Effect of age, gender and formal education on endogenous knowledge of woody plants in communities bordering forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif (DR Congo)

Abstract

Background: In rural human societies, people's knowledge of plants can vary according to some factors, including socio-demographic characteristics. This study was carried out among local communities living near forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo). Its aim was to assess the effect of age, gender and formal education on the level of endogenous knowledge of woody plants of the forest patches. Methods: Ethnobotanical surveys were carried out among 449 people in 13 villages bordering forest patches in the study area, using semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups. The different categories of use of woody plants were identified. The effect of age, gender and formal education on the level of local knowledge of woody plants was investigated using negative binomial regression. Results: A total of 80 woody species belonging to 77 genera and 43 families were mentioned by the respondents, who used them in five main categories: energy, handicrafts, medicine, construction and food. Age and gender had a significant effect on the number of woody species identified (P<0.05). Old people (age ≥ 60 years) knew on average twice as many woody species as adults (30 < age < 60) and young people (age ≤ 30 years), while men knew significantly more species than women. Conclusions: These findings confirm the unequal distribution of endogenous knowledge based on socio-demographic factors and suggests that males and older people with more knowledge of woody species should be considered as key players in the conservation of woody plant resources in the study area. Keywords: Ethnobotanical hypothesis, Endogenous knowledge, Socio-demographic characteristics, Woody plants, Conservation, Mountain forests, Lubero, DR Congo.

Full text

Effect of age, gender and formal
education on endogenous knowledge
of woody plants in communities
bordering forest patches of the
Lubero Mountain Massif (DR Congo)
Norbert Kambale Ndavaro, Apollon DMT Hegbe, Ramdan
Dramani, Aliou Dicko, Walere Muhindo Sahani and Armand
Kuyéma Natta
Correspondence
Norbert Kambale Ndavaro1,3,4*, Apollon DMT Hegbe2,3, Ramdan Dramani2,3, Aliou Dicko3, Walere Muhindo Sahani4 and
Armand Kuyéma Natta3
1Laboratory of Ecology, Studies and Forest Research, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Catholic University of Graben, P.O. Box
29, Butembo, DR Congo.
2Research Unit in Tropical Mycology and Plants-Soil Fungi Interactions, Faculty of Agronomy, University of Parakou, P.O. Box
123, Parakou, Benin.
3Laboratory of Ecology, Botany and Plant Biology, Faculty of Agronomy, University of Parakou, P.O. Box 123, Parakou, Benin.
4Laboratory of Ecology, Geomorphology and Geomatics, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Catholic University Of Graben, P.O.
Box 29, Butembo, DR Congo.
*Corresponding Author: abbenorbertmarie@gmail.com
Ethnobotany Research and Applications 28:10 (2024) - http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.28.10.1-21
Manuscript received: 12/11/2023 – Revised manuscript received: 28/12/2023 - Published: 01/01/2024
Research
Abstract
Background: In rural human societies, people's knowledge of plants can vary according to some factors, including socio-
demographic characteristics. This study was carried out among local communities living near forest patches of the Lubero
Mountain Massif in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo). Its aim was to assess the effect of age, gender
and formal education on the level of endogenous knowledge of woody plants of the forest patches.
Methods: Ethnobotanical surveys were carried out among 449 people in 13 villages bordering forest patches in the study
area, using semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups. The different categories of use of woody plants were
identified. The effect of age, gender and formal education on the level of local knowledge of woody plants was investigated
using negative binomial regression.
Results: A total of 80 woody species belonging to 77 genera and 43 families were mentioned by the respondents, who used
them in five main categories: energy, handicrafts, medicine, construction and food. Age and gender had a significant effect
on the number of woody species identified (P<0.05). Old people (age ≥ 60 years) knew on average twice as many woody
species as adults (30 < age < 60) and young people (age ≤ 30 years), while men knew significantly more species than women.
Conclusions: These findings confirm the unequal distribution of endogenous knowledge based on socio-demographic factors
and suggests that males and older people with more knowledge of woody species should be considered as key players in the
conservation of woody plant resources in the study area.
Keywords: Ethnobotanical hypothesis, Endogenous knowledge, Socio-demographic characteristics, Woody plants,
Conservation, Mountain forests, Lubero, DR Congo.

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Background
On a global scale, human-plant interactions represent a particular interest for the livelihood of human communities
(Avantunde et al. 2008; Amjad et al. 2013; Kathambi et al. 2020). Indeed, for centuries, humans have maintained existential
relationships with forest plants, which provide them with enormous ecosystem goods and services, most of which contribute
to the satisfaction of the most fundamental human needs (Gouwakinnou et al. 2019; Soe & Yeo-Chang 2019; Kaltenborn et
al. 2020). In Sub-Saharan Africa, rural human societies are most closely linked to forest plant resources for their subsistence,
due to the lower living standard of their populations (Kathambi et al. 2020; Ndavaro et al. 2023). Members of rural
communities are endowed with endogenous knowledge and practices that are incorporated into their habits and passed
down from generation to generation as a result of their overdependence on forest plant resources (McMillen 2012; Parrotta
et al. 2016; Badjaré et al. 2018; Cissé et al. 2018; Ndavaro et al. 2023). Endogenous knowledge is dynamic as a result of close
interactions with natural systems (Kathambi et al. 2020) and the diverse experiences acquired over centuries in constantly
changing environmental, socio-economic and political contexts (Parrotta et al. 2016). Local knowledge of forest plants and
their applications is distributed throughout local communities according to ethnic groupings and household income, and it
is also correlated with several individual attributes such as age, gender, religion, education level, and the main activity of the
inhabitants (Ayantunde et al. 2008; Gaoue et al. 2017; Gouwakinnou et al. 2019; Gonçalves et al. 2021).
The woody plants of the forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif play an important role in the socio-economic and
cultural life of local communities (Vyakuno 2006; Ndavaro et al. 2023) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo),
which has a population that is 70% peasant (Karume et al. 2022). Indeed, more than 80% of this region population in the
north-east of DR Congo relies heavily on woody plants of forest patches for their subsistence in terms of food supply, primary
medical care, domestic fuel or charcoal, building materials for residential houses, handicraft products, etc. (Ndavaro et al.
2023). However, these woody plants are currently in a state of very severe deterioration and acute vulnerability due to their
increasing overexploitation by local communities characterized by high population growth (Lutumba et al. 2021; Kapiri et al.
2023).
Endogenous knowledge relating to woody phytoresources and their uses must be prioritized in fundamental research to
ensure the sustainability of the supply and cultural services provided by woody plants to human communities bordering the
forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif. Documenting this knowledge is more crucial as its erosion could lead to
serious consequences, in particular the more gradual loss of woody plants in forest patches (Parrotta et al. 2016; Negi et al.
2018). Furthermore, several studies (Albuquerque 2006; Estomba et al. 2006; Gaoue et al. 2017; Kathambi et al. 2020)
mention that in rural societies, the use of plants by local communities depends not only on their availability (in terms of
ecological abundance, seasonality, prices, access to markets and gardens or natural spaces where the plants are found), but
also the level of their knowledge by the habitats. Therefore, for management policies for woody plants in the forest patches
of the Lubero Mountain Massif to be sustainable, they must integrate the traditional knowledge that local communities
associate with them (Dossou et al. 2012). More specifically, it is important to understand how endogenous knowledge about
woody plants from the forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif is distributed within local communities according to
the main individual socio-demographic characteristics, namely: age, gender and formal education. This approach is crucial,
as it improves the understanding of human-plant interactions and contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of
plant resources (Albuquerque & Ferreira Júnior 2023).
Since the seminal work of Phillips and Gentry (1993), some major theories and hypotheses in ethnobotany have examined
the distribution of endogenous knowledge about plants and their uses in different human communities around the world
according to ecological, geographical, economic and socio-cultural factors (Albuquerque 2006; Gaoue et al. 2017;
Albuquerque et al. 2019; Leonti et al. 2020; Ferreira Júnior et al. 2021; Albuquerque & Ferreira Júnior 2023). Regarding social
factors, the local plant knowledge dynamics hypothesis proposes that various individual sociocultural and demographic
traits, such as gender, age and level of formal education are all related to the level of knowledge of a plant (Gaoue et al.
2017). However, the way in which these three individual socio-demographic factors affect endogenous knowledge of plants
is still being debated in the scientific literature (Voecks & Leony 2004; Havingude et al. 2008; De Culuwé et al. 2009; Dossou
et al. 2012; Sop et al. 2012). The distribution of endogenous knowledge based on age, gender and formal education could
be either equitable or unequal not only depending on the region of study, but also on the plant resources exploited (Dossou
et al. 2012). This make sense since endogenous knowledge is linked to a specific place, culture or society (Warren 1991). This
why the subject merits investigation based on the unique characteristics of each region and plant taxonomic groups. Taking
these characteristics into account could help guide conservation actions for plant resources, and also contribute to the well-
being of rural human communities (Camou-Guerrero et al. 20008; Dossou et al. 2012).

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The current study investigates the ethnobotanical hypothesis of the dynamics of plants local knowledge by evaluating the
effect of age, gender and level of formal education on local knowledge of woody plants of the forest patches of the Lubero
Mountain Massif. The hypothesis that we seek to test in this study predicts that the level of endogenous knowledge of woody
plants of the forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif is higher among people of advanced age and those of the female
sex, but it is lower among people with a high level of formal education. The study is of operational interest in two ways: (i)
to safeguard the local communities' endogenous knowledge of woody species that contribute to human well-being, given
the frequent migrations that occur in the study area, and (ii) to identify the key local players to be directly involved in the
program for the conservation and sustainable management of woody forest potential of the Lubero Mountain Massif.
Materials and Methods
Study area
The study was carried out among communities living in villages bordering forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif in
north-eastern DR Congo, in Central Africa (0°48'14.4'' S; 0°41'52.8'' N; 27°48'3.6''-29°32'9.6'' E). From a phytogeographic
point of view, the Lubero Mountain Massif is located in the regional center of Afromontane endemism (White 1983) and
covers approximately 9049.5 km2 (Vyakuno 2006). The altitude varies from 900 to 3117 m above sea level. The environment
is under the influence of the equatorial climate, tempered by the mountains (Vyakuno 2006; Ndavaro et al. 2023). The
average annual temperature varies from 15°C to 17°C in the cool highlands (2000 to 3117 m altitude), from 18°C to 20°C in
the warm highlands (1400 to 2000 m altitude) and from 21°C to 25°C in the western high plateau (900 to 1400 m altitude)
(Sys 1992; Vyakuno 2006; Ndavaro et al. 2021). The soils are thick, poor, fragile and diverse in their grain size (Pecrot &
Leonard 1960; Sys 1960; Vyakuno 2006).
The altitudinal variation of precipitation (1250 – 2183 mm) affects the structure of forest plant communities, which are
subdivided into three main types: a mountain forest (2000 – 3117 m altitude) containing species characteristic of the
mountain such as Podocarpus milanjianus Rendle, Aningeria adolfi-friederici (Engl.) Robyns & GCC Gilbert, Macaranga
kilimandscharica Pax and Oldeania alpina (K. Schum.) Stapleton, a mid-mountain forest (1400 – 2000 m altitude) dominated
by Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. and Aningeria adolfi-friederici, and a low mountain forest (900 – 1400 m altitude)
including species characteristic of the lowland and plateau forest such as Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (De Wild.) J. Leonard,
Cynometra alexandri CH Wright, Piptadenia africana Hook. f., Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb., Ricinodendron
heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax and Staudtia stipitata Warb. (Vyakuno 2006).
Demographically, the Lubero Mountain Massif is one of the most densely populated high-altitude regions in north-eastern
DR Congo, with an average population of 407.8 inhabitants/km2 (Etat-Civile-Lubero/RD Congo 2023). The inhabitants of the
Lubero Mountain Massif are Bantus of the Nande ethnic group, which includes four main clan groups: Baswagha, Basukali,
Bamate and Batangi (Ndavaro et al. 2021). The local economy is mainly based on agriculture (potatoes, corn, wheat, onions,
leeks, beans, cabbage, cauliflower, cassava and carrots), livestock (rabbits, sheep, goats, cattle and poultry), logging and
trade (Vyakuno 2006; Kujirakwinja et al. 2007; Ndavaro et al. 2023).
Ethnobotany survey and identification specimens of woody plants
This study received prior authorization from the Administrator of the Territory of Lubero, for field work, and from the General
Academic Secretary of the Catholic University of Graben (DR Congo), for the consultation and use of specimens and the
photographic album of woody species of forest patches of the study area. Nobody was questioned without having given their
free oral consent. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted among members of the thirteen (13) local communities adjoining
the ten (10) forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif (Figure 1) that served as study sites from January to March 2023.
The sample size of respondents was determined using the normal approximation of the binomial distribution (E.1) proposed
by Dagnelie (2013):
E.1: N =
!
!
"!"#
$
#
$$%
&
'(%
)
*+
with N: the sample size ;
U'(#
$
= 1,96!
(normal distribution value for α = 0.05); d: marginal error of the estimate set at a value
of 5%; p: proportion of people who know and exploit woody resources of the forest patches studied here (0.86: estimated
from a preliminary survey involving a sample of 100 people taken at random around each forest patches).
Thus, a total of 449 people, chosen at random, were individually interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire with
photographs and specimens of the 105 woody species (divided into 46 families and 86 genera) collected in forest patches

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during forest inventories carried out between January and April 2022. The interviews were conducted with the help of two
local intellectuals who are familiar with the names of plants in the local language. The specimens and the photographic
album of woody species used during ethnobotanical surveys are kept in the private herbarium of the Laboratory of Ecology,
Geomorphology and Geomatics of Catholic University of Graben in Butembo (DR Congo). Respondents were given sufficient
time to exhaust the information about the woody plants they remembered. Furthermore, in each survey village, group
discussions were organized to validate the data collected from individual interviews. It considered four key public services
of the village: (i) the village chief, (ii) the head of the Environment and Sustainable Development department, (iii) the head
of the Forest Inspection Service and (iv) the head of the Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock Service (AGRIPEL).
During the interviews, the main data collected focused on: (i) the socio-demographic profile of the respondent (age, sex,
level of formal education), (ii) the names of the species recognized in local languages, (iii) the use categories and (iv) the
hierarchical preference scores of each species within the use categories. The distribution of respondents by age class
followed that of Dje Bi et al. (2020), namely: young people (age ≤ 30 years); adults (30 < age < 60); elderly (age ≥ 60 years).
In practice, the respondents were asked to give the name and uses of the different species they recognized. Moreover, they
were asked to rank in order of preference the species they recognized per use category, to help determine the preference
score of each species for its different use categories using the formula E.2. The preference score of a given species for a
respondent is the average score of the species considering all the use categories for which it was cited by the respondent.
Then, the overall preference score of the species is its average score considering all respondents. The scientific names of the
woody species identified by the respondents were verified in the online taxonomic databases Tropicos (www.tropicos.org),
World Flora Online (http://www.worldfloraonline.org) and Plants of the World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org). Their
conservation status was established from the IUCN database (http://www.iucnredlist.org/).
E.2: Score =
',-(./
-
with N: the number of species recognized by the respondent for a given use category; n: the preference rank of species i for
this use category. Table 1 presents the names of the forest patches, the survey villages and the sample size of respondents
by sex, age and level of formal education.
Figure 1. Location of survey villages in the Lubero Mountain Massif, north-eastern DR Congo in central Africa.

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Table 1. Forest patches, survey villages and sample size of respondents by sex, age class and level of formal education.
Forest patches
Villages bordering
forest patches
Number of
people
surveyed per
village
Number of people surveyed by sex, age and level of formal education
Sex
Age classes
Level of formal education
Men
Women
Youth
Adults
Old
Illiterate
Primary
Secondary
Kalikuku
Shangola
25
10
15
9
16
0
6
3
16
Kalikuku
35
12
23
12
22
1
3
5
27
Vutokonye
35
9
26
25
9
1
7
20
8
Kagheri
Kagheri
50
15
35
35
12
3
12
25
13
Kamihunga
Kamihunga
40
11
29
24
13
3
10
17
13
Kaseghe
Kaseghe
60
28
32
52
4
4
19
27
14
Kaviniro
Kaviniro
28
15
13
23
4
1
10
13
5
Vuyinga
Kudo
30
14
16
23
3
4
14
8
8
Vuthumbe
28
14
14
21
4
3
11
9
8
Mambasa
Mambasa
30
12
18
25
4
1
11
5
14
Vingyo
Vingyo
30
9
21
25
4
1
9
15
6
Vuhima
Vuhima
34
14
20
26
5
3
17
12
5
Vuthalengana
Vuthalengwa
24
12
12
16
4
4
9
9
6

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Data Analysis
Response rate of used plants (F)
The response rate of the used woody species was calculated using the following mathematical expression:
F = S
Nx!100
where F is the calculated response rate, S is the number of people who gave a positive response (Yes) for the use of the
woody species concerned for the use category considered and N the total number of people interviewed. This rate indicates
the most used species for each use category in the environment and varies from 0 to 100. The value 0 indicates that the
species is not used and 100 indicates that it is used by all respondents.
Assessment of the informant consensus factor (ICF)
In order to assess the respondents' agreements on the woody species used for a given use category, the factor (degree) of
use consensus (Informant Consensus Factor "ICF") was calculated according to the adapted formula from Heinrich et al.
(1998):
ICF =N01 − N2
N01 − 1
with: Nuc = number of citations for a use category; Ns = number of woody species used by informants in a given use category.
This value varies from 0 to 1. It is close to 1 when the plant is used by a large number of respondents for a particular use
category and/or if information is exchanged between informants on the use of species for a particular use category, and 0
(low) when plants are chosen at random or if there is no exchange of information about use among informants.
Assessment of the effect of age, gender and formal education on knowledge of woody plants
Following the calculation of these various ethnobotanical indices, the various processing and statistical analyzes were carried
out using R software version 4.1.2 (R Core Team 2021). In order to have a global view of endogenous knowledge on the use
of woody species, the percentages of citations from different use categories were presented in a radar diagram using the
circlize package (Gu 2014). Also, a principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out using the FactoMineR packages (Le et
al. 2008) and factoextra (Kassambara & Mundt 2020) to identify the categories of uses that relate to different species. To
evaluate the effect of age class, gender and level of formal education on the ethnobotanical knowledge (number of species
and number of use categories) of woody species by local communities, we first calculated and represented in a bar diagram
using the ggplot2 package (Wickham 2016) the average number of species as well as the average number of use categories
cited by age group, by sex and by level of formal education with corresponding standard deviations. We then performed
negative binomial regression using the MASS package (Venables & Ripley 2002). Negative binomial regression was
recommended to overcome the overdispersion observed by previously carrying out a Poisson regression because of the
discrete nature of the response variables which are the number of species and the number of use categories cited by the
respondents. The graph of the effects of the negative binomial model was constructed for each response variable under the
ggstatsplot package (Patil 2021).
Results
Endogenous knowledge of woody plants and their uses
A total number of 80 woody species distributed in 77 genera and 43 families was mentioned by the interviewed people.
Fabaceae was the most cited family by respondents (10 species), followed by Euphorbiaceae (6 species), Meliaceae (5
species) and Annonaceae and Rubiaceae (each with 4 species) (additional file: Table S1: woody plant species are
accompanied by their respective families, IUCN conservation status and ICF). These woody species are used by local
communities mainly as fuelwood (25.75%), as craft materials (23.13%), for medico-magical purposes (22.01%), as materials
for construction of houses (19.78%), and very little as food (9.33%) (Fig. 2). Furthermore, an ICF index greater than or equal
to 95% was noted for each of the use categories, which indicates concordance of information between respondents for each
use category (Table 2). Considering a threshold of 50% response rate (Table S1), Myrianthus arboreus P. Beauv. (ICF = 55.01%)
is the best-known species for food while Maesa lanceolata Forssk. (ICF = 52.56%) and Albizia gummifera (JF Gmel.) CA Sm.
(ICF = 50.56%) are the best-known species as energy wood. On the other hand, no species has reached the 50% citation
threshold for the other use categories.

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Figure 2. Radar diagrams showing: A) the percentage of use categories and B) the median species preference score by use
category.
Table 2. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) by use category.
Use category
ICF
Food
0.9599
Fuelwood
0.9812
Building
0.9558
Handicraft
0.9645
Medico-magic
0.9656
The PCA enabled the association of woody species with use categories (Fig. 3). The first three principal components of the
PCA explain 89.7% of the variation in species preference scores by use category. The first main component rigorously
contrasts the “Food” use category with the “Wood-energy” use category. On the other hand, while the second main
component combines the use categories “Medico-magic” and “Crafts”, the third main component rigorously opposes them.
On one side, the projection of species and use categories in the plane formed by components 1 and 2 (Fig. 3A) suggests that
the species Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC., Myrianthus arboreus, Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels are the most
preferred for food uses; the species Albizia gummifera, Maesa lanceolata, Ocotea usambarensis Engl., Piptadenia africana,
Sapium ellipticum (Hochst.) Pax, Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk., Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir., Podocarpus milanjianus
and Musanga cecropioides R. Br. ex Tedlie are more preferred for energy wood; the species Prunus africana (Hook. f.)
Kalkman, Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal, Aphanocalyx cynometroides Oliv., Pavetta lasioclada (K. Krause) Mildbr. ex
Bremek. are the most preferred for medico-magical uses. On the other side, the plane formed by components 1 and 3 (Fig.
3B) shows that the species Mitragyna stipulosa (DC.) Kuntze, Trichoscypha ferruginea Engl., Dracaena arborea K.Koch,
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague and Xylopia staudtii Engl. & Diels are most
preferred as woody materials in crafts.

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Figure 3. Projection of species and use categories in the plane formed by A) axes 1 and 2 and B) axes 1 and 3 of the principal
component analysis on the basis of the preference scores of species by use category.
Note: E1 = Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) Banfi & Galasso, E2 = Albizia gummifera (JF Gmel.) CA Sm., E3 = Alnus acuminata
Kunth, E4 = Alstonia boonei De Wild. , E5 = Amphimas pterocarpoides Harms, E6 = Angylocalyx pynaertii De Wild., E7 =
Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (Engl.) Robyns & GCC Gilbert, E8 = Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels, E9= Anthocleista vogelii
Board., E10 = Aphanocalyx cynometroides Oliv., E11 = Beilschmiedia louisii Robyns & R. wilczek, E12 = Bersama mildbraedii
Gürke, E13 = Bridelia ferruginea Benth, E14 = Buchnerodendron speciosum Gürke, E15 = Canarium schweinfurthii Engl., E16
= Celtis mildbraedii Engl. , E17 = Cleistopholis glauca Pierre ex Engl. & Diels, E18 = Coccineorchis bracteosa (Ames &
C.Schweinf.) Garay, E19 = Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. , E20 = Cordia africana Lam., E21 = Cynometra alexandri CH
Wright, E22 = Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch., E23 = Dracaena arborea K.Koch, E24 = Englerina woodfordioides
(Schweinfurth) Balle ex MGGilbert, E25 = Entandrophragma cylindricum Sprague , E26 = Entandrophragma utile (Dawe &
Sprague) Sprague, E27 = Erythrina abyssinica Lam., E28 = Fagara macrophylla Engl., E29 = Ficalhoa laurifolia Hiern, E30 =
Ficus mucuso Welw. ex Ficalho, E31 = Ficus vallis-choudae Delile, E32 = Galiniera coffeoides Delile, E33 = Garcinia epunctata
Stapf, E34 = Garcinia punctata Oliv., E35 = Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (De Wild.) J.Léonard, E36 = Grewia louisii R. Wilczek ,
E37 = Guarea thompsonii Sprague & Hutch., E38 = Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir., E39 = Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk., E40

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= Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl., E41 = Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC., E42 = Lysimachia ruhmeriana Vatke, E43 =
Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax, E44 = Macaranga spinosa Müll. Arg., E45 = Maesa lanceolata Forssk., E46 = Maesopsis
eminii Engl., E47 = Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum., E48 = Maytenus acuminata (L. f.) Loes., E49 = Mitragyna stipulosa
(DC. ) Kuntze, E50 = Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal, E51 = Musanga cecropioides R. Br. ex Tedlie, E52 = Myrianthus
arboreus P. Beauv., E53 = Myrica mildbraedii Engl., E54 = Neoboutonia macrocalyx Pax, E55 = Ocotea usambarensis Engl.,
E56 = Oncoba glauca (P. Beauv.) Planch., E57 = Pancovia laurentii (De Wild.) Gilg ex De Wild., E58 = Parinari excelsa Sabine,
E59 = Pavetta lasioclada (K. Krause) Mildbr. ex Bremek., E60 = Piptadenia africana Hook. f., E61 = Podocarpus milanjianus
Rendle, E62 = Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms, E63 = Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman, E64 = Psychotria palustris E.Petit, E65
= Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb., E66 = Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax, E67 = Santiria balsamifera Oliv.,
E68 = Sapium ellipticum (Hochst.) Pax, E69 = Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv., E70 = Staudtia stipitata Warb., E71 =
Strombosia glaucescens Engl., E72 = Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC., E73 = Tabernaemontana crassa Benth., E74 =
Tessmannia africana Harms, E75 = Trema africanum (Planch.) Blume, E76 = Trichilia gilletii De Wild., E77 = Trichoscypha
acuminata Engl., E78 = Trilepisium madagascariense DC., E79 = Xylopia staudtii Engl. & Diels, E80 = Xymalos monospora Baill.
Legend: E = Species.
Effect of age, gender and level of formal education on knowledge of woody plants
Figure 4 presents the average number of woody species as well as the average number of use categories cited by age class,
by sex and by level of formal education with the corresponding standard deviations. Negative binomial regression applied to
ethnobotanical survey data shows that the level of formal education influences neither knowledge of woody species nor
knowledge of their uses. On the other hand, the factors age and gender have a significant effect on knowledge of species,
but do not influence knowledge of their uses (Fig. 5A and 5B). Old people recognize on average twice as many species as
adults and young people (Fig. 4A). Men know significantly more species than women (Fig. 4B).
Figure 4. Average number of species cited with standard deviations: A) by age class, B) by sex and C) by level of formal
education; number of use categories cited: D) by age class, E) by sex and F) by level of formal education.

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10
Figure 5. Coefficient of negative binomial regression showing the effect of age class, gender and level of formal education:
A) on the number of species cited, B) on the number of use categories cited. Legend: β = coefficient of each modality, z = z
statistic, p = probability value, class age = age class, Level.inst = level of formal education, AIC = Akaike Information Criterion,
BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion.

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
11
Discussion
Endogenous knowledge and uses of woody plants
In total, 80 woody species (77 genera and 43 families) were cited and recognized by the interviewed people during the
surveys. These woody species are used by local communities in five main areas of socio-economic and cultural life: energy,
crafts, traditional medicine and magic, construction and food. Different studies carried out in several regions of the world
have also reported the same categories of uses for woody species (Dossou et al. 2012; Sop et al. 2012; Moteetee et al. 2019;
Ouédraogo et al. 2019; Mapaya et al. 2022). More particularly, the use of plant species for medico-magical purposes is a
common trend in certain African countries (Sop et al. 2012; Lougbegnon 2019; Dossou-Yovo et al. 2021; Gbesso et al. 2021),
South-America (Paiva de Lucena et al. 2012; Alonso-Castro et al. 2019), Asia (Ernst et al. 2015) and European region (Mateji
et al. 2020). The PCA mentioned 22 woody species most frequently used by local populations for all of the identified use
categories. These useful woody species in greater demand would therefore be the most vulnerable to the strong
anthropogenic pressure exerted on the forest formations in the study area (Ndavaro et al. 2021, 2023). They should therefore
be considered as a priority in the development program for the forest patches investigated, in order to optimize their long-
term contribution to the socio-economic and cultural well-being of local populations (Dossou et al. 2012; Sop et al. 2012;
Rocha et al. 2019; Peng et al. 2021).
The ICF index highlighted information concordance among respondents for each use category. This agreement of viewpoints
would result from combining semi-structured individual interviews with group discussions during the surveys. These results
agree with other ethnobotanical studies carried out in the Albertine Rift (Shalukoma et al. 2015; Gumisiriza et al. 2019) and
in other parts of the world (Juárez-Vázquez et al. 2013; Santhosh Kumar et al. 2019). They suggest a strong dependence of
local populations on woody forest resources (Upadhyay et al. 2011; Shalukoma et al. 2015). Furthermore, the very high ICF
index value (≥ 95%) for each of the identified use categories indicates that the people surveyed not only have good
knowledge of woody species and a coherent collective knowledge of their uses, but also exchange information with each
other (McMillen 2012; Juárez-Vázquez et al. 2013; Shalukoma et al. 2015; Gumisiriza et al. 2019; Avakoudjo et al. 2020).
Individual socio-demographic factors associated with knowledge of woody plants
The dynamics of local knowledge of woody species was assessed based on three individual factors: age, gender and level of
formal education. Unlike the level of formal education, age and gender had significant effect on the number of cited species
by respondents. Indeed, regarding the “formal education” variable, the number of woody species cited as well as their uses
did not appear to differ among the three levels of formal education studied (illiterate, primary and secondary). These results
could suggest that, in the study area, educated people are as interested in forest resources as less educated people. In
another sense, this could reflect a stable or even regressive spatio-temporal dynamic of the woody populations in the study
area causing the people who left the villages to pursue secondary education elsewhere to return with the same level of
knowledge of the resources of woody forests than those who stayed without continuing their studies or going to school.
These results are similar to those of the study done by Beltrán-Rodríguez et al. (2014) who were unable to associate the level
of formal education with ethnobotanical knowledge in Mexico. However, they do not agree with the research hypothesis
which indicates that ‶the level of endogenous knowledge of the woody species of the forest patches of the Lubero Mountain
Massif is lower among people with a high level of formal educationʺ. Our results thus disagree with the general
ethnobotanical hypothesis that less educated people know more about plants than people with high formal education
(Gaoue et al. 2017). Contrary to our findings, many studies have found a negative correlation between formal education and
the level of local knowledge (McMillen et al. 2012; Avakoudjo et al. 2019). For instance, in Brazil, Voecks and Leony (2004)
found that literacy and increased access to formal education were negatively correlated with knowledge of medicinal plants.
Teixdor-Toneu et al. (2021) explain this situation by the fact that by doing extensive investigations, there is a risk of isolating
oneself from the channels of transmission of local plant knowledge.
A significant difference between age groups was found in the “age” variable. Indeed, the number of woody species
mentioned by people of advanced age (age ≥ 60 years) was double that indicated respectively by adults (30 < age < 60 years)
and young people (age ≤ 30 years). This significant effect of age on the number of woody species mentioned by those
interviewed confirms our hypothesis that "the level of endogenous knowledge of woody species in the forest patches of the
Lubero Mountain Massif is higher among older peopleʺ. Our results thus test the general ethnobotanical hypothesis that
older people have more knowledge about local plants than younger people and adults (Gaoue et al. 2017). Sop et al. (2012)
also found that older people reported significantly more woody species than younger people in Burkina Faso. This can be
explained by the knowledge of local plants acquired by old people over time. Furthermore, several studies explain this
scenario by observing a trend among most young people attending secondary and higher schools to abandon local
knowledge related to plants, which they consider obsolete compared to modern dietary and medicinal habits, and to be

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unwilling to learn this endogenous knowledge from elders (Reyes-García et al. 2013; Pasquini et al. 2018; Avakoudjo et al.
2019). Many other studies carried out in different regions of the world have revealed the age-related dynamics of
ethnobotanical knowledge (Ayatunde et al. 2008; Gouwakinou et al. 2011; Koura et al. 2011; Dossou et al. 2012; Gaoue et
al. 2017).
In terms of the “gender” variable, the results of our study also revealed a significant difference in the number of woody
species recognized by men and women. Indeed, male respondents mentioned a significantly higher number of woody species
than female respondents. Traoré et al. (2020) also found that men in Burkina Faso know more medicinal plants than women.
Our results do not support the research hypothesis, which predicts that ‶the level of endogenous knowledge of the woody
species of the forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif is higher among femalesʺ. They also reject the general
ethnobotanical hypothesis that women have more knowledge about local plants than men (Ricker 2002; Voecks 2007;
Albuquerque et al. 2011; Hanazaki et al. 2013; McCarter & Gavin 2015; Gaoue et al. 2017). Indeed, the significantly higher
number of woody species recognized by men could be attributed to the fact that, in the study area, women solely collect
wood in the forests for domestic energy needs and this in accessible places closer to human habitation. On the other hand,
men collect wood in mountain forests for a variety of purposes (charcoal, firewood, crafts, traditional medicine, magic, food).
In the event of depletion of woody resources in the low mountain forests, they are forced to take them from medium and
high altitudes, which are places very far from the villages and not accessible to women; which could potentially strengthen
their knowledge of local plants. However, it is useful to emphasize that, contrary to the results of our research, certain
studies, such as Sop et al. (2012) were unable to consider gender as a factor determining knowledge of woody plants.
Implications for woody plantsʹ sustainable management and conservation
Internationally, out of all the woody species mentioned by respondents, 54 species are classified as Least Concern (LC), six
species (Entandrophragma cylindricum, Entandrophragma useful, Guarea thompsonii, Khaya anthotheca, Parinari excelsa
and Prunus africana) as Vulnerable (VU), two species (Beilschmiedia louisii and Mitragyna stipulosa) as Near Threatened (NT)
and one species (Psychotria palustris) as Endangered (EN) (Table S1). Furthermore, Myrianthus arboreus, Maesa lanceolata
and Albizia gummifera are among the 22 woody species most frequently used by local communities for all the identified use
categories. These species used for food and domestic energy recorded the highest ICF values of 55.01%, 52.56% and 50.56%,
respectively. As a result anthropogenic threats weigh on the woody plants of the forest patches of the Lubero mountain
massif given their overexploitation by local communities. Indeed, the exploitation of woody plants through irrational
harvesting techniques would lead to the destabilization of their population’s structure and reduction in their population’s
density, thus negatively impacting the survival of species in the future. In the current context of the Lubero mountain massif,
the damage caused by the overexploitation of woody forest species is amplified by agricultural activities and the extension
of pasture areas generating more serious fragmentation effects in the region (Ndavaro et al. 2021).
As no effort has been undertaken so far to remedy this, we hereby make some recommendations to the national institutions
in charge of forest management and to local populations as well: (i) give conservation priority to the species with highest
preference scores as they might be potentially the most threatened , (ii) establish a red list of threatened species of the RD
Congo, (iii) involve communities in the governance of forest resources by grouping them into associations of forest owners,
forest managers and the different category of users, (iv) involve men and the old people whose ethnobotanical knowledge
has proven to be higher in actions aimed at restoring forest patches, (v) educate older people to pass on knowledge of local
plants to younger generations, (vi) educate local communities on rational techniques for removing plant organs according
to species, (vii) carry out reforestation actions in order to improve the conservation status of useful and multi-use species,
(viii) put in place appropriate measures to limit or prohibit access to woody species declared threatened, (ix) set up gardens
of medicinal-magical plants around species heavily exploited in medicine or which have become rare in the environment,
and (x) promote community or private wood plantations to meet the needs of domestic energy, house construction and
crafts.
Conclusion and Recommendation
This study allowed us to explore the distribution of endogenous knowledge on woody plants in the forest patches of the
Lubero Mountain Massif according to the age, gender and level of formal education of local populations. The study revealed
that the forest patches of the study area are full of useful and multi-use woody species that are widely exploited by local
populations. Local inhabitants hold large knowledge about these woody species as well as the different forms of their use,
grouped into five main categories: domestic energy, crafts, traditional medicine and magic, house construction and human
food. While this knowledge is equitably distributed between people with different levels of formal education (illiterate,
primary and secondary), it is, on the other hand, unequally distributed between men and women, on the one hand, and

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13
between young people, adults and people of advanced age, on the other hand. These observed variabilities in the factors
affecting local knowledge of woody species in the forest patches of the study area confirm the unequal distribution of local
knowledge depending on socio-demographic factors. They therefore constitute a technical database to guide conservation
strategies for woody plants in the forest patches of the study area which face incessant anthropogenic pressures. Thus, a
local group composed of the representatives of the different user categories, forest owners no matter sex and formal
education level must be set up. The local group led by males and old people with more knowledge of local plants must be
involved, by the forest management office, as key players in the design and implementation conservation plan.
Declarations
List of abbreviations: DR Congo - Democratic Republic of Congo; AIC - Akaike Information Criterion; BIC - Bayesian
Information Criterion; ICF - Informant Consensus Factor; IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Ethics approval and consent to participate: No respondent was interviewed without giving free consent.
Consent for publication: Not applicable
Availability of data and materials: Not applicable
Competing interests: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest with each other or with other authors.
Funding: Partial financial support was received from the ‶Centre d'Appui pour le Développement Intégral en Milieu Ruralʺ
(N° Ref: 036 /CADIMR /V.B/N-K/2021) and from His Excellency Monsignor SIKULI PALUKU Melchisédech, Bishop of the
diocese of Butembo-Beni (N° Ref: EV/BB/056/2021/13/3).
Author contributions: N.K.Nd. conceptualization, methodology, data collecting, validation, writing-original draft,
visualization, writing-reviewing and editing, funding acquisition. A.D.M.T.H. methodology, formal analysis, validation,
visualization, writing-reviewing and editing. R.D. validation, visualization, writing-reviewing and editing. A.D. validation,
writing-reviewing and editing. W.M.S. conceptualization, validation, writing-reviewing and editing, supervision. A.K.N.
conceptualization, validation, writing-reviewing and editing, supervision.
Acknowledgements
The field surveys received financial support from the ‶Centre d'Appui pour le Développement Intégral en Milieu Ruralʺ (N°
Ref: 036 /CADIMR /V.B/N-K/2021) and from His Excellency Monsignor SIKULI PALUKU Melchisédech, Bishop of the diocese
of Butembo-Beni (Prot. N°: EV/BB/022/09/20). The authors are very grateful to all the informants of the research area for
sharing their precious knowledge. They are also grateful to Naasson M. BWEYA and Gloire K. MULONDI for their help in
carrying out field surveys.
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Appendix A. Supplementary data
Table S1: Woody species identified by members of the communities living in villages bordering forest patches of the Lubero Mountain Massif with their botanical families, their IUCN conservation statuses
on a global scale and their Informant Consensus Factor indices (ICF) by use category.
Species
Botanical family
IUCN
Status
ICF by use categories
Food
Wood energy
Construction
handicraft
Medico-magic
Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) CA Sm.
Fabaceae
LC
0.22
50.56
16.04
31.63
34.52
Alnus acuminata Kunth
Betulaceae
LC
0.00
1.34
0.00
0.00
0.00
Alstonia boonei De Wild.
Apocynaceae
LC
0.00
6.46
0.89
4.90
4.90
Amphimas pterocarpoides Harms
Fabaceae
LC
0.22
0.89
0.00
0.67
0.45
Angylocalyx pynaertii De Wild.
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
0.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
Aningeria adolfi-friederici (Engl.) Robyns & GCC Gilbert
Sapotaceae
NE
1.11
12.25
3.56
5.57
4.90
Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels
Annonaceae
LC
15.14
8.24
0.00
0.00
0.22
Anthocleista vogelii Planch.
Gentianaceae
LC
0.00
40.76
11.80
3.79
28.29
Aphanocalyx cynometroides Oliv.
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.67
Beilschmiedia louisii Robyns & R. wilczek
Lauraceae
NT
0.00
2.90
0.89
0.45
0.00
Bersama mildbraedii Gürke
Francoaceae
NE
0.00
0.67
0.22
0.22
0.00
Bridelia ferruginea Benth.
Phyllanthaceae
LC
0.22
25.39
14.48
8.02
17.37
Buchnerodendron speciosum Gürke
Achariaceae
NE
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.
Burseraceae
LC
5.57
5.57
0.22
1.56
2.00
Celtis mildbraedii Engl.
Cannabaceae
LC
0.00
6.90
1.56
0.45
0.67
Cleistopholis glauca Pierre ex Engl. & Diels
Annonaceae
LC
0.00
2.23
0.00
2.00
2.90
Coccineorchis bracteosa (Ames & C.Schweinf.) Garay
Orchidaceae
NE
0.22
0.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl.
Malvaceae
LC
2.00
1.56
0.00
0.45
0.00
Cordia africana Lam.
Cordiaceae
LC
0.00
5.57
0.00
5.12
0.22
Cynometra alexandri C.H.Wright
Euphorbiaceae
LC
0.00
11.36
0.22
0.45
0.00
Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch.
Malvaceae
LC
0.00
0.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
Dracaena arborea K.Koch
Asparagaceae
LC
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.45
0.00
Englerina woodfordioides (Schweinfurth) Bale ex MGGilbert
Loranthaceae
NE
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague
Meliaceae
VU
0.00
4.90
0.22
10.91
0.22
Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague
Meliaceae
VU
0.00
3.79
0.22
2.23
0.89
Erythrina abyssinica Lam.
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
9.13
0.67
1.34
6.24

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Fagara macrophylla Engl.
Rutaceae
LC
0.45
11.58
0.89
7.57
20.94
Ficalhoa laurifolia Hiern
Sladeniaceae
LC
0.22
23.39
17.59
21.83
5.35
Ficus mucuso Welw. ex Ficalho
Moraceae
LC
0.00
13.81
3.56
12.25
13.81
Ficus vallis-choudae Delile
Moraceae
NE
0.00
4.90
1.34
1.34
3.12
Galiniera coffeoides Delile
Rubiaceae
NE
0.00
7.80
4.45
1.11
0.45
Garcinia epunctata Stapf
Clusiaceae
LC
2.45
1.34
0.00
0.67
2.45
Garcinia punctata Oliv.
Clusiaceae
LC
3.34
4.01
3.34
2.00
1.11
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (De Wild.) J.Léonard
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.45
0.00
Grewia louisii R. Wilczek
Malvaceae
LC
0.00
4.23
1.56
2.90
0.00
Guarea thompsonii Sprague & Hutch.
Meliaceae
VU
0.00
0.00
0.67
0.00
0.00
Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir.
Hypericaceae
LC
1.34
36.08
11.14
14.48
31.85
Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk.
Aquifoliaceae
LC
0.00
18.93
9.13
7.35
0.22
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl.
Cupressaceae
LC
0.00
15.14
0.22
0.00
0.45
Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC.
Meliaceae
VU
0.00
7.57
0.45
8.46
0.45
Lysimachia ruhmeriana Vatke
Primulaceae
NE
0.00
4.90
1.56
0.00
0.45
Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax
Euphorbiaceae
NE
0.00
0.45
0.45
0.22
0.22
Macaranga spinosa Müll. Arg.
Euphorbiaceae
LC
0.00
12.69
10.02
6.90
3.34
Maesa lanceolata Forssk.
Primulaceae
LC
0.22
52.56
18.04
8.24
41.87
Maesopsis eminii Engl.
Rhamnaceae
LC
0.00
3.56
0.00
1.78
0.89
Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum.
Bignoniaceae
LC
0.00
13.81
6.01
6.90
0.22
Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes.
Celastraceae
LC
0.00
7.57
1.78
4.68
1.11
Mitragyna stipulosa (DC.) Kuntze
Rubiaceae
NT
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.56
1.34
Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal
Annonaceae
LC
0.00
0.45
0.00
0.00
3.12
Musanga cecropioides R.Br. ex Tedlie
Urticaceae
LC
0.00
23.83
3.56
7.35
4.45
Myrianthus arboreus P.Beauv.
Urticaceae
LC
55.01
35.41
0.89
5.35
7.35
Myrica mildbraedii Engl.
Myricaceae
NE
0.00
18.71
7.35
6.24
19.15
Neoboutonia macrocalyx Pax
Euphorbiaceae
LC
0.00
9.58
1.78
4.68
1.34
Ocotea usambarensis Engl.
Lauraceae
NE
0.00
40.09
24.50
39.64
10.69
Oncoba glauca (P.Beauv.) Planch.
Salicaceae
NE
0.00
2.45
2.67
1.34
0.89
Pancovia laurentii (De Wild.) Gilg ex De Wild.
Sapindaceae
NE
0.00
2.90
1.34
0.89
1.11
Parinari excelsa Sabine
Rubiaceae
VU
0.00
15.81
5.79
4.68
5.35

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Pavetta lasioclada (K. Krause) Mildbr. ex Bremek.
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.67
Piptadenia africana Hook.f.
Fabaceae
NE
0.45
32.74
6.90
21.16
19.15
Podocarpus milanjianus Rendle
Podocarpaceae
LC
8.46
18.04
8.69
12.25
0.22
Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms
Araliaceae
LC
0.22
36.53
19.82
26.95
10.47
Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman
Rosaceae
VU
0.00
0.89
0.00
0.89
5.12
Psychotria palustris E.M.A.Petit
Rubiaceae
EN
0.00
7.80
2.23
0.45
0.00
Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb.
Myristicaceae
LC
0.67
10.69
2.90
11.36
6.24
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel
Euphorbiaceae
LC
0.00
0.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
Santiria balsamifera Oliv.
Burseraceae
LC
1.56
1.78
0.67
0.67
0.00
Sapium ellipticum (Hochst.) Pax
Euphorbiaceae
LC
0.22
33.63
6.90
16.93
11.80
Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv.
Bignoniaceae
LC
0.45
6.24
0.00
0.22
5.12
Staudtia stipitata Warb.
Myristicaceae
NE
0.89
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Strombosia glaucescens Engl.
Olacaceae
LC
0.00
0.45
0.22
0.00
0.45
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC.
Myrtaceae
LC
32.29
30.96
17.37
14.48
6.01
Tabernaemontana crassa Benth.
Apocynaceae
LC
0.45
13.59
1.11
7.35
11.58
Tessmannia africana Harms
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.22
0.00
Trema africanum (Planch.) Blume
Cannabaceae
LC
0.00
7.13
3.12
0.00
5.12
Trichilia gilletii De Wild.
Meliaceae
LC
0.00
0.89
0.00
0.00
0.00
Trichoscypha acuminata Engl.
Anacardiaceae
NE
0.00
0.00
0.22
1.11
0.45
Trilepisium madagascariense DC.
Moraceae
NE
0.00
0.22
0.22
1.34
0.67
Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) Banfi & Galasso
Fabaceae
LC
0.00
0.45
0.00
0.45
0.00
Xylopia staudtii Engl. & Diels
Annonaceae
LC
0.00
0.45
0.00
0.45
0.45
Legend: IUCN = International Union for Conservation of Nature; ICF = Informant Consensus Factor; LC = Least Concern; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; EN = Endangered; NE = Not Evaluated.