Shaping resilient buildings and cities: Climate change impacts, metrics, and strategies for mitigation and adaptation

Abstract

In an era characterized by unprecedented urbanization and escalating concerns about climate change, the resilience of buildings and cities has emerged as a paramount global imperative. This review article embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the intricate relationship between climate change and the built environment, delving into multi-faceted dimensions that encompass climate change impacts, quantification methodologies, adaptive strategies, disaster management, eco-centric design paradigms, and assessment metrics. As the world grapples with the challenges posed by shifting climate patterns, understanding the intricate interplay between these elements becomes pivotal to fostering sustainable urban development. From the far-reaching implications of climate change on buildings and cities to the intricate tools and strategies that assess, mitigate, and adapt to these shifts, this article offers a comprehensive roadmap for creating resilient urban landscapes that thrive amidst environmental uncertainties. By amalgamating diverse insights and approaches, it envisions a future where eco-design, climate resilience, and pragmatic strategies converge to shape buildings and cities that stand as bastions of sustainability and fortitude.

Full text

Information System and Smart City 2023; 3(1): 190.
Review Article
1
Shaping resilient buildings and cities: Climate change impacts,
metrics, and strategies for mitigation and adaptation
Ayat-Allah Bouramdane
Laboratory of Renewable Energies and Advanced Materials (LERMA), College of Engineering and Architecture, International
University of Rabat (IUR), IUR Campus, Technopolis Park, Rocade Rabat-Salé, Sala Al Jadida 11103, Morocco;
ayatallahbouramdane@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: In an era characterized by unprecedented urbanization and
escalating concerns about climate change, the resilience of buildings and
cities has emerged as a paramount global imperative. This review article
embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the intricate relationship
between climate change and the built environment, delving into multi-
faceted dimensions that encompass climate change impacts,
quantification methodologies, adaptive strategies, disaster management,
eco-centric design paradigms, and assessment metrics. As the world
grapples with the challenges posed by shifting climate patterns,
understanding the intricate interplay between these elements becomes
pivotal to fostering sustainable urban development. From the far-reaching
implications of climate change on buildings and cities to the intricate tools
and strategies that assess, mitigate, and adapt to these shifts, this article
offers a comprehensive roadmap for creating resilient urban landscapes
that thrive amidst environmental uncertainties. By amalgamating diverse
insights and approaches, it envisions a future where eco-design, climate
resilience, and pragmatic strategies converge to shape buildings and cities
that stand as bastions of sustainability and fortitude.
KEYWORDS: buildings and cities; climate change impacts; climate
resilience; eco-design; metrics; strategies for mitigation and adaptation
1. Introduction
In an era characterized by rapid urbanization and escalating climate concerns, the resilience of
buildings and cities stands as a pivotal challenge of our time. As the impacts of climate change[1,2] become
increasingly pronounced, understanding and addressing their implications for urban environments have
gained paramount importance[3,4]. This comprehensive review article embarks on a multifaceted
exploration of the intricate relationship between climate change and the built environment, shedding light
on key dimensions that encompass climate change impacts, measurement methodologies, adaptive
strategies, disaster management, eco-centric design paradigms, and assessment metrics.
The pressing need to comprehend the interplay between climate change and urban infrastructure
underpins the significance of this review. With urban populations rapidly swelling, the vulnerability of
buildings and cities to climate-induced stresses has profound socio-economic implications. This article
seeks to illuminate the intricate mechanisms through which climate change impacts manifest within
urban settings and, subsequently, to provide an array of strategies and metrics that empower stakeholders
to forge resilient and sustainable urban landscapes.
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 15 August 2023
Accepted: 27 September 2023
Available online: 2 January 2024
doi: 10.59400/issc.v3i1.190
Copyright © 2024 Author(s).
Information System and Smart City is
published by Academic Publishing Pte. Ltd.
This article is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License (CC BY
4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4
.0/

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While previous research[5–8] has delved into specific facets of climate change impacts and resilience
strategies, a comprehensive review that synthesizes the entirety of this multidimensional subject remains
a critical knowledge gap. This review aims to bridge this gap by addressing the following pivotal research
questions:
1) How do climate change impacts manifest in buildings and cities, and what are the innovative
methods and metrics for quantifying these effects on factors such as energy demand, structural
integrity, and urban functionality?
2) What strategies effectively mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts in buildings and urban
environments, and how do smart disaster management systems enhance resilience against climate-
induced hazards?
3) What is the transformative role of eco-design and climate resilience in shaping buildings and cities,
and which metrics best measure their environmental performance, resource efficiency, and overall
adaptive capacity?
This article adopts a systematic methodology (Section 2) to consolidate current literature concerning
climate change impacts, quantification methodologies, strategies for mitigation and adaptation,
intelligent disaster management, eco-design, and metrics for assessing climate resilience within the
framework of buildings and urban environments.
The outcomes of this review hold significant practical implications for urban planning, policy
formulation, and design strategies. By distilling the collective wisdom from a multitude of studies, this
review empowers decision-makers to make informed choices in the face of a changing climate, ensuring
the creation of resilient, adaptive, and eco-friendly urban environments.
This review article is structured to traverse the landscape of climate change impacts on buildings and
cities, beginning with an examination of the direct effects (Section 3.1). It then transitions into a discourse
on methodologies and metrics for quantification, offering insights into the state of the art in measurement
techniques (Section 3.2). Subsequently, strategies for both mitigation and adaptation are explored,
emphasizing the need for proactive approaches to enhancing urban resilience (Section 3.3). The article
proceeds to explore smart disaster management, showcasing innovative technologies and approaches that
safeguard urban structures and inhabitants (Section 3.4). The pivotal role of eco-design and climate
resilience in shaping buildings and cities is given dedicated attention (Section 3.5), followed by a
comprehensive exploration of metrics that gauge eco-centric and climate-resilient achievements (Section
3.6).
In section 4, we explore the policy and practical implications of the research questions addressed in
this review article. Additionally, we integrate case studies to offer practical context, pinpoint potential
areas for future research, identify gaps, and underscore the pivotal importance of engaging stakeholders,
especially local communities, in the mitigation of climate change impacts on buildings and cities.
As urban centers face unprecedented challenges, this review article endeavors to consolidate and
illuminate the pathways that lead to a more resilient, adaptive, and sustainable urban future in the face
of climate change.
2. Methodology
This review article employs a systematic approach to synthesize existing literature on climate change
impacts, quantification methods, mitigation and adaptation strategies, smart disaster management, eco-
design, and climate resilience metrics in the context of buildings and cities.

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Simulation data collection
In this study, valuable insights into climate change impacts were gained through the meticulous
collection of simulation data, focusing on key indicators such as Heating Degree Days (HDD), Cooling
Degree Days (CDD), precipitation patterns, and sea-level rise. These data points serve as essential metrics
for assessing the multifaceted effects of climate change on buildings and cities.
Central to our data acquisition is the utilization of the IPCC WGI Interactive Atlas[9], a
comprehensive and authoritative tool developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) Working Group I. The Interactive Atlas offers a user-friendly interface that grants access to a
wealth of climate model outputs, scenarios, and projections. Through this tool, users can explore and
visualize a wide range of climate variables and their potential evolution under various emission scenarios.
The IPCC WGI Interactive Atlas aggregates the outputs of the Coupled Model Intercomparison
Project Phase 6 (CMIP6), a globally coordinated effort aimed at advancing our understanding of climate
systems. CMIP6 employs state-of-the-art climate models to simulate a spectrum of climate variables,
facilitating informed decision-making and comprehensive assessments of climate change impacts (in
Section 2.2)[1].
With the IPCC WGI Interactive Atlas as our cornerstone resource, we harnessed the power of
cutting-edge simulations to unravel the intricate relationships between changing climate patterns and
their implications for buildings and urban environments. This approach enables a robust analysis of
Heating and Cooling Degree Days, precipitation trends, and sea-level rise, contributing to a
comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in the realm of climate-
resilient urban development.
3. Comprehensive insights: Climate change impacts, metrics, strategies,
and resilience in urban environments
This section comprehensively investigates multiple facets of climate change’s influence on urban
environments, encompassing: 1) the direct impacts on buildings and cities; 2) methodologies and metrics
to assess these effects; 3) adaptive and mitigation strategies for urban resilience; 4) intelligent disaster
management to bolster building and city resilience; 5) the pivotal contribution of eco-design and climate
resilience in shaping urban spaces; and 6) the utilization of specific metrics to gauge eco-design and
climate resilience within buildings and cities.
3.1. Climate change impacts on buildings and cities
Climate change can have a wide range of impacts on buildings[10] and cities[11,12], both in terms of
their construction and operation. These impacts can vary depending on factors such as geographical
location, local climate conditions, building design, and infrastructure[13]. The key ways in which climate
change can affect buildings and cities include:
⚫ Increased Temperature, Energy Demand, and Urban Heat Island Effect: Climate change,
specifically the increase in temperature, can have significant impacts on energy demand in both the
North and South regions[14] (in Chapter 5) (SMRY[15]). These impacts can vary based on factors such
as geographical location, existing energy infrastructure, and the level of temperature increase[1,16,17].
In fact, as temperatures rise, the northern regions are likely to experience a reduced need for heating
during the colder months (Figure 1). This could lead to decreased energy demand for heating
systems. Paradoxically, even in traditionally cooler areas, higher temperatures can lead to increased

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demand for cooling during hotter months (Figure 2). This could be due to a rise in the use of air
conditioning and cooling systems. Similar to the North, the South region will likely experience
increased cooling demand due to higher temperatures (Figure 2). This can lead to higher electricity
consumption and potentially put strain on the power grid during peak demand periods as more air
conditioning units and cooling systems are used to maintain indoor comfort[14,18,19]. In addition,
higher temperatures can lead to increased heat stress in urban areas, especially due to the urban heat
island effect, where cities are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas due to human
activities and a lack of vegetation[20,21].
Figure 1. Projected Change in Heating Degree Days (HDD) for the Long Term (2081-2100) Under the SSP5-8.5 Scenario,
Relative to the 1995–2014 Baseline, Annual Average, Across 27 CMIP6 Models. Heating Degree Days (HDD) represent the
sum of degrees by which a day’s average temperature falls below a reference temperature, typically indicating the demand for
heating energy[14] (in Chapter 2, Section VI). SSPs, or Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, are scenarios used in climate
modeling to explore different potential futures based on varying levels of socioeconomic development, energy use, and policy
choices[1] (Figure 2). CMIP6 refers to the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6, which is a global climate model
experiment coordinated by the World Climate Research Programme[1] (Section 2.2).
Figure 2. Projected Change in Cooling Degree Days (CDD) for a Warming of 2 ℃ Above Pre-Industrial Levels Under the
SSP5-8.5 Scenario, Relative to the 1850–1900 Baseline, Annual Average, Across 27 CMIP6 Models. Cooling Degree Days
(CDD) represent the sum of degrees by which a day’s average temperature exceeds a reference temperature, typically
indicating the demand for cooling energy[14] (Chapter 2, Section VI). SSPs, or Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, serve as
frameworks within climate modeling to investigate diverse prospective scenarios rooted in fluctuating degrees of
socioeconomic progress, energy consumption, and policy trajectories[1] (Figure 2). CMIP6, an acronym for the Coupled Model
Intercomparison Project Phase 6, signifies an internationally coordinated endeavor by the World Climate Research
Programme to conduct a comprehensive global climate modeling initiative[1] (Section 2.2).

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⚫ Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and intense extreme weather events, such as hurricanes,
storms, floods, wildfires, and heatwaves[22,23], can damage buildings and infrastructure,
transportation systems, utilities, and communication networks, disrupting city functions and
residents’ lives[2,24].
⚫ Sea Level Rise: Coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise (Figure 3)[25], which can
lead to in- creased flooding, erosion, and saltwater intrusion into infrastructure. Buildings and
underground utilities can be compromised, and increased moisture can contribute to decay and mold
growth[26].
⚫ Water Scarcity or Flooding and Drainage Issues: Changes in precipitation patterns (Figure 4)[1] can
lead to water scarcity in some regions[27,28], or flooding and drainage issues[29,30] in other regions,
affecting water supply, sanitation[31,32], and agriculture[33,34]. Buildings and cities may need to adopt
water-efficient technologies and practices.
⚫ Health Risks: Climate change can exacerbate health risks in urban areas due to increased heat-
related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, and the spread of diseases carried by
insects[2].
⚫ Insurance Costs: Increased climate-related risks can lead to higher insurance costs for both
individuals and businesses, potentially affecting property values and investment decisions[2,32].
⚫ Migration and Population Shifts: Climate change impacts can lead to population shifts as people
move away from vulnerable areas, which can have implications for urban development, housing
demand, and social dynamics[2].
⚫ Economic Impacts: Climate change-related damages to buildings and infrastructure can have
significant economic consequences for cities, affecting local economies, property values, and public
finances[2].
Addressing these impacts requires a combination of strategies, including better urban planning,
resilient building design, sustainable infrastructure, improved emergency response plans, and global
efforts to mitigate climate change through reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Figure 3. Projected Change in Sea Level Rise (SLR) for the Long Term (2081-2100) Under the SSP5-8.5 Scenario, Relative to
the 1995-2014 Baseline, Annual Average, Based on CMIP6 Models. CMIP6 refers to the Coupled Model Intercomparison
Project Phase 6, which is a global climate model experiment coordinated by the World Climate Research Programme. SSP5-
8.5 is a specific Shared Socioeconomic Pathway that represents a high greenhouse gas emissions and high climate change
scenario[1] (Section 2.2).

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Figure 4. Projected Change in Total Precipitation (PR) as a Percentage for the Long Term (2081-2100) Under the SSP5-8.5
Scenario, Relative to the 1995-2014 Baseline, Annual Average, Across 33 CMIP6 Models. CMIP6 refers to the Coupled
Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6, which is a global climate model experiment coordinated by the World Climate
Research Programme. SSP5-8.5 is a specific Shared Socioeconomic Pathway that represents a high greenhouse gas emissions
and high climate change scenario[1] (Section 2.2).
Case Study: Miami, Florida, USA—Climate change impacts on urban development plans
Miami, Florida, often referred to as the “Magic City,” is a prime example of a metropolitan area
profoundly affected by the consequences of climate change. This case study explores how climate change
has impacted urban development plans in Miami and the measures taken to address these challenges[35].
Miami is situated in a low-lying coastal region susceptible to sea-level rise and extreme weather
events. Rising sea levels, increased flooding, and more frequent hurricanes have prompted significant
concerns for the city’s future development. The city’s urban planners and policymakers have been
compelled to adapt to these changing conditions[35].
Climate Change Impacts:
⚫
Sea-Level Rise: Miami faces one of the highest rates of sea-level rise in the United States. This
threatens low- lying neighborhoods, infrastructure, and vital assets such as the Port of Miami[36].
⚫
Increased Flooding: Miami experiences frequent tidal flooding, often referred to as “sunny-day
flooding”[37], which disrupts daily life and economic activities. The city’s stormwater drainage
systems are struggling to cope with these rising waters[38].
⚫
Hurricane Vulnerability: Miami is highly vulnerable to hurricanes. As climate change intensifies
storms, the risk to the city’s infrastructure and residents increases significantly[39].
Urban Development Plans and Adaptation Strategies:
⚫
Elevating Infrastructure: Miami has incorporated climate resilience into urban development plans
by elevating critical infrastructure[40], including roads and seawalls. The city’s upgraded stormwater
drainage systems are designed to manage increased flooding.
⚫
Building Code Revisions: To address the risk of hurricane damage, Miami has updated its building
codes to require stricter construction standards, particularly for new developments and retrofitting
existing structures[41].
⚫
Green Infrastructure: The city is investing in green infrastructure, including mangrove restoration
and the creation of parks designed to absorb excess water. These projects aim to mitigate the effects
of sea-level rise and provide recreational space for residents[42].

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⚫
Climate Resilience Bonds: Miami has explored innovative financing mechanisms, such as climate
resilience bonds, to fund adaptation projects. These bonds generate revenue for climate adaptation
efforts while involving community stakeholders[43].
⚫
Climate Action Plans: The city has developed comprehensive climate action plans that outline
strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change. These plans engage
local communities and prioritize equity considerations[44,45].
Challenges and Future Directions:
⚫
Funding: The cost of climate adaptation and resilience projects remains a significant challenge[2].
Miami must secure funding for large-scale infrastructure investments to protect its vulnerable coastal
communities effectively[46,47].
⚫
Equity: Ensuring that climate adaptation efforts benefit all residents, including historically
marginalized communities, is an ongoing challenge[2,16]. Miami must address disparities in
vulnerability and resilience[47].
⚫
Long-Term Planning: Miami continues to refine its long-term urban development plans to account
for evolving climate change projections, which requires regular updates and adjustments[48].
Miami serves as a compelling case study of a city proactively addressing the impacts of climate
change on urban development. By elevating infrastructure, revising building codes, and engaging in green
infrastructure projects, Miami demonstrates its commitment to protecting residents and preserving the
city’s economic vitality in the face of climate change. However, ongoing challenges in funding, equity,
and long-term planning underscore the need for continued adaptation efforts and engagement with the
community to ensure a resilient and sustainable future for the Magic City.
3.2. Quantifying the effects of climate change on buildings and cities: Methods and metrics
for assessment
Measuring the impacts of climate change on buildings and cities involves a multidisciplinary
approach that considers various physical, environmental, and social factors. Below are several commonly
employed methods and metrics for quantifying and evaluating the impacts of climate change on buildings
and urban environments[49,50]:
⚫ Temperature Monitoring: Installing temperature sensors in buildings and across cities to track
changes in local temperatures, identify urban heat islands[51], and assess heat stress on infrastructure
and residents[52,53].
⚫ Energy Consumption Analysis: Monitoring energy consumption data for heating and cooling
systems to identify shifts in demand due to changing climate conditions[54,55].
⚫ Precipitation Patterns: Analyzing historical and current rainfall data to understand shifts in
precipitation pat- terns, assess flood risks, and evaluate stormwater management systems[56,57].
⚫ Sea Level Rise Monitoring: Using tide gauges and satellite data to track sea level rise near coastal
cities and assess potential flooding risks[58,59].
⚫ Building Performance Simulation: Utilizing computer modeling and simulations to predict how
buildings will respond to changing climatic conditions, including temperature, humidity, and energy
demand[60].
⚫ Air Quality Monitoring: Measuring air quality indicators such as particulate matter (PM2.5), ozone
(O3), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to assess pollution levels and their impact on indoor and outdoor
environments[61,62].
⚫ Health Data Analysis: Studying health data to understand the relationship between climate change

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impacts (e.g., heatwaves, air quality) and public health outcomes[63].
⚫ Economic Indicators: Assessing economic factors, such as insurance claims, property values, and
business disruptions, to quantify the economic impacts of climate change on buildings and cities[64].
⚫ Social Vulnerability Analysis: Evaluating the social vulnerability of different populations within
cities to assess their susceptibility to climate change effects and inform targeted adaptation
strategies[64,65].
⚫ Greenhouse Gas Emissions Tracking: Monitoring and reporting greenhouse gas emissions from
buildings, transportation, and industrial activities to gauge their contribution to climate change and
identify areas for reduction[66].
⚫ Urban Planning and Zoning Review: Evaluating existing urban plans and zoning regulations to
determine their resilience to climate change impacts and updating them accordingly[67].
⚫ Community Engagement and Perception Surveys: Conducting surveys and engaging with
community members to understand their perceptions of climate change impacts and gather valuable
qualitative data[68].
⚫ Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery: Using satellite data to monitor changes in land use,
vegetation cover, and urban expansion, which can indicate climate change effects[69].
⚫ Water Resource Management: Analyzing water availability, usage, and quality to assess the impact
of changing precipitation patterns on water supply and sanitation systems[70,71].
⚫ Biodiversity Assessment: Studying changes in local ecosystems and biodiversity to understand
ecological impacts and potential cascading effects on urban environments[72,73].
These methods and metrics collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of how climate
change is affecting buildings and cities. The data gathered from these assessments can guide policymakers,
urban planners, architects, and other stakeholders in developing effective strategies for climate adaptation
and resilience.
Reference models and algorithms in past research
In this section, we delve into a comprehensive overview of reference models and algorithms utilized
in past research, offering readers valuable insights and resources for understanding the foundations of our
study.
⚫ Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment Models:
⚫ The IPCC Assessment Framework: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
has developed a comprehensive assessment framework that includes models for evaluating the
vulnerability of urban areas to climate change impacts. This framework considers exposure,
sensitivity, and adaptive capacity[74].
⚫ The Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI): This model assesses the vulnerability of coastal
regions, including urban areas, to sea-level rise and storm surge. It integrates factors like coastal
geomorphology, sea-level rise projections, and socioeconomic data[75,76].
⚫ Urban Flood Modeling:
⚫ Hydraulic and Hydrological Models: Models like SWMM (Storm Water Management
Model)[77] and HEC-RAS (Hydrologic Engineering Center’s River Analysis System)[78] are
commonly used to simulate urban flooding and stormwater management. They consider
rainfall, terrain, land use, and drainage infrastructure.
⚫ Sea-Level Rise Projections:
⚫ SLAMM (Sea-Level Affecting Marshes Model): SLAMM is used to project the effects of sea-

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level rise on coastal wetlands, which indirectly impacts urban development. It can be adapted
to assess the vulnerability of urban areas to sea-level rise[79].
⚫ Building Energy Consumption Models:
⚫ EnergyPlus: This is a widely-used building energy simulation software that models the energy
consumption of buildings under various climate scenarios. It can help assess the impact of rising
temperatures on cooling loads and energy demand[80].
⚫ Transportation and Mobility Models:
⚫ Integrated Transportation and Land Use Models: Models like TRANUS[81] and UrbanSim[82]
simulate urban transportation and land use patterns, helping planners assess the resilience of
transportation infrastructure to extreme weather events.
⚫ Social Vulnerability Assessment Models:
⚫ Social Vulnerability Index (SoVI): SoVI assesses the vulnerability of communities to
environmental hazards, considering socioeconomic factors, demographics, and access to
resources. It can be used to identify vulnerable populations in urban areas[83].
⚫ Machine Learning Algorithms:
⚫ Random Forest and Decision Trees: These algorithms can be applied to predict climate-related
risks and assess the impact of climate change on urban development by analyzing historical and
climate data[84].
⚫ GIS-Based Spatial Analysis:
⚫ Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS tools and spatial analysis techniques are widely
used to model the spatial distribution of climate change impacts, such as flooding, heat islands,
and sea-level rise, within urban areas[85].
These examples represent a range of modeling and algorithmic approaches used in research related
to climate change impacts on urban development plans. Researchers can adapt and apply these models
and algorithms to specific urban contexts to assess vulnerabilities, plan adaptation strategies, and enhance
the resilience of cities in the face of climate change.
3.3. Strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change impacts in buildings and urban
environments
Mitigating and adapting to climate change in buildings and cities requires a comprehensive and
multifaceted approach[86,87]. Below are fundamental approaches encompassing both mitigation, aimed at
curbing greenhouse gas emissions, and adaptation, focused on fortifying resilience against climate-induced
effects[88]:
3.3.1. Mitigation strategies
⚫
Energy Efficiency Improvements: Enhance the energy efficiency of buildings through better
insulation[89,90], high-efficiency lighting, appliances, and Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
(HVAC) systems[91] to reduce energy consumption and emissions[92,93].
⚫
Renewable Energy Integration: Integrate renewable energy sources[14,94] such as solar panels[25,95],
wind turbines[96,97], and geothermal systems to generate clean energy and decrease reliance on fossil
fuels[98,99].
⚫
Green Building Design: Adopt sustainable building practices, such as green roofs[5], efficient
ventilation, and passive solar design[100]—which involves architectural and construction strategies
that harness natural sun- light and heat to enhance energy efficiency and indoor comfort within
buildings—to minimize energy use and carbon emissions[101,102].

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⚫
Low-Carbon Materials: Use low-carbon construction materials like recycled content, sustainable
wood, and low-embodied-energy materials to reduce emissions associated with building materials[103].
⚫
Transit-Oriented Development: Plan cities with well-connected public transportation systems to
reduce private vehicle use and lower transportation-related emissions[104].
⚫
Waste Reduction and Recycling: Implement waste reduction and recycling programs to reduce
landfill emissions and promote a circular economy for building materials[105].
⚫
Urban Planning: Design compact, walkable neighborhoods that reduce the need for long commutes
and encourage active transportation[106].
3.3.2. Adaptation strategies
⚫
Climate-Resilient Design: Develop buildings and infrastructure that can withstand extreme
weather events, floods, and heatwaves[6].
⚫
Elevated Construction: In coastal areas, raise buildings and infrastructure above anticipated sea
levels to mitigate the risk of flooding[107].
⚫
Green Infrastructure: Incorporate green spaces, parks, and permeable surfaces to manage
stormwater and reduce the urban heat island effect[108].
⚫
Water Management: Implement sustainable water management practices such as rainwater
harvesting, water efficient appliances, and wastewater treatment systems[109].
⚫
Emergency Preparedness: Develop and communicate emergency plans to respond effectively to
climate-related disasters[110,111].
⚫
Health and Safety Measures: Enhance healthcare and emergency services to address health risks
associated with climate change, such as heat-related illnesses[112].
⚫
Community Engagement: Involve local communities in climate adaptation planning to ensure that
strategies are relevant and effective[113].
⚫
Biodiversity Promotion: Preserve and restore natural habitats within cities to enhance biodiversity
and support ecosystem services[114].
⚫
Flexible Zoning: Update zoning regulations to allow for flexible land use and development patterns
that can adapt to changing climate conditions[115].
⚫
Education and Awareness: Raise public awareness about climate change impacts and the
importance of individual and collective action[116].
Combining these strategies, tailored to specific local contexts, can contribute to both mitigating
climate change by reducing emissions and adapting to its inevitable impacts on buildings and cities.
Collaboration between governments, urban planners, architects, engineers, businesses, and communities
is essential to creating resilient and sustainable urban environments.
3.4. Smart disaster management: Ensuring resilience in buildings and cities
Managing disasters in smart buildings and cities requires a combination of advanced technologies,
data-driven strategies, and proactive planning[7,117]. Effectively managing disasters within intelligent urban
environments involves:
⚫ Integrated Sensor Networks: Deploy sensor networks throughout buildings and cities to monitor
various parameters such as temperature, humidity, air quality, structural integrity, and water levels.
These sensors provide real-time data for the early detection of disasters[118].
⚫ Data Analytics and AI: Utilize data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) to process and analyze
the information collected from sensors. AI algorithms can identify patterns, anomalies, and potential
disaster triggers, enabling timely responses[119].

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⚫ Early Warning Systems: Develop early warning systems that can predict and notify residents and
authorities about impending disasters such as earthquakes, floods, or severe weather events. These
systems can provide critical time for evacuation and preparation[120,121].
⚫ Emergency Communication Channels: Establish reliable communication channels, including
mobile apps and automated notifications, to keep residents informed about disaster situations and
evacuation procedures[122].
⚫ Remote Control and Automation: Implement remote control and automation systems that allow
buildings and city infrastructure to be managed and adjusted remotely during disasters, ensuring the
safety of occupants and reducing damage[123].
⚫ Building Resilience: Design smart buildings with disaster-resistant features such as earthquake-
resistant structures, fire-resistant materials, and backup power systems to ensure functionality during
crises[6,7].
⚫ Energy and Resource Management: Smart grids and energy management systems can reroute
power during outages, prioritize critical services, and optimize energy consumption to ensure
essential services remain operational[70,71].
⚫ Traffic Management: Implement smart traffic management systems to redirect traffic, manage
congestion, and facilitate emergency vehicle movement during disasters[124].
⚫ Predictive Modeling: Use predictive modeling to simulate disaster scenarios, assess potential
impacts, and optimize response strategies for different types of disasters[125].
⚫ Community Engagement: Educate residents about disaster preparedness and response through
digital plat- forms, workshops, and community meetings. Encourage active participation and
collaboration in disaster management efforts[113].
⚫ Rescue and Relief Coordination: Develop platforms that enable efficient coordination among first
responders, emergency services, and relief organizations to ensure a swift and organized response[126].
⚫ Backup Systems and Redundancies: Build redundancy into critical systems to ensure that failures
in one area do not lead to a complete system breakdown during disasters[8].
⚫ Post-Disaster Recovery: Smart technologies can aid in post-disaster recovery by providing real-time
data on damage assessment, helping prioritize recovery efforts, and facilitating efficient resource
allocation[127].
⚫ Privacy and Security: Implement robust cybersecurity measures[128] to protect sensitive data and
prevent malicious actors from exploiting smart systems during disasters[129].
⚫ Regular Testing and Training: Conduct regular disaster drills and training exercises to familiarize
residents, responders, and authorities with smart disaster management systems and protocols[130].
By leveraging smart technologies, data analytics, and collaborative efforts, cities and buildings can
enhance disaster management capabilities, reduce risks, and mitigate the impact of disasters on residents
and infrastructure.
3.5. The crucial role of eco-design and climate resilience in shaping buildings and cities
The integration of eco-design and climate resilience plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of
buildings and cities, ensuring their sustainability, functionality, and adaptability in the face of complex
environmental challenges. This synergy between eco-design and climate resilience goes beyond aesthetics
and traditional construction practices; it encompasses a profound shift in how we envision, plan,
construct, and inhabit our urban spaces[6].
⚫ Holistic Sustainability: Eco-design considers the entire lifecycle of buildings and cities, from

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material selection and construction methods to energy efficiency and waste management. By
minimizing resource consumption, reducing emissions, and promoting circular economy principles,
eco-design ensures that structures are environmentally responsible and contribute positively to their
surroundings.
⚫ Resource Efficiency: Integrating eco-design principles helps optimize resource utilization, from
energy and water to materials. This not only reduces the ecological footprint but also enhances the
long-term affordability and feasibility of buildings and infrastructure.
⚫ Climate Adaptation: Climate resilience ensures that buildings and cities are equipped to withstand
and re- cover from the increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related events, such as extreme
weather, floods, and heatwaves. Resilience strategies include flood-resistant design, efficient
stormwater management, and the preservation of green spaces.
⚫ Enhanced Comfort and Well-Being: Eco-design prioritizes indoor environmental quality,
promoting natural lighting, optimal air circulation, and reduced pollutants. Climate resilience
measures ensure that structures remain habitable and comfortable even under changing climatic
conditions.
⚫ Future-Proofing: Incorporating eco-design and climate resilience safeguards investments against the
uncertainties of a changing climate. It anticipates the potential challenges that buildings and cities
might face and equips them with features that help minimize risks.
⚫ Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Both eco-design and climate resilience acknowledge the
importance of integrating natural ecosystems within urban areas. Green spaces, biodiversity
corridors, and sustainable landscaping not only enhance the aesthetic appeal but also provide critical
ecosystem services such as air purification, flood regulation, and temperature moderation.
⚫ Community and Social Equity: A focus on eco-design and climate resilience fosters inclusive and
equitable urban environments. Access to green areas, efficient public transportation, and disaster-
ready infrastructure benefits all residents, promoting social cohesion and well-being.
⚫ Global Responsibility: As buildings and cities collectively contribute to a significant portion of
greenhouse gas emissions, embracing eco-design and climate resilience becomes a global
responsibility. By setting examples and adopting sustainable practices, urban centers can inspire
positive change on a broader scale.
In essence, the amalgamation of eco-design and climate resilience transcends conventional
architectural and urban planning practices. It envisions a harmonious coexistence between human
activities and the environment, fostering cities that not only withstand climate challenges but also thrive
sustainably, providing a high quality of life for current and future generations. As we navigate an era of
rapid urbanization and environmental uncertainties, these principles stand as guiding beacons for shaping
resilient, adaptive, and environmentally conscious built environments.
3.6. Measuring eco-design and climate resilience in buildings and cities
Measuring eco-design and climate resilience in buildings and cities involves a combination of
quantitative and qualitative assessments that evaluate various aspects of sustainability and resilience[6].
Some commonly employed methods and metrics for measuring eco-design and climate resilience
include[131]:
3.6.1. Eco-design measurement
⚫
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): LCA evaluates the environmental impacts of a building or city over
its entire life cycle, including construction, operation, and demolition. It quantifies aspects like

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energy consumption, material use, emissions, and waste generation[132,133].
⚫
Energy Performance Metrics: Metrics such as Energy Use Intensity (EUI) and Energy Star ratings
provide in- sights into a building’s energy efficiency and its performance relative to similar
structures[134].
⚫
Green Building Certifications: Certifications like LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design) and BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) offer
standardized frameworks for assessing sustainable design, construction, and operation[135].
⚫
Embodied Carbon Assessment: This measures the carbon emissions associated with the production,
transportation, and assembly of building materials, providing insight into the carbon footprint of a
structure[136].
⚫
Water Efficiency Metrics: Metrics like Water Use Intensity (WUI) and WaterSense ratings quantify
a building’s water efficiency and its ability to conserve water resources[131].
⚫
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) Assessment: Evaluates factors such as indoor air quality,
natural lighting, acoustics, and thermal comfort to ensure occupants’ well-being[61,62].
3.6.2. Climate resilience measurement
⚫
Risk and Vulnerability Assessment: Identifies potential climate-related risks and vulnerabilities that
a building or city might face, considering factors such as location, exposure to hazards, and
population density.
⚫
Adaptation Strategies Review: Evaluates the implementation of climate adaptation strategies, such
as flood barriers, green infrastructure, and emergency response plans.
⚫
Infrastructure Resilience: Assesses the ability of critical infrastructure (e.g., utilities, transportation
networks) to withstand and recover from climate-related stressors.
⚫
Community Engagement and Participation: Measures the level of community involvement in
climate resilience planning and the integration of local knowledge and needs[113].
⚫
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Assesses the presence and health of natural ecosystems within
cities, which contribute to climate resilience by providing services like flood control and temperature
regulation.
⚫
Economic Resilience: Analyzes the economic stability and adaptability of buildings and cities in
response to climate impacts, including potential disruptions to local economies.
⚫
Regulatory Compliance: Measures the alignment of building codes, zoning regulations, and land
use plans with climate resilience goals.
⚫
Post-Disaster Recovery: Assesses the speed and effectiveness of recovery efforts following climate-
related disasters[127].
The combination of these methods provides a comprehensive understanding of both eco-design and
climate resilience in buildings and cities. Measurement and evaluation should be an ongoing process to
track progress, identify areas for improvement, and ensure that sustainable and resilient principles are
effectively implemented.
4. Discussion
In this discussion section, we delve into the policy and practical implications of the research
questions explored in this review article. We also incorporate case studies to provide practical context,
identify potential future research directions and gaps, and emphasize the crucial role of stakeholder
involvement, particularly with local communities, in addressing climate change impacts in buildings and

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14
cities.
4.1. Policy implications and practical applications
The analysis of this review article has several practical implications for various stakeholders,
including policy-makers, urban planners, architects, engineers, and local communities. These
implications can guide real-world actions in the context of climate change impacts on buildings and cities:
4.1.1. Policymakers and governments
⚫
Strengthening Building Codes: Policymakers should prioritize the revision and enforcement of
building codes to enhance structural resilience against climate-induced hazards. This includes
adopting updated engineering standards that consider changing climatic conditions[137].
⚫
Promoting Energy Efficiency: Governments can incentivize energy-efficient building designs and
retrofits by offering tax incentives, grants, or subsidies. Encouraging the use of renewable energy
sources can also reduce energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions[92,93].
⚫
Urban Planning: City planners should prioritize sustainable urban development, including green
spaces, pedestrian- friendly environments, and efficient public transportation. These measures can
improve overall urban functionality and reduce the urban heat island effect[138,139].
⚫
Disaster Management: Investment in smart disaster management systems, including early warning
systems, evacuation plans, and resilient infrastructure, should be a priority for governments at all
levels[119,122,124].
4.1.2. Urban planners and architects
⚫
Green Infrastructure: Urban planners and architects should integrate green infrastructure, such as
green roofs, vertical gardens, and permeable pavements, into building and urban design to mitigate
the urban heat island effect and enhance overall environmental sustainability[5,108].
⚫
Sustainable Materials: The use of sustainable and climate-resilient construction materials should be
encouraged. This includes materials that can withstand extreme weather conditions and reduce the
carbon footprint of buildings[89].
⚫
Eco-design: Incorporating eco-design principles into building projects can significantly improve
their environ- mental performance. This includes considering life-cycle assessments and resource
efficiency throughout the design and construction process[140].
4.1.3. Engineers and builders
⚫
Resilient Construction: Engineers and builders should prioritize resilient construction techniques,
which may include elevated foundations, reinforced structures, and flood-resistant building
materials, to ensure the longevity of buildings in the face of climate change impacts[5,6].
⚫
Renewable Energy Integration: The integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar panels
and wind turbines, should be incorporated into building designs to reduce energy demand and
increase self-sufficiency[3,14,88].
4.1.4. Local communities
⚫
Community Engagement: Local communities should actively engage with policymakers, urban
planners, and developers to ensure their voices are heard in the decision-making process regarding
urban development and climate adaptation measures[113].
⚫
Disaster Preparedness: Communities should be educated and prepared for climate-induced hazards,
with access to information and resources to respond effectively in times of crisis[7,117].

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In summary, the practical implications of this review research are extensive and encompass a wide
range of actions that various stakeholders can take to address climate change impacts in buildings and
cities. By implementing these recommendations, stakeholders can contribute to the creation of more
resilient, sustainable, and adaptive urban environments in the face of climate change.
4.2. Case studies for practical context
To provide practical context for these policy implications, we present a few case studies that
exemplify successful approaches to addressing climate change impacts in buildings and cities:
4.2.1. The Copenhagen climate adaptation plan, Denmark
⚫
Policy Implications: Copenhagen has been proactive in addressing climate change impacts. The
city’s cli- mate adaptation plan emphasizes sustainable urban development, including building
resilient infrastructure and creating green spaces[141,142]. Strict building codes and standards encourage
eco-friendly construction practices.
⚫
Practical Applications: Copenhagen boasts an extensive cycling network, energy-efficient buildings,
and integrated public transportation systems. Innovative green infrastructure, like green roofs and
urban gardens, helps mitigate the urban heat island effect[141,142].
4.2.2. Singapore’s green building initiatives
⚫
Policy Implications: Singapore’s Building and Construction Authority (BCA) has introduced
stringent energy efficiency standards and green building incentives. This includes measures to reduce
energy demand, encourage renewable energy adoption, and promote sustainable building
materials[143].
⚫
Practical Applications: Singapore’s skyline is adorned with greenery, including the award-winning
Gardens by the Bay. This green architecture helps combat urban heat, lower energy consumption,
and create a more pleasant urban environment[144].
4.2.3. Post-hurricane sandy resilience efforts in New York City, USA
⚫
Policy Implications: After Hurricane Sandy in 2012, New York City overhauled its policies to
enhance resilience. This included implementing updated building codes for flood-prone areas and
bolstering disaster management systems[145,146].
⚫
Practical Applications: Initiatives like the “Big U” project have fortified Manhattan’s coastline to
protect against future storm surges. The city has also expanded its green infrastructure and improved
evacuation plans[147].
4.2.4. The Curitiba Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, Brazil
⚫
Policy Implications: Curitiba’s BRT system is a model for sustainable urban planning. The city
invested in public transportation, reducing traffic congestion and emissions. This aligns with climate
change mitigation strategies[148].
⚫
Practical Applications: The BRT system prioritizes efficient, environmentally friendly
transportation. It serves as an example of how well-planned urban mobility can reduce energy
demand and greenhouse gas emissions[148].
4.2.5. Medellín’s transformation, Colombia
⚫
Policy Implications: Medellín’s transformation from a crime-ridden city to an innovation hub
involved urban planning focused on inclusivity, public transportation, and green spaces[149,150].
⚫
Practical Applications: The Medellín Metrocable is a prime example of integrating urban

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functionality with climate resilience. This cable car system connects marginalized neighborhoods to
the city center while minimizing environmental disruption[149,150].
These case studies illustrate how diverse policies and practical applications can address climate
change impacts in various urban contexts. They showcase the importance of integrating sustainable and
resilient practices into urban development, infrastructure, and transportation systems to create more
adaptive and environmentally friendly cities.
4.3. Future research directions and identified gaps
While progress has been made in understanding climate change impacts on buildings and cities,
several research directions and gaps should be addressed:
4.3.1. Long-term impact assessment
⚫
Future Research Direction: Conduct long-term assessments of climate change impacts[1,16] on
buildings and cities. Focus on how changing weather patterns, sea-level rise, and evolving risk
factors[23–25] affect urban areas over decades and even centuries.
⚫
Identified Gap: Current research often focuses on short to medium-term impacts. There is a need
for studies that explore the cumulative and persistent effects of climate change on urban
environments[151].
4.3.2. Social and economic impacts
⚫
Future Research Direction: Investigate the social and economic consequences of climate change in
urban areas. Explore how vulnerable populations are disproportionately affected and the role of
equity in climate resilience[2].
⚫
Identified Gap: While there is growing awareness of the importance of social and economic
dimensions, more comprehensive research is needed to understand the complexities of these impacts
and develop strategies to address them effectively[2].
4.3.3. Technological advancements
⚫
Future Research Direction: Continue to advance research in innovative construction materials,
energy-efficient technologies, and smart urban systems. Explore how emerging technologies like AI,
IoT, and blockchain can enhance urban resilience[7].
⚫
Identified Gap: The rapid pace of technological change requires ongoing research to evaluate the
effectiveness and sustainability of new technologies in mitigating and adapting to climate change
impacts[152].
4.3.4. Integrating nature-based solutions
⚫
Future Research Direction: Investigate the effectiveness of nature-based solutions (e.g., green
infrastructure, urban forestry) in mitigating climate change impacts[108]. Explore how these solutions
can be integrated into urban planning and design.
⚫
Identified Gap: While there is growing interest in nature-based solutions[153], there is a need for
empirical research to quantify their benefits, assess their long-term sustainability, and determine best
practices for implementation.
4.3.5. Resilience metrics and assessment tools
⚫
Future Research Direction: Develop standardized and comprehensive metrics and assessment tools
to measure urban resilience to climate change[49,50]. These tools should consider factors like
infrastructure, social cohesion, and governance.

Information System and Smart City 2023; 3(1): 190.
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⚫
Identified Gap: Existing resilience metrics vary widely and may not capture the full range of urban
vulnerabilities and strengths. Standardized assessment tools can provide a common framework for
evaluating and comparing resilience efforts.
4.3.6. Human behavior and decision-making
⚫
Future Research Direction: Study human behavior and decision-making[25,95–97] in the context of
climate change adaptation and mitigation in urban areas. Understand how individuals, communities,
and policymakers respond to climate-related challenges[154].
⚫
Identified Gap: Human behavior plays a critical role in shaping the success of climate resilience
strategies[154]. Research should delve into behavioral economics, communication strategies, and
governance models that promote climate-conscious decisions.
4.3.7. Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices
⚫
Future Research Direction: Explore the integration of indigenous knowledge and traditional
practices into urban planning and climate resilience strategies. Collaborate with indigenous
communities to learn from their sustainable practices[155,156].
⚫
Identified Gap: Indigenous communities often possess valuable knowledge about living sustainably
in harmony with nature. Research should seek to bridge the gap between indigenous wisdom and
mainstream urban planning[155,156].
4.3.8. Cross-disciplinary research
⚫
Future Research Direction: Encourage more cross-disciplinary collaboration among researchers
from fields such as climate science, architecture, engineering, social sciences, and public health to
address complex urban climate challenges[157].
⚫
Identified Gap: Solving urban climate challenges requires holistic approaches that consider both
physical and social dimensions. Cross-disciplinary research can help generate innovative solutions[2].
Identifying and addressing these research directions and gaps can contribute to more effective
strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change impacts in buildings and cities, ultimately
creating more resilient and sustainable urban environments.
4.4. Stakeholder involvement, especially with local communities
Local communities play a central role in the implementation of climate change mitigation and
adaptation strategies. Engaging stakeholders, including residents, businesses, and community
organizations, is essential for the success of policies and initiatives. Their local knowledge can inform
decision-making processes, ensuring that solutions are contextually relevant and equitable[113].
To effectively engage various stakeholders in this endeavor, consider the following:
4.4.1. Local communities
⚫
Future Research Direction: Research should focus on the development of community-based
adaptation and mitigation strategies. Explore how to empower local communities to actively
participate in decision-making processes related to urban development and climate resilience.
⚫
Identified Gap: While there is a growing recognition of the importance of community engagement,
there is often a gap in translating this recognition into meaningful participation. Research can help
bridge this gap and identify best practices for community involvement.

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4.4.2. Community outreach and education
⚫
Future Research Direction: Investigate effective methods for educating and raising awareness
among local communities about climate change impacts and resilience strategies. Explore how to
tailor educational initiatives to the specific needs and cultural contexts of different communities.
⚫
Identified Gap: Many communities, particularly vulnerable ones, may lack access to information
and resources related to climate change. Research can help identify the most effective
communication channels and educational tools to reach these communities.
4.4.3. Co-design and co-planning
⚫
Future Research Direction: Promote co-design and co-planning processes that involve local
communities in the development of urban resilience strategies. Explore participatory design methods
that empower communities to contribute to the design of their neighborhoods[158].
⚫
Identified Gap: Traditional urban planning processes often exclude the voices of local residents.
Research should focus on innovative ways to engage communities in shaping their urban
environments, ensuring that solutions are contextually relevant.
4.4.4. Equity and social justice
⚫
Future Research Direction: Investigate the equity dimensions of climate change impacts and
resilience strategies. Explore how to ensure that vulnerable and marginalized communities have
equal access to resources and opportunities for resilience[2,16].
⚫
Identified Gap: Climate change disproportionately affects disadvantaged communities[1,16,159].
Research can help identify policy and planning approaches that promote social justice and equitable
distribution of resources.
4.4.5. Collaborative governance models
⚫
Future Research Direction: Study collaborative governance models that involve local communities
in decision-making processes related to climate adaptation and mitigation. Explore how to create
inclusive and transparent governance structures[160].
⚫
Identified Gap: Effective governance models that involve multiple stakeholders, including
communities, are critical for implementing climate resilience strategies[161]. Research can help
identify governance structures that promote cooperation and accountability.
4.4.6. Knowledge sharing and capacity building
⚫
Future Research Direction: Investigate how to facilitate knowledge sharing and capacity building within
local communities. Explore methods to empower community members to become active participants in
climate resilience initiatives[162].
⚫
Identified Gap: Building local capacity and knowledge is essential for communities to adapt to climate
change. Research can identify effective strategies for providing communities with the skills and resources
they need.
By actively involving local communities and other stakeholders in the research, planning, and
implementation of climate resilience strategies, we can create more inclusive, effective, and sustainable
solutions for addressing climate change impacts in buildings and cities.
In conclusion, addressing climate change impacts in buildings and cities is a complex endeavor that
requires a combination of policy interventions, practical applications, ongoing research, and active
engagement with local communities. By adopting innovative strategies, drawing on case studies,
identifying research gaps, and involving stakeholders, we can work towards building more resilient and

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sustainable urban environments in the face of climate change.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, this comprehensive review has delved into the multifaceted interactions between
climate change and the built environment, illuminating the intricate tapestry of challenges and
opportunities that lie ahead. The impacts of climate change on buildings and cities are undeniable,
necessitating a strategic and holistic approach to safeguard urban landscapes against an increasingly
unpredictable climate. The methodologies and metrics explored in this study provide valuable tools for
assessing and quantifying these impacts, enabling informed decision-making and proactive planning.
Through the lens of adaptation and mitigation strategies, the article underscores the urgency of
integrating resilient design principles and innovative solutions into urban planning, equipping cities to
effectively navigate the complex web of climate challenges.
Moreover, the concept of smart disaster management emerges as a crucial linchpin in enhancing
urban resilience. By harnessing technology, data-driven insights, and community engagement, cities can
fortify their defenses against natural disasters, minimizing losses and ensuring swift recovery. The
indispensable role of eco-design and climate resilience surfaces as a transformative force, offering a
harmonious synergy between sustainable development and climate adaptation.
As this review draws to a close, it is evident that a paradigm shift is underway — one that envisions
cities as dynamic, adaptive, and resilient ecosystems. By embracing innovative strategies, harnessing
scientific advancements, and prioritizing community engagement, cities can emerge not merely as
survivors but as thriving hubs that thrive amidst adversity. As we stand at the crossroads of urban
evolution, this review serves as a guiding compass, illuminating a trajectory towards urban resilience and
sustainability in an era defined by climate change.
Availability of data and material
The data used in this study, along with the details of the methodology adopted, are comprehensively
described in the methodology section (Section 2) of this article.
Funding
The publication of this research article in the Journal of Information Systems and Smart City (ISSC)
was made possible without incurring Article Processing Charges (APCs). We would like to express our
appreciation to the editorial board and staff of ISSC for their commitment to promoting open access and
facilitating the sharing of knowledge within the academic community.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to extend her sincere appreciation to Academic Publishing Pte Ltd for the
esteemed invitation to contribute to the Section Collection entitled “Disaster Management” in the
Journal of Information System and Smart City (ISSC) (ISSN 2811-020X). It is an honor to be part of this
scholarly platform, which provides a valuable opportunity to share insights and contribute to the
discourse on enhancing disaster management strategies in the context of smart cities.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.

Information System and Smart City 2023; 3(1): 190.
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