscut by the
Hornsund Fault Complex to the west (Blinova et al., 2009).
This is in agreement with the interpreted extensional reactiva-
tion of the shear zone (e.g., Z-shaped extensional duplexes;
Figure 4). However, although previous studies did partly
notice the uplift of the Top-basement reflection along the
shear zone (see WNW–ESE-striking ridge within the Bellsund
Graben in Blinova et al., 2009 their Figure 11), they did not
recognize evidence of top-SSW contractional deformation
within the shear zone (Figure 4). In addition, although the shear
zone is partly eroded to the west in the hinge of the major north-
plunging anticline (Figure 6), it continues westwards below
Cenozoic sedimentary rocks (Supplement S3), across the loca-
tion of the Hornsund Fault Complex and of the De Geer
Zone (Figure 1 and Figure 6). Blinova et al. (2009) also
identified minor strike-slip faults in the area, although they
ascribed them E–W rather than WNW–ESE strikes.
Implications for the De Geer Zone and plate tectonics
reconstructions
The De Geer Zone and its main segment, the Hornsund Fault
Complex, are believed to run ≤ 50 km (presumably less) west
of Spitsbergen and to continue farther north along the western
edge of the Yermak Plateau (e.g., Faleide et al., 2008; Geissler
& Jokat, 2004) or to step or bend to the east onto the Yermak
Plateau (Kristoffersen et al., 2020). The occurrence of two
undisrupted, late Neoproterozoic, WNW–ESE- to E–W-striking
shear zones (Risen and Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault
zones) extending at least 80 km west of the coastline of north-
west and west of Spitsbergen and not showing any sign of
lateral or vertical offset (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 4, and
Figure 6, and Supplements S2 and S3) unambiguously indi-
cates that hundreds of kilometers dextral movements along the
De Geer Zone and related faults like the Hornsund Fault
Complex did not occur. This suggests that the De Geer Zone,
which was largely speculated from the N–S-trending and
linear morphology of the western Barents Sea–Svalbard and
conjugate northern Greenland margins (De Geer, 1926;
du Toit, 1937; Harland, 1961; Harland, 1967; Harland, 1969;
Horsfield & Maton, 1970; Wegmann, 1948) does not exist,
and that its main fault segment, the Hornsund Fault Complex,
most likely accommodated vertical fault movements as
suggested by its listric geometry (Austegard et al., 1988; Eiken,
1994; Geissler & Jokat, 2004).
Notably, Austegard et al. (1988) reported that all the structures
west of Svalbard are extensional and that there are only very
few occurrences of strike-slip movements. In addition, the
only sparse evidence potentially indicating lateral movement
is conflicting. For example, the possible sinistral strike-slip
sense of shear indicated by right stepping geometries of
margin-parallel brittle faults (Eiken & Austegard, 1987)
contrast with the major component of dextral strike-slip
tectonics required for the commonly proposed sheared margin
model of the De Geer Zone (du Toit, 1937; Faleide et al., 1993;
Harland, 1961; Harland, 1967; Harland, 1969; Horsfield &
Maton, 1970; Lepvrier, 1990; Lepvrier & Geyssand, 1985;
Steel & Worsley, 1984; Steel et al., 1981, Steel et al., 1985;
Wegmann, 1948). This is consistent with our interpreta-
tion of a general lack of lateral movement along N–S-striking
structures and with that of most previous offshore studies along
the western Barents Sea–Svalbard margin (e.g., Eiken, 1994;
Riis & Vollset, 1988).
Another argument against the existence of the De Geer Zone
or any N–S-striking Cenozoic paleo-transform fault along
the western Barents Sea–Svalbard margin is the inferred dis-
placement rate, which is way too high. The De Geer Zone is
believed to have accommodated about 400 km from breakup in
the northeastern Atlantic and the Arctic oceans at ca. 56 Ma
to breakup in the Fram Strait at ca. 24 Ma (du Toit, 1937;
Faleide et al., 1993; Harland, 1961; Harland, 1967; Harland,
1969; Horsfield & Maton, 1970; Wegmann, 1948). This
amounts to a rate of 125 mm per year, i.e., approximately
three times more than the San Andreas fault in California. By
comparison, the San Andreas fault is typically believed to have
accommodated movements in the range of 30 to 50 mm per
year for the past 10 million years, i.e., c. 40 km of total lateral
displacement (e.g., Crowell, 1979; Grant Ludwig et al., 2019;
Huffman, 1972; Molnar & Atwater, 1973). A major issue is
that the San Andreas fault accommodates transform move-
ments along a margin adjacent to a fast-spreading ridge (with
matching half spreading rate and fault displacement), whereas
the mid-ocean ridge in the northeastern Atlantic and Arctic
oceans is a slow- to ultra-slow-spreading ridge and therefore
cannot justify such a large lateral slip rate along any paleo-
transform like the De Geer Zone (e.g., Müller et al., 2008).
Note that the current rate of movement along the San
Andreas fault is 20 to 35 mm per year based on the data of the
Southern California Earthquake Data Center (scedc.caltech.
edu/earthquake/sanandreas.html), i.e., lower than the estimate
used here for the past 10 million years. This is supported by
many other studies (e.g., Murray et al., 2014; Titus et al., 2005;
van der Woerd et al., 2006). This inconsistency further illus-
trates the incompatibility of a major, thousands of kilometers
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long, N–S-striking transform fault off the western coasts of
Svalbard and northern Greenland with the geological history
of the area and all the current datasets.
It must be said that hundreds of kilometers of lateral movements
along the De Geer Zone are not required to explain the geom-
etry of the Svalbard and Greenland margins and the opening
of the Fram Strait. Firstly, half of the distance Svalbard moved
away from Greenland in the Cenozoic (c. 200 km) was accom-
modated by lateral movements along the two, c. 200 km long,
NW–SE-striking transform faults in the Fram Strait, the Molloy
and Spitsbergen fracture zones (Crane et al., 1982; Johnson &
Eckhoff, 1966; Myhre & Thiede, 1995; Thiede et al., 1990).
Secondly, other mechanisms may very well account for the
remaining 200 km movements. Among others, the reactivation
of dominantly top-SSW Timanian thrusts during the Eurekan
event (e.g., Koehl, 2020; Koehl, 2021; Koehl et al., 2022a;
present study, Figure 2 and Figure 4) and associated folding
along a WNW–ESE-trending axis in the early Cenozoic,
e.g., in the Sørvestnaget Basin (Kristensen et al., 2017),
north of the Loppa High (Koehl et al., 2023a), and north of
Svalbard (Figure 2), support such a claim. Preliminary results
indicate that at least 150 km of post-Caledonian N–S shortening
was accommodated by Timanian thrusts (Koehl, 2020). However,
more work is needed to refine this early estimate as more
Timanian thrusts and related margin-oblique structures are
being discovered (e.g., Risen fault zone). Nonetheless, the
present results suggest major revisions in all Phanerozoic plate
reconstructions for Arctic regions (e.g., Faleide et al., 2008;
Nemcok et al., 2016) also because it suggests that the
continent–ocean boundary in the Fram Strait is located at least
80–90 km to the west of Spitsbergen.
The present study also shows the danger of using mostly local
onshore structural fieldwork in deeply eroded Arctic areas like
Svalbard to resolve regional tectonic issues. Such biases are
illustrated in Koehl and Allaart (2021), whose work shows
that the Billefjorden Fault Zone, although representing a
major tectonic discontinuity at a local scale (tens of kilometers
long with hundreds of meter-scale displacement), does not rep-
resent a major regional tectonic boundary as previous thought
(e.g., Harland, 1969; Harland et al., 1992). Another example
is the Wegener Fault, a thousand of kilometer-long sinistral
strike-slip fault inferred between Ellesmere Island and north-
western Greenland in the Nares Strait, which was proposed
solely based on the physiographic morphology of the area,
i.e., the linear geometry of the Nares Strait and tentative lateral
offset of rock units on either side of the strait (Taylor, 1910).
Convincing evidence from geophysical datasets (e.g., gravi-
metric and aeromagnetic anomaly maps) and field mapping
show that the bedrock continues across the Nares Strait with no
apparent lateral offset and that the Wegener Fault does not exist
(Oakey & Chalmers, 2012; Oakey & Damaske, 2006; Oakey
& Stephenson, 2008; Rasmussen & Dawes, 2011; see also
further references and arguments in Gion et al., 2017). Despite
overwhelming evidence against the Wegener Fault, field geologists
continue to take its existence as a fact and use it to
discuss incomplete and/or sparse field observations and
interpretations (e.g., Gilotti et al., 2018; von Gosen et al.,
2019). This calls for strengthened collaborations between
geophysicists and field geologists and further highlights the
importance of interdisciplinary studies. It is also necessary to
clearly segregate faults observed directly on specific data-
sets (e.g., during fieldwork and/or on geophysical datasets)
from tentative faults (i.e., inferred and not directly observed
on any specific dataset) for example by calling the latter
“lineaments” or “zones” and by clearly reporting the amount
and nature of the uncertainty associated with the interpretation
of the involved datasets. This especially includes data collected
and observations made during fieldwork, whose interpretation
is no less subjective than that of geophysical datasets.
Conclusions
Two several kilometers wide south- and NNE-dipping shear
zones of probable late Neoproterozoic age, the Risen and
Kinnhøgda–Daudbjørnpynten fault zones, extend past the
presumed location of the De Geer Zone west of Spitsbergen.
The shear zones geometry and kinematics are consistent with
a formation during the Timanian Orogeny. Both fault zones
are continuous and do not show any trace of lateral offset, thus
suggesting that the De Geer Zone does not exist and that
faults initially associated with the De Geer Zone accommo-
dated dominantly vertical movements. The present results
therefore suggest major revisions to all current Phanerozoic
paleogeographic reconstructions for Arctic regions.
The present study shows the importance of interdisciplinary
approaches when trying to resolve large-scale tectonics and
calls for caution with the extrapolation of local fieldwork data
from deeply eroded Arctic regions to larger areas without sup-
porting regional (e.g., geophysical) evidence. An important
task for future studies is to distinguish directly observed
faults from indirectly inferred structures by using a discrete
nomenclature for the latter (e.g., “lineament” or else) and further
encourage the discussion of the uncertainty associated to
new and past interpretations.
Ethics and consent
Ethical approval and consent were not required.
Data availability
Underlying data
DataverseNO: Underlying data for ‘The myth of the De Geer
Zone’, https://doi.org/10.18710/J98MLA (Koehl, 2023a)
This project contains the following underlying data:
• ReadMe.txt.
• Figure 1–Figure 6 (high resolution versions of the figures
included in this manuscript, in jpg format. All copyright
permissions granted).
• Supplement Figures 1–3 (high-resolution versions of
the supplementary figures included in the extended
dataset, Koehl, 2023b, in jpg format. All copyright
permissions granted).
The Two-Way Time seismic reflection data analyzed in the
present contribution is from the DISKOS database (Norwegian
National Data Repository for Petroleum Data) of the Norwegian
Page 15 of 20
Open Research Europe 2024, 4:1 Last updated: 03 JAN 2024
Petroleum Directorate and from the University of Bergen.
Access to the data for research purposes can be obtained
by contacting the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate at https://
www.npd.no/om-oss/kontakt-oss/ and Prof. Rolf Mjelde from
the University of Bergen (Rolf.Mjelde@uib.no).
Extended data
DataverseNO: Extended data for ‘The myth of the De Geer
Zone’, https://doi.org/10.18710/KUQNII (Koehl, 2023b)
This project contains the following extended data:
• ReadMe.txt.
• Koehl_et_al._supplements.docx (supplementary infor-
mation and data to the present contribution includ-
ing an overview of the seismic reflection database used
in the presebt study and supplementary interpreted
and uninterpreted seismic sections. All copyright
permissions granted).
• Koehl_et_al._supplements.pdf (pdf version of the above-
described document).
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons
Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain
dedication).
Acknowledgements
The support of the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate and the
University of Bergen are acknowledged for providing access
and permission to publish seismic data around Svalbard.
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